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 Introduction to
Electrical Engineering

Mulukutla S. Sarma

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

 INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
the oxford series in electrical and computer engineering
Adel S. Sedra, Series Editor

Allen and Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design

Bobrow, Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition
Bobrow, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, 2nd Edition
Burns and Roberts, Introduction to Mixed Signal IC Test and Measurement
Campbell, The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication
Chen, Analog & Digital Control System Design
Chen, Digital Signal Processing
Chen, Linear System Theory and Design, 3rd Edition
Chen, System and Signal Analysis, 2nd Edition
DeCarlo and Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition
Dimitrijev, Understanding Semiconductor Devices
Fortney, Principles of Electronics: Analog & Digital
Franco, Electric Circuits Fundamentals
Granzow, Digital Transmission Lines
Guru and Hiziroğlu, Electric Machinery and Transformers, 3rd Edition
Hoole and Hoole, A Modern Short Course in Engineering Electromagnetics
Jones, Introduction to Optical Fiber Communication Systems
Krein, Elements of Power Electronics
Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd Edition
Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communications Systems, 3rd Edition
Martin, Digital Integrated Circuit Design
McGillem and Cooper, Continuous and Discrete Signal and System Analysis, 3rd Edition
Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers
Roberts and Sedra, SPICE, 2nd Edition
Roulston, An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 3rd Edition
Santina, Stubberud, and Hostetter, Digital Control System Design, 2nd Edition
Sarma, Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Schaumann and Van Valkenburg, Design of Analog Filters
Schwarz, Electromagnetics for Engineers
Schwarz and Oldham, Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, 2nd Edition
Sedra and Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 4th Edition
Stefani, Savant, Shahian, and Hostetter, Design of Feedback Control Systems, 3rd Edition
Van Valkenburg, Analog Filter Design
Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics
Wolovich, Automatic Control Systems
Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 5th Edition
 INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Mulukutla S. Sarma
Northeastern University

New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
2001
Oxford University Press

Oxford New York

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Copyright © 2001 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.,

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Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sarma, Mulukutla S., 1938–
Introduction to electrical engineering / Mulukutla S. Sarma
p. cm. — (The Oxford series in electrical and computer engineering)
ISBN 0-19-513604-7 (cloth)
1. Electrical engineering. I. Title. II. Series.
TK146.S18 2001
621.3—dc21 00-020033

Acknowledgments—Table 1.2.2 is adapted from Principles of Electrical Engineering (McGraw-Hill Series in Electrical Engineering), by Peyton Z.
Peebles Jr. and Tayeb A. Giuma, reprinted with the permission of McGraw-Hill, 1991; figures 2.6.1, 2.6.2 are adapted from Getting Started with
MATLAB 5: Quick Introduction, by Rudra Pratap, reprinted with the permission of Oxford University Press, 1998; figures 4.1.2–4.1.5, 4.2.1–4.2.3,
4.3.1–4.3.2, are adapted from Electric Machines: Steady-State Theory and Dynamic Performance, Second Edition, by Mulukutla S. Sarma, reprinted
with the permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1994; figure 4.6.1 is adapted from Medical Instrumentation Application and Design, by John G. Webster,
reprinted with the permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1978; table 4.6.1 is adapted from “Electrical Safety in Industrial Plants,” IEEE Spectrum, by
Ralph Lee, reprinted with the permission of IEEE, 1971; figure P5.3.1 is reprinted with the permission of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation; figures
5.6.1, 6.6.1, 9.5.1 are adapted from Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications, by Allen R. Hambley, reprinted with the permission of Prentice
Hall, 1997; figure 10.5.1 is adapted from Power System Analysis and Design, Second Edition, by Duncan J. Glover and Mulukutla S. Sarma, reprinted
with the permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1994; figures 11.1.2, 13.2.10 are adapted from Introduction to Electrical Engineering, Second Edition,
by Clayton Paul, Syed A. Nasar, and Louis Unnewehr, reprinted with the permission of McGraw-Hill, 1992; figures E12.2.1(a,b), 12.2.2–12.2.5, 12.2.9–
12.2.10, 12.3.1–12.3.3, 12.4.1, E12.4.1, P12.1.2, P12.4.3, P12.4.8, P12.4.12, 13.1.1–13.1.8, 13.2.1–13.2.9, 13.2.11–13.2.16, 13.3.1–13.3.3, E13.3.2,
13.3.4, E13.3.3, 13.3.5–13.3.6 are adapted from Electric Machines: Steady-State Theory and Dynamic Performance, Second Edition, by Mulukutla S.
Sarma, reprinted with the permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1994; figure 13.3.12 is adapted from Communication Systems Engineering, by John G.
Proakis and Masoud Salehi, reprinted with the permission of Prentice Hall, 1994; figures 13.4.1–13.4.7, E13.4.1(b), 13.4.8–13.4.12, E13.4.3, 13.4.13,
13.6.1 are adapted from Electric Machines: Steady-State Theory and Dynamic Performance, Second Edition, by Mulukutla S. Sarma Brooks/Cole
Publishing, 1994; figures 14.2.8, 14.2.9 are adapted from Electrical Engineering: Concepts and Applications, Second Edition, by A. Bruce Carlson and
David Gisser, reprinted with the permission of Prentice Hall, 1990; figure 15.0.1 is adapted from Communication Systems, Third Edition, by A. Bruce
Carlson, reprinted with the permission of McGraw-Hill, 1986; figures 15.2.15, 15.2.31, 15.3.11 are adapted from Communication Systems Engineering,
by John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi, reprinted with the permission of Prentice Hall, 1994; figures 15.2.19, 15.2.27, 15.2.28, 15.2.30, 15.3.3, 15.3.4,
15.3.9, 15.3.10, 15.3.20 are adapted from Principles of Electrical Engineering (McGraw-Hill Series in Electrical Engineering), by Peyton Z. Peebles
Jr. and Tayeb A. Giuma, reprinted with the permission of McGraw-Hill, 1991; figures 16.1.1–16.1.3 are adapted from Electric Machines: Steady-State
Theory and Dynamic Performance, Second Edition, by Mulukutla S. Sarma, reprinted with the permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1994; table
16.1.3 is adapted from Electric Machines: Steady-State Theory and Dynamic Performance, Second Edition, by Mulukutla S. Sarma, reprinted with the
permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1994; table 16.1.4 is adapted from Handbook of Electric Machines, by S. A. Nasar, reprinted with the permission
of McGraw-Hill, 1987; and figures 16.1.4–13.1.9, E16.1.1, 16.1.10–16.1.25 are adapted from Electric Machines: Steady-State Theory and Dynamic
Performance, Second Edition, by Mulukutla S. Sarma, reprinted with the permission of Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1994.

Printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
To my grandchildren

Puja Sree
Sruthi Lekha
Pallavi Devi
***
and those to come
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS

List of Case Studies and Computer-Aided Analysis xiii

Preface xv
Overview xxi

PART 1 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

1 Circuit Concepts 3
1.1 Electrical Quantities 4
1.2 Lumped-Circuit Elements 16
1.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws 39
1.4 Meters and Measurements 47
1.5 Analogy between Electrical and Other Nonelectric Physical Systems 50
1.6 Learning Objectives 52
1.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Resistance Strain Gauge 52
Problems 53

2 Circuit Analysis Techniques 66

2.1 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits 66
2.2 Node-Voltage and Mesh-Current Analyses 71
2.3 Superposition and Linearity 81
2.4 Wye–Delta Transformation 83
2.5 Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis: SPICE 85
2.6 Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis: MATLAB 88
2.7 Learning Objectives 92
2.8 Practical Application: A Case Study—Jump Starting a Car 92
Problems 94

3 Time-Dependent Circuit Analysis 102

3.1 Sinusoidal Steady-State Phasor Analysis 103
3.2 Transients in Circuits 125
3.3 Laplace Transform 142
3.4 Frequency Response 154

vii
viii CONTENTS

3.5 Computer-Aided Circuit Simulation for Transient Analysis, AC Analysis, and

Frequency Response Using PSpice and PROBE 168
3.6 Use of MATLAB in Computer-Aided Circuit Simulation 173
3.7 Learning Objectives 177
3.8 Practical Application: A Case Study—Automotive Ignition System 178
Problems 179

4 Three-Phase Circuits and Residential Wiring 198

4.1 Three-Phase Source Voltages and Phase Sequence 198
4.2 Balanced Three-Phase Loads 202
4.3 Measurement of Power 208
4.4 Residential Wiring and Safety Considerations 212
4.5 Learning Objectives 215
4.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Physiological Effects of Current and
Electrical Safety 216
Problems 218

PART 2 ELECTRONIC ANALOG AND DIGITAL SYSTEMS

5 Analog Building Blocks and Operational Amplifiers 223

5.1 The Amplifier Block 224
5.2 Ideal Operational Amplifier 229
5.3 Practical Properties of Operational Amplifiers 235
5.4 Applications of Operational Amplifiers 244
5.5 Learning Objectives 256
5.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Automotive Power-Assisted Steering
System 257
Problems 258

6 Digital Building Blocks and Computer Systems 268

6.1 Digital Building Blocks 271
6.2 Digital System Components 295
6.3 Computer Systems 316
6.4 Computer Networks 320
6.5 Learning Objectives 325
6.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Microcomputer-Controlled
Breadmaking Machine 325
Problems 326

7 Semiconductor Devices 339

7.1 Semiconductors 339
7.2 Diodes 340
7.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors 358
 CONTENTS ix

7.4 Field-Effect Transistors 367

7.5 Integrated Circuits 378
7.6 Learning Objectives 379
7.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Electronic Photo Flash 380
Problems 380

8 Transistor Amplifiers 393

8.1 Biasing the BJT 394
8.2 Biasing the FET 395
8.3 BJT Amplifiers 399
8.4 FET Amplifiers 405
8.5 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 409
8.6 Learning Objectives 414
8.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Mechatronics: Electronics Integrated
with Mechanical Systems 414
Problems 415

9 Digital Circuits 422

9.1 Transistor Switches 423
9.2 DTL and TTL Logic Circuits 427
9.3 CMOS and Other Logic Families 431
9.4 Learning Objectives 437
9.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Cardiac Pacemaker, a Biomedical
Engineering Application 438
Problems 439

