UNIT-1

Introduction to computer fundamental organization and architecture

 Computer definition
The word computer is derived from the word computer, which means to
calculate. In the past, the computer is normally considered to be a
calculating device Used to perform arithmetic operation, but today
computer is used in every field of Daily life to solve problem of different
kinds.
“Compute is a modern electronic machine that is used to solve different
kinds of problem. According to a set of instructions given to it. It is a
programmable machine that receives input, stores and automatically
manipulate data and provides output in a useful format.”

“ Structure of computer ”
 Characteristics of computer system.
 Speed – The computer is a very high-speed electronic device. The
potation on data inside the computer are performed through
electronic current. According to the given instruction. Computer can
perform millions of billions of data in 1 second.
 Accuracy – In addition to bring very fast computer is also very
accurate. Device. It gave accurate output result, provided that the
correct input and set of instructions are given to the computer. In
computer terminology it is known as garbage-in-garbage-out.
  Arithmetical and logical operation – A computer can perform
arithmetical and logical operation. In arithmetic operation. It
performs the addition, subtraction, multiplication, division on the
numerical data. In logical operation. It compares numerical data as
well as alphabetical data.
 Reliability – The electronic component in modern computer has very
low failure grade. The modern computer compared from very
complicated calculation without creating any problem in producing
reliable results.
 Storage – A computer has internal storage (memory) as well as in
external or secondary storage.
There is two types of memory: -
 Primary Memory- Primary memory is the computer’s main memory
and stores data temporarily.
 Second memory- Second memory is external memory and safe data
permanently.
 Limitations of computer system.
 Programmed by human – Through computer is programmed to
work efficient, fast and accurately but it is programmed by human
being to do so. Without a program, a computer is nothing. A
program is set of instruction and computer only follows these
instructions.
 Lack of intelligence and thinking – The computer is not thinks
itself. The concept of artificial intelligence (AI) shows that the
computer can think, but still this concept is depended on set of
instruction provided by human being.
 Enable in self-care – A computer cannot care itself like a human. A
computer is depending still on the human being for his purpose.
 Retrieval of memory – A computer can retrieve data very fast, but
this technique is linear. A human beings mind does not follow this
rule. They can think randomly which a computer machine cannot.
 Classification of computer.