PART 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS

10 AC Power Systems 451

10.1 Introduction to Power Systems 452
10.2 Single- and Three-Phase Systems 455
10.3 Power Transmission and Distribution 460
10.4 Learning Objectives 466
10.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—The Great Blackout of 1965 466
Problems 468

11 Magnetic Circuits and Transformers 471

11.1 Magnetic Materials 472
11.2 Magnetic Circuits 475
11.3 Transformer Equivalent Circuits 479
11.4 Transformer Performance 486
11.5 Three-Phase Transformers 490
11.6 Autotransformers 492
x CONTENTS

11.7 Learning Objectives 494

11.8 Practical Application: A Case Study—Magnetic Bearings for Space
Technology 494
Problems 495

12 Electromechanics 505
12.1 Basic Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion 505
12.2 EMF Produced by Windings 514
12.3 Rotating Magnetic Fields 522
12.4 Forces and Torques in Magnetic-Field Systems 526
12.5 Basic Aspects of Electromechanical Energy Converters 539
12.6 Learning Objectives 540
12.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Sensors or Transducers 541
Problems 542

13 Rotating Machines 553

13.1 Elementary Concepts of Rotating Machines 553
13.2 Induction Machines 563
13.3 Synchronous Machines 582
13.4 Direct-Current Machines 594
13.5 Learning Objectives 610
13.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Wind-Energy-Conversion
Systems 610
Problems 612

PART 4 INFORMATION SYSTEMS

14 Signal Processing 625

14.1 Signals and Spectral Analysis 626
14.2 Modulation, Sampling, and Multiplexing 640
14.3 Interference and Noise 649
14.4 Learning Objectives 658
14.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Antinoise Systems, Noise
Cancellation 658
Problems 659

15 Communication Systems 666

15.1 Waves, Transmission Lines, Waveguides, and Antenna Fundamentals 670
15.2 Analog Communication Systems 685
15.3 Digital Communication Systems 710
15.4 Learning Objectives 730
15.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Global Positioning Systems 731
Problems 732
 CONTENTS xi

PART 5 CONTROL SYSTEMS

16 Basic Control Systems 747

16.1 Power Semiconductor-Controlled Drives 748
16.2 Feedback Control Systems 779
16.3 Digital Control Systems 805
16.4 Learning Objectives 814
16.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Digital Process Control 815
Problems 816

Appendix A: References 831

Appendix B: Brief Review of Fundamentals of Engineering
(FE) Examination 833
Appendix C: Technical Terms, Units, Constants, and Conversion
Factors for the SI System 835
Appendix D: Mathematical Relations 838
Appendix E: Solution of Simultaneous Equations 843
Appendix F: Complex Numbers 846
Appendix G: Fourier Series 847
Appendix H: Laplace Transforms 851
Index 855
This page intentionally left blank
LIST OF CASE STUDIES AND
COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS

Case Studies
1.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Resistance Strain Gauge 52
2.8 Practical Application: A Case Study—Jump Starting a Car 92
3.8 Practical Application: A Case Study—Automotive Ignition System 178
4.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Physiological Effects of Current and Electrical Safety
216
5.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Automotive Power-Assisted Steering System 257
6.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Microcomputer-Controlled
Breadmaking Machine 325
7.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Electronic Photo Flash 380
8.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Mechatronics: Electronics Integrated with Mechanical
Systems 414
9.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Cardiac Pacemaker, a Biomedical Engineering
Application 438
10.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—The Great Blackout of 1965 466
11.8 Practical Application: A Case Study—Magnetic Bearings for Space Technology 494
12.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Sensors or Transducers 541
13.6 Practical Application: A Case Study—Wind-Energy-Conversion Systems 610
14.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Antinoise Systems, Noise Cancellation 658
15.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Global Positioning Systems 731
16.5 Practical Application: A Case Study—Digital Process Control 815

Computer-Aided Analysis
2.5 Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis: SPICE 85
2.6 Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis: MATLAB 88
3.5 Computer-Aided Circuit Simulation for Transient Analysis, AC Analysis, and Frequency
Response Using PSpice and PROBE 168
3.6 Use of MATLAB in Computer-Aided Circuit Simulation 173

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
PREFACE

I. OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this text is to present a problem-oriented introductory survey text for the ex-
traordinarily interesting electrical engineering discipline by arousing student enthusiasm while
addressing the underlying concepts and methods behind various applications ranging from con-
sumer gadgets and biomedical electronics to sophisticated instrumentation systems, computers,
and multifarious electric machinery. The focus is on acquainting students majoring in all branches
of engineering and science, especially in courses for nonelectrical engineering majors, with the
nature of the subject and the potentialities of its techniques, while emphasizing the principles.
Since principles and concepts are most effectively taught by means of a problem-oriented course,
judicially selected topics are treated in sufficient depth so as to permit the assignment of adequately
challenging problems, which tend to implant the relevant principles in students’ minds.
In addition to an academic-year (two semesters or three quarters) introductory course
traditionally offered to non-EE majors, the text is also suitable for a sophomore survey course
given nowadays to electrical engineering majors in a number of universities. At a more rapid pace
or through selectivity of topics, the introductory course could be offered in one semester to either
electrical and computer engineering (ECE) or non-EE undergraduate majors. Although this book
is written primarily for non-EE students, it is hoped that it will be of value to undergraduate ECE
students (particularly for those who wish to take the Fundamentals of Engineering examination,
which is a prerequisite for becoming licensed as a Professional Engineer), to graduate ECE
students for their review in preparing for qualifying examinations, to meet the continuing-
education needs of various professionals, and to serve as a reference text even after graduation.

II. MOTIVATION
This text is but a modest attempt to provide an exciting survey of topics inherent to the electrical
and computer engineering discipline. Modern technology demands a team approach in which
electrical engineers and nonelectrical engineers have to work together sharing a common technical
vocabulary. Nonelectrical engineers must be introduced to the language of electrical engineers,
just as the electrical engineers have to be sensitized to the relevance of nonelectrical topics.
The dilemma of whether electrical engineering and computer engineering should be separate
courses of study, leading to distinctive degrees, seems to be happily resolving itself in the direction
of togetherness. After all, computers are not only pervasive tools for engineers but also their
product; hence there is a pressing need to weave together the fundamentals of both the electrical
and the computer engineering areas into the new curricula.
An almost total lack of contact between freshmen and sophomore students and the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, as well as little or no exposure to electrical and computer

xv
xvi PREFACE

engineering, seems to drive even the academically gifted students away from the program. An
initial spark that may have motivated them to pursue electrical and computer engineering has to
be nurtured in the early stages of their university education, thereby providing an inspiration to
continue.
This text is based on almost 40 years of experience teaching a wide variety of courses to
electrical as well as non-EE majors and, more particularly, on the need to answer many of the
questions raised by so many of my students. I have always enjoyed engineering (teaching, research,
and consultation); I earnestly hope that the readers will have as much fun and excitement in using
this book as I have had in developing it.

III. PREREQUISITES AND BACKGROUND

The student will be assumed to have completed the basic college-level courses in algebra,
trigonometry, basic physics, and elementary calculus. A knowledge of differential equations
is helpful, but not mandatory. For a quick reference, some useful topics are included in the
appendixes.

IV. ORGANIZATION AND FLEXIBILITY

The text is developed to be student-oriented, comprehensive, and up to date on the subject with
necessary and sufficient detailed explanation at the level for which it is intended. The key word
in the organization of the text is flexibility.
The book is divided into five parts in order to provide flexibility in meeting different
circumstances, needs, and desires. A glance at the Table of Contents will show that Part 1 concerns
itself with basic electric circuits, in which circuit concepts, analysis techniques, time-dependent
analysis including transients, as well as three-phase circuits are covered. Part 2 deals with
electronic analog and digital systems, in which analog and digital building blocks are considered
along with operational amplifiers, semiconductor devices, integrated circuits, and digital circuits.
Part 3 is devoted to energy systems, in which ac power systems, magnetic circuits and
transformers, principles of electromechanics, and rotating machines causing electromechanical
energy conversion are presented. Part 4 deals with information systems, including the underlying
principles of signal processing and communication systems. Finally, Part 5 presents control sys-
tems, which include the concepts of feedback control, digital control, and power semiconductor-
controlled drives.
The text material is organized for optimum flexibility, so that certain topics may be omitted
without loss of continuity when lack of time or interest dictates.

V. FEATURES
1. The readability of the text and the level of presentation, from the student’s viewpoint,
are given utmost priority. The quantity of subject matter, range of difficulty, coverage of topics,
numerous illustrations, a large number of comprehensive worked-out examples, and a variety of
end-of-chapter problems are given due consideration, to ensure that engineering is not a “plug-in”
or “cookbook” profession, but one in which reasoning and creativity are of the highest importance.
2. Fundamental physical concepts, which underlie creative engineering and become the most
valuable and permanent part of a student’s background, have been highlighted while giving due
attention to mathematical techniques. So as to accomplish this in a relatively short time, much
thought has gone into rationalizing the theory and conveying in a concise manner the essential
details concerning the nature of electrical and computer engineering. With a good grounding
 PREFACE xvii