 Analog computer
Analog computer one well known in 1940s; they are now
uncommon. In such machine number to be used in some
calculations were represented by physical contents such as
electrical voltage. An analog computer must be able to accept
input which vary with respect to time and disputes directly apply
to various devices within the computer which performs the
computing operation of addition, Subtraction, multiplication,
division, integration and function generation.
 Hybrid computer
This computer poses the property of both analog and digital
computer. Such computer is used in medicine in surgery. The
analog devices of Computer mainly measure temperature and
blood pressure and the digital part converts them in numeric
value. Hence, they jointly monitor the condition of the patient.
 Digital computer
Most computer today are digital. They represent information
discreetly and use a binary system that represent each piece of
information as a serial of zeros and ones. Digital computer as
“computer use ring numbers in calculating”. It manipulated most
 data more easily than analog computers. They are designed to
process data in numerical form and their circuit perform Directly
the mathematical operation of addition, Substruction,
multiplication and division.
 Two types of digital computer:
1. General purpose computer.
2. Special purpose computer.
 Type of general-purpose computer:
1. Supercomputer.
As the name supercomputer specified that these are most
powerful computer than others. Super computer is the most
powerful and fastest and also very expensive. This machine is
applied in nuclear weapon development, accurate weather
forecasting and as host processor for local computers and
time-sharing network speed range is 100 billion operations
within second.
2. Main frame computer.
These are large sized powerful multi user computers that can
support concurrent program that means they can perform
different action or processes at the same time. It can be used
by as many as many hundreds and thousands of users at the
same time. Large organization may use a mainframe
computer to execute large scale process, such as processing
the organization payroll.
3. Mini computers.
These are mid-sized multi user computer. They can perform
several actions at the same time and can support from 10 to
100 of user systematically. These computers are known as
mini computers because of their small size, lower processor
speed and lower cost compared to other computer it is used
in small organization.
4. Micro computer.
This computer uses a microprocessor chip and this chip is
used instead of CPU means that this microprocessor chip
work as a CPU. This computer is also called as personal
computers. Pc is designed to use by one person at a time.
  Various type of personal computers: -
1) Desktop computer.
2) Laptop computer.
3) Handheld computer.
4) Tablet PCs.
5. Workstation.
These are powerful Single user computer they have the
capacity to store and process large quantity of data, but they
are only used by one person at a time. However, workstation
is typically linked together to form a computer network
called LAN (local area network). It means that several people,
such as staff, in an office, can communicate with each other
and share electronic file and data.
 Computer software.
A set of instruction given to the computer in machine code that
tells the computer what to do and how to perform given task of
the user is known as computer software. In other words, a set of
instruction given to the computer in machine code to solve
problem or to control different operation of the computer is
known as computer software.
 Computer hardware.
The physical part of computer is known as computer hardware.
The hardware consists of electronic circuit and mechanical
equipment used to perform various function into the computer.
Hardware components are: -
1) Input unit.
2) Output unit.
3) Storage or memory unit.
4) Control processing unit.
 Microprocessor.
The central processing unit of computer system is also called
processor, in which the data processing operation are performed
in case of micro processing operation are performed in case of
microcomputer. The CPU is in the form of small silicon shape. It is
also called microprocessor of logic shape. It is a semiconductor
device in which various logic circuit are made in the form of LSI
 (Large Scale integration) or VLSI (Very Large-scale integration). So,
we can say that microprocessor is a CPU molded in single IC
(Integration Circuit) package.
 Characteristics of microprocessor.
1. In microprocessor logic and control circuit are in the single
chip.
2. It is low in cost as it uses integrated circuit technology,
reducing the overall cost of a computer system.
3. It is small in size due to less footprint, but has a large-scale
integration technology.
4. It has a versatile nature as it is usable for several application.
5. The microprocessor has very low failure rate, becoming
reliable for computer system.
 Generation of microprocessor.
1. First generation.
(4 - bit microprocessor)
The first-generation microprocessor was introduced in
the year 1971-1973 by intel corporation. It was named
Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor. It was a
processor on a single chip. It could perform simple
arithmetic and logical operation such as the addition,
Subtraction.
2. Second generation.
(8 - bit microprocessor)
The second generation of microprocessor was
introduced in the 1973-1978 by Intel this in
microprocessor were 8-bit and could perform
arithmetical and logic operation on 8-bit words it was
Intel 8008 and another improved version was Intel
8088.
3. Third generation.
(16-bit microprocessor)
The third-generation processor, introduced in 1978-
1980 were represented by Intel’s 8086, Zi log Z800
 hundred and 80286, which were 16-bit processors with
a performance like minicomputer.
4. Fourth generation.
(32-bit microprocessor)
Several different companies introduced the 32-bit
microprocessor, but the most popular 1 is the Intel
80386 in 1980-1995.
5. Fifth generation.
(64-bit microprocessor)
From 1995 until now We are in the fifth generation
after 80856, Intel came out with a new processor
namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro
CPU, which allow multiple CPUs in a single system to
achieve multi-processing another improved 64-bit
processor is Celeron dual, quad, Octa core processor.