in basic concepts, a very wide range of engineering systems can be understood, analyzed, and
devised.
3. The theory has been developed from simple beginnings in such a manner that it can readily
be extended to new and more complicated situations. The art of reducing a practical device to an
appropriate mathematical model and recognizing its limitations has been adequately presented.
Sufficient motivation is provided for the student to develop interest in the analytical procedures
to be applied and to realize that all models, being approximate representations of reality, should
be no more complicated than necessary for the application at hand.
4. Since the essence of engineering is the design of products useful to society, the end
objective of each phase of preparatory study should be to increase the student’s capability to
design practical devices and systems to meet the needs of society. Toward that end, the student
will be motivated to go through the sequence of understanding physical principles, processes,
modeling, using analytical techniques, and, finally, designing.
5. Engineers habitually break systems up into their component blocks for ease of under-
standing. The building-block approach has been emphasized, particularly in Part II concerning
analog and digital systems. For a designer using IC blocks in assembling the desired systems,
the primary concern lies with their terminal characteristics while the internal construction of the
blocks is of only secondary importance.
6. Considering the world of electronics today, both analog and digital technologies are given
appropriate coverage. Since students are naturally interested in such things as op amps, integrated
circuits, and microprocessors, modern topics that can be of great use in their career are emphasized
in this text, thereby motivating the students further.
7. The electrical engineering profession focuses on information and energy, which are the
two critical commodities of any modern society. In order to bring the message to the forefront for
the students’ attention, Parts III, IV, and V are dedicated to energy systems, information systems,
and control systems, respectively. However, some of the material in Parts I and II is critical to the
understanding of the latter.
An understanding of the principles of energy conversion, electric machines, and energy
systems is important for all in order to solve the problems of energy, pollution, and poverty that
face humanity today. It can be well argued that today’s non-EEs are more likely to encounter
electromechanical machines than some of the ECEs. Thus, it becomes essential to have sufficient
breadth and depth in the study of electric machines by the non-ECEs.
Information systems have been responsible for the spectacular achievements in communica-
tion in recent decades. Concepts of control systems, which are not limited to any particular branch
of engineering, are very useful to every engineer involved in the understanding of the dynamics
of various types of systems.
8. Consistent with modern practice, the international (SI) system of units has been used
throughout the text. In addition, a review of units, constants and conversion factors for the SI
system can be found in Appendix C.
9. While solid-state electronics, automatic control, IC technology, and digital systems have
become commonplace in the modern EE profession, some of the older, more traditional topics,
such as electric machinery, power, and instrumentation, continue to form an integral part of the
curriculum, as well as of the profession in real life. Due attention is accorded in this text to such
topics as three-phase circuits and energy systems.
10. Appendixes provide useful information for quick reference on selected bibliography for
supplementary reading, the SI system, mathematical relations, as well as a brief review of the
Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination.
xviii PREFACE

11. Engineers who acquire a basic knowledge of electric circuits, electronic analog and digital
circuits, energy systems, information systems, and control systems will have a well-rounded
background and be better prepared to join a team effort in analyzing and designing systems.
Therein lies the justification for the Table of Contents and the organization of this text.
12. At the end of each chapter, the learning objectives of that chapter are listed so that the
student can check whether he or she has accomplished each of the goals.
13. At the very end of each chapter, Practical Application: A Case Study has been included
so that the reader can get motivated and excited about the subject matter and its relevance to
practice.
14. Basic material introduced in this book is totally independent of any software that may
accompany the usage of this book, and/or the laboratory associated with the course. The common
software in usage, as of writing this book, consists of Windows, Word Perfect, PSPICE, Math
CAD, and MATLAB. There are also other popular specialized simulation programs such as Signal
Processing Workstation (SPW) in the area of analog and digital communications, Very High
Level Description Language (VHDL) in the area of digital systems, Electromagnetic Transients
Program (EMTP) in the field of power, and SIMULINK in the field of control. In practice,
however, any combination of software that satisfies the need for word processing, graphics, editing,
mathematical analysis, and analog as well as digital circuit analysis should be satisfactory.
In order to integrate computer-aided circuit analysis, two types of programs have been
introduced in this text: A circuit simulator PSpice and a math solver MATLAB. Our purpose
here is not to teach students how to use specific software packages, but to help them develop
an analysis style that includes the intelligent use of computer tools. After all, these tools are
an intrinsic part of the engineering environment, which can significantly enhance the student’s
understanding of circuit phenomena.
15. The basics, to which the reader is exposed in this text, will help him or her to select
consultants—experts in specific areas—either in or out of house, who will provide the knowledge
to solve a confronted problem. After all, no one can be expected to be an expert in all areas
discussed in this text!

VI. PEDAGOGY
A. Outline
Beyond the overview meant as an orientation, the text is basically divided into five parts.
Part 1: Electric Circuits This part provides the basic circuit-analysis concepts and tech-
niques that will be used throughout the subsequent parts of the text. Three-phase circuits have
been introduced to develop the background needed for analyzing ac power systems. Basic notions
of residential circuit wiring, including grounding and safety considerations, are presented.
Part 2: Electronic Analog and Digital Systems With the background of Part I, the student
is then directed to analog and digital building blocks. Operational amplifiers are discussed as an
especially important special case. After introducing digital system components, computer systems,
and networks to the students, semiconductor devices, integrated circuits, transistor amplifiers, as
well as digital circuits are presented. The discussion of device physics is kept to the necessary
minimum, while emphasis is placed on obtaining powerful results from simple tools placed in
students’ hands and minds.
Part 3: Energy Systems With the background built on three-phase circuits in Part I, ac
power systems are considered. Magnetic circuits and transformers are then presented, before the
student is introduced to the principles of electromechanics and practical rotating machines that
achieve electromechanical energy conversion.
 PREFACE xix

Part 4: Information Systems Signal processing and communication systems (both analog
and digital) are discussed using the block diagrams of systems engineering.
Part 5: Control Systems By focusing on control aspects, this part brings together the
techniques and concepts of the previous parts in the design of systems to accomplish specific
tasks. A section on power semiconductor-controlled drives is included in view of their recent
importance. The basic concepts of feedback control systems are introduced, and finally the flavor
of digital control systems is added.
Appendices The appendices provide ready-to-use information:
Appendix A: Selected bibliography for supplementary reading
Appendix B: Brief review of fundamentals of engineering (FE) examination
Appendix C: Technical terms, units, constants, and conversion factors for the SI system
Appendix D: Mathematical relations (used in the text)
Appendix E: Solution of simultaneous equations
Appendix F: Complex numbers
Appendix G: Fourier series
Appendix H: Laplace transforms
B. Chapter Introductions
Each chapter is introduced to the student stating the objective clearly, giving a sense of what
to expect, and motivating the student with enough information to look forward to reading the
chapter.
C. Chapter Endings
At the end of each chapter, the learning objectives of that chapter are listed so that the student
can check whether he or she has accomplished each of the goals.
In order to motivate and excite the student, practical applications using electrical engineering
principles are included. At the very end of each chapter, a relevant Practical Application: A Case
Study is presented.
D. Illustrations
A large number of illustrations support the subject matter with the intent to motivate the student
to pursue the topics further.
E. Examples
Numerous comprehensive examples are worked out in detail in the text, covering most of the
theoretical points raised. An appropriate difficulty is chosen and sufficient stimulation is built in
to go on to more challenging situations.
F. End-of-Chapter Problems
A good number of problems (identified with each section of every chapter), with properly graded
levels of difficulty, are included at the end of each chapter, thereby allowing the instructor
considerable flexibility. There are nearly a thousand problems in the book.
G. Preparation for the FE Exam
A brief review of the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination is presented in Appendix
B in order to aid the student who is preparing to take the FE examination in view of becoming a
registered Professional Engineer (PE).

VII. SUPPLEMENTS
A Solutions Manual to Accompany Introduction to Electrical Engineering, by M.S. Sarma
(ISBN 019-514260-8), with complete detailed solutions (provided by the author) for all problems
in the book is available to adopters.
xx PREFACE

MicroSoft PowerPoint Overheads to Accompany Introduction to Electrical Engineering

(ISBN 019-514472-1) are free to adopters. Over 300 text figures and captions are available for
classroom projection use.
A web-site, MSSARMA.org, will include interesting web links and enhancement materials,
errata, a forum to communicate with the author, and more.
A CD-ROM Disk is packaged with each new book. The CD contains:
• Complete Solutions for Students to 20% of the problems. These solutions have been
prepared by the author and are resident on the disk in Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) format. The
problems with solutions on disk are marked with an asterisk next to the problem in the text.
• The demonstration version of Electronics Workbench Multisim Version 6, an in-
novative teaching and learning software product that is used to build circuits and to
simulate and analyze their electrical behavior. This demonstration version includes 20
demo circuit files built from circuit examples from this textbook. The CD also includes
another 80 circuits from the text that can be opened with the full student or educational
versions of Multisim. These full versions can be obtained from Electronics Workbench at
www.electronicsworkbench.com.
To extend the introduction to selected topics and provide additional practice, we recommend
the following additional items:
• Circuits: Allan’s Circuits Problems by Allan Kraus (ISBN 019-514248-9), which includes
over 400 circuit analysis problems with complete solutions, many in MATLAB and SPICE
form.
• Electronics: KC’s Problems and Solutions to Accompany Microelectronic Circuits by K.C.
Smith (019–511771-9), which includes over 400 electronics problems and their complete
solutions.
• SPICE: SPICE by Gordon Roberts and Adel Sedra (ISBN 019-510842-6) features over 100
examples and numerous exercises for computer-aided analysis of microelectronic circuits.
• MATLAB: Getting Started with MATLAB by Rudra Pratap (ISBN 019-512947-4) provides
a quick introduction to using this powerful software tool.
For more information or to order an examination copy of the above mentioned supplements
contact Oxford University Press at [email protected].

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank the many people who helped bring this project to fruition. A
number of reviewers greatly improved this text through their thoughtful comments and useful
suggestions.
I am indebted to my editor, Peter C. Gordon, of Oxford University Press, who initiated
this project and continued his support with skilled guidance, helpful suggestions, and great
encouragement. The people at Oxford University Press, in particular, Senior Project Editor Karen
Shapiro, have been most helpful in this undertaking. My sincere thanks are also due to Mrs. Sally
Gupta, who did a superb job typing most of the manuscript.
I would also like to thank my wife, Savitri, for her continued encouragement and support,
without which this project could not have been completed. It is with great pleasure and joy that I
dedicate this work to my grandchildren.
Mulukutla S. Sarma
Northeastern University
OVERVIEW

What is electrical engineering? What is the scope of electrical engineering?

To answer the first question in a simple way, electrical engineering deals mainly with
information systems and with power and energy systems. In the former, electrical means are
used to transmit, store, and process information; while in the latter, bulk energy is transmitted
from one place to another and power is converted from one form to another.
The second question is best answered by taking a look at the variety of periodicals published
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which is the largest technical
society in the world with over 320,000 members in more than 140 countries worldwide. Table I
lists 75 IEEE Society/Council periodicals along with three broad-scope publications.
The transactions and journals of the IEEE may be classified into broad categories of devices,
circuits, electronics, computers, systems, and interdisciplinary areas. All areas of electrical
engineering require a working knowledge of physics and mathematics, as well as engineering
methodologies and supporting skills in communications and human relations. A closely related
field is that of computer science.
Obviously, one cannot deal with all aspects of all of these areas. Instead, the general concepts
and techniques will be emphasized in order to provide the reader with the necessary background
needed to pursue specific topics in more detail. The purpose of this text is to present the basic
theory and practice of electrical engineering to students with varied backgrounds and interests.
After all, electrical engineering rests upon a few major principles and subprinciples.
Some of the areas of major concern and activity in the present society, as of writing this
book, are:
• Protecting the environment
• Energy conservation
• Alternative energy sources
• Development of new materials
• Biotechnology
• Improved communications
• Computer codes and networking
• Expert systems
This text is but a modest introduction to the exciting field of electrical engineering. However,
it is the ardent hope and fervent desire of the author that the book will help inspire the reader
to apply the basic principles presented here to many of the interdisciplinary challenges, some of
which are mentioned above.

xxi
xxii OVERVIEW

TABLE I IEEE Publications

Publication Pub ID

IEEE Society/Council Periodicals

Aerospace & Electronic Systems Magazine 3161
Aerospace & Electronic Systems, Transactions on 1111
Annals of the History of Computing 3211
Antennas & Propagation, Transactions on 1041
Applied Superconductivity, Transactions on 1521
Automatic Control, Transactions on 1231
Biomedical Engineering, Transactions on 1191
Broadcasting, Transactions on 1011
Circuits and Devices Magazine 3131
Circuits & Systems, Part I, Transactions on 1561
Circuits & Systems, Part II, Transactions on 1571
Circuits & Systems for Video Technology, Transactions on 1531
Communications, Transactions on 1201
Communications Magazine 3021
Components, Hybrids, & Manufacturing Technology, Transactions on 1221
Computer Graphics & Applications Magazine 3061
Computer Magazine 3001
Computers, Transactions on 1161
Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, Transactions on 1391
Consumer Electronics, Transactions on 1021
Design & Test of Computers Magazine 3111
Education, Transactions on 1241
Electrical Insulation, Transactions on 1301
Electrical Insulation Magazine 3141
Electromagnetic Compatibility, Transactions on 1261
Electron Device Letters 3041
Electron Devices, Transactions on 1151
Electronic Materials, Journal of 4601
Energy Conversion, Transactions on 1421
Engineering in Medicine & Biology Magazine 3091
Engineering Management, Transactions on 1141
Engineering Management Review 3011
Expert Magazine 3151
Geoscience & Remote Sensing, Transactions on 1281
Image Processing, Transactions on 1551
Industrial Electronics, Transactions on 1131
Industry Applications, Transactions on 1321
Information Theory, Transactions on 1121
Instrumentation & Measurement, Transactions on 1101
Knowledge & Data Engineering, Transactions on 1471
Lightwave Technology, Journal of 4301
LTS (The Magazine of Lightwave Telecommunication Systems) 3191
Magnetics, Transactions on 1311
Medical Imaging, Transactions on 1381
Micro Magazine 3071
Microelectromechanical Systems, Journal of 4701
Microwave and Guided Wave Letters 1511
Microwave Theory & Techniques, Transactions on 1181
Network Magazine 3171
Neural Networks, Transactions on 1491
Nuclear Science, Transactions on 1061
Oceanic Engineering, Journal of 4201
Parallel & Distributed Systems, Transactions on 1501
Pattern Analysis & Machine Intelligence, Transactions on 1351
Photonics Technology Letters 1481
Plasma Science, Transactions on 1071
Power Delivery, Transactions on 1431
Continued
 OVERVIEW xxiii

TABLE I Continued

Publication Pub ID

Power Electronics, Transactions on 4501

Power Engineering Review 3081
Power Systems, Transactions on 1441
Professional Communication, Transactions on 1251
Quantum Electronics, Journal of 1341
Reliability, Transactions on 1091
Robotics & Automation, Transactions on 1461
Selected Areas in Communication, Journal of 1411
Semiconductor Manufacturing, Transactions on 1451
Signal Processing, Transactions on 1001
Signal Processing Magazine 3101
Software Engineering, Transactions on 1171
Software Magazine 3121
Solid-State Circuits, Journal of 4101
Systems, Man, & Cybernetics, Transactions on 1271
Technology & Society Magazine 1401
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics & Frequency Control, Transactions on 1211
Vehicular Technology, Transactions on 1081

Broad Scope Publications

IEEE Spectrum 5001
Proceedings of the IEEE 5011
IEEE Potentials 5061

A historical perspective of electrical engineering, in chronological order, is furnished in Table

II. A mere glance will thrill anyone, and give an idea of the ever-changing, fast-growing field of
electrical engineering.

TABLE II Chronological Historical Perspective of Electrical Engineering

1750–1850 Coulomb’s law (1785)

Battery discovery by Volta
Mathematical theories by Fourier and Laplace
Ampere’s law (1825)
Ohm’s law (1827)
Faraday’s law of induction (1831)
1850–1900 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws (1857)
Telegraphy: first transatlantic cables laid
Maxwell’s equations (1864)
Cathode rays: Hittorf and Crookes (1869)
Telephony: first telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut
Edison opens first electric utility in New York City (1882): dc power systems
Waterwheel-driven dc generator installed in Appleton, Wisconsin (1882)
First transmission lines installed in Germany (1882), 2400 V dc, 59km
Dc motor by Sprague (1884)
Commercially practical transformer by Stanley (1885)
Steinmetz’s ac circuit analysis
Tesla’s papers on ac motors (1888)
Radio waves: Hertz (1888)
First single-phase ac transmission line in United States (1889): Ac power systems, Oregon City to
Portland, 4 kV, 21 km
First three-phase ac transmission line in Germany (1891), 12 kV, 179 km
First three-phase ac transmission line in California (1893), 2.3 kV, 12 km
Generators installed at Niagara Falls, New York
Heaviside’s operational calculus methods
xxiv OVERVIEW

1900–1920 Marconi’s wireless telegraph system: transatlantic communication (1901)

Photoelectric effect: Einstein (1904)
Vacuum-tube electronics: Fleming (1904), DeForest (1906)
First AM broadcasting station in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Regenerative amplifier: Armstrong (1912)
1920–1940 Television: Farnsworth, Zworykin (1924)
Cathode-ray tubes by DuMont; experimental broadcasting
Negative-feedback amplifier by Black (1927)
Boolean-algebra application to switching circuits by Shannon (1937)
1940–1950 Major advances in electronics (World War II)
Radar and microwave systems: Watson-Watts (1940)
Operational amplifiers in analog computers
FM communication systems for military applications
System theory papers by Bode, Shannon, and Wiener
ENIAC vacuum-tube digital computer at the University of Pennsylvania (1946)
Transistor electronics: Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain of Bell Labs (1947)
Long-playing microgroove records (1948)
1950–1960 Transistor radios in mass production
Solar cell: Pearson (1954)
Digital computers (UNIVAC I, IBM, Philco); Fortran programming language
First commercial nuclear power plant at Shippingport, Pennsylvania (1957)
Integrated circuits by Kilby of Texas Instruments (1958)
1960–1970 Microelectronics: Hoerni’s planar transistor from Fairchild Semiconductors
Laser demonstrations by Maiman (1960)
First communications satellite Telstar I launched (1962)
MOS transistor: Hofstein and Heiman (1963)
Digital communications
765 kV AC power lines constructed (1969)
Microprocessor: Hoff (1969)
1970–1980 Microcomputers; MOS technology; Hewlett-Packard calculator
INTEL’s 8080 microprocessor chip; semiconductor devices for memory
Computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
Interactive computer graphics; software engineering
Personal computers; IBM PC
Artificial intelligence; robotics
Fiber optics; biomedical electronic instruments; power electronics
1980–Present Digital electronics; superconductors
Neural networks; expert systems
High-density memory chips; digital networks
 INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
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 PART

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
ONE
This page intentionally left blank
1 Circuit Concepts

1.1 Electrical Quantities

1.2 Lumped-Circuit Elements

1.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws

1.4 Meters and Measurements

1.5 Analogy between Electrical and Other Nonelectric Physical Systems

1.6 Learning Objectives

1.7 Practical Application: A Case Study—Resistance Strain Gauge

Problems

Electric circuits, which are collections of circuit elements connected together, are the most
fundamental structures of electrical engineering. A circuit is an interconnection of simple elec-
trical devices that have at least one closed path in which current may flow. However, we may
have to clarify to some of our readers what is meant by “current” and “electrical device,” a
task that we shall undertake shortly. Circuits are important in electrical engineering because
they process electrical signals, which carry energy and information; a signal can be any time-
varying electrical quantity. Engineering circuit analysis is a mathematical study of some useful
interconnection of simple electrical devices. An electric circuit, as discussed in this book, is
an idealized mathematical model of some physical circuit or phenomenon. The ideal circuit
elements are the resistor, the inductor, the capacitor, and the voltage and current sources. The
ideal circuit model helps us to predict, mathematically, the approximate behavior of the actual
event. The models also provide insights into how to design a physical electric circuit to perform a
desired task. Electrical engineering is concerned with the analysis and design of electric circuits,
systems, and devices. In Chapter 1 we shall deal with the fundamental concepts that underlie
all circuits.
Electrical quantities will be introduced first. Then the reader is directed to the lumped-
circuit elements. Then Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws are presented. These laws are sufficient

3
4 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

for analyzing and designing simple but illustrative practical circuits. Later, a brief introduc-
tion is given to meters and measurements. Finally, the analogy between electrical and other
nonelectric physical systems is pointed out. The chapter ends with a case study of practical
application.

1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

In describing the operation of electric circuits, one should be familiar with such electrical quantities
as charge, current, and voltage. The material of this section will serve as a review, since it will
not be entirely new to most readers.

Charge and Electric