PART-2
 Smart system.
Smart system is those system (usually computer system or
electronic system) which are able to Incorporate and perform
functions of sensing actuation and control in order to analysis the
situation and perform decision in a productive or adaptive
manner.
 Characteristics of smart system.
1) Adaptability.
Smart system can adjust their behavior based on real time
data and changing condition.
2) Autonomy.
This system can perform task and make decision
independently without human interactions, based on
predefined algorithm and data inputs.
3) Connectivity.
Smart system often communicates with other system or
devices through networks. They utilize technologies such as
IOT (Internet of things) for data exchange and coordination.
4) Data processing and analysis.
They incorporate advanced data processing capabilities to
handle large volumes of data perform complex analysis.
5) Scalability.
Smart systems are designed to scale efficiently to handle
increased loads or expanded functionality.
 Applications of smart system.
1) Smart homes.
Smart houses allow homeowners to control appliances,
thermostats, lights and other devices remotely through an
Internet connection using a smartphone or tablet.
2) Smart cities.
A smart city is a place where traditional networks and
services are made more efficient with the use of digital
solution for the benefit of its inhabitants and business.
3) Smart healthcare.
Smart healthcare refers to the use of technologies such as
LOT, big data, AI add ML to improve the quality and
efficiency of healthcare delivery.
4) Smart agriculture.
Smart farming is also known as smart agriculture is the
adoption of advanced technology and data driven from
operations to optimize and improve sustainability in
agriculture production.
 5) Smart transportation.
Smart transportation refers to the use of advanced
technology to enhance real safety improved driving
convenience and optimize traffic flow through application
like the smart parting smart driving and public
transportation system.
 Real life uses.
1) Navigation.
Navigation is an essential everyday activity that Involves a
series of abilities that help human and animals to locate,
track, and follow path in order to achieve at different
destination.
2) Emergency Service.
Emergency services and rescue services are organization
that ensure public safety, security, and health by addressing
and resolving different emergencies.
3) Geotagging.
Geotagging enabled information services can also
potentially be used to find location based in news, websites
or other resources.
4) Agriculture.
Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants, raising
domestic animals, and harnessing biological processes to
sustain the global population by producing food, fibre, and
other essential products. It forms the backbone of human
civilization, enabling the development of stable
communities and the growth of complex societies.
5) Outdoor recreation.
Outdoor recreation is typically pursued from purpose of
physical exercise, general well-being and spiritual renewal.
 Uses of E governance and various public domains and services.

1. Service Delivery

Online Portals: Governments provide services like tax filing,

license applications, and bill payments through user-friendly
websites.
E-Health Services: Digital platforms facilitate appointments,
medical records management, and telemedicine.

2. Information Dissemination

Public Information Systems: Websites and apps deliver vital

information on policies, regulations, and local services.

Social Media: Governments use social media for real-time updates

and citizen engagement.

3. Data Management and Analysis

Data Storage: Computers manage large datasets for urban

planning, resource allocation, and public health monitoring.

Analytics: Data analytics tools help in decision-making and policy

formulation based on citizen needs.

4. Citizen Engagement

E-Participation Platforms: Online forums and surveys encourage

citizen feedback on policies and initiatives.

Digital Voting: E-voting systems enhance participation in

elections.

5. Inter-Governmental Coordination

Integrated Systems: Shared databases among different

government departments streamline processes and improve
communication.

Collaboration Tools: Project management software facilitates

joint initiatives and information sharing.

6. Financial Management

Budgeting and Accounting Systems: Computers enable efficient

financial planning, monitoring, and reporting.

E-Procurement: Online bidding and procurement processes

increase transparency and reduce corruption.
 7. Public Safety and Security

Surveillance Systems: Digital surveillance enhances law

enforcement capabilities.

Emergency Response Systems: Computers facilitate real-time

communication during crises.

8. Education and Training

E-Learning Platforms: Governments support educational

initiatives through online resources and courses.

Capacity Building: Training programs for public servants on digital

tools and governance practices.

9. Accessibility

Assistive Technologies: Computers provide tools for disabled

individuals to access services.

Multilingual Services: Online platforms can offer information in

multiple languages, catering to diverse populations.

10. Environmental Management

GIS and Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) help in

urban planning and resource management.
Sustainability Tracking: Computers monitor environmental impact
and facilitate reporting.
 GIS (Geographic information system)
GIS is a technology that is used to create manage analyse and map
all type of data that exists and events that happens on Earth
surface.
 Cloud computing.
Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer
system, especially data storage and computing power, without
direct active management by the user.
Cloud computing refers to use of nested services, such as data
storage, servers, databases networking and software over the
internet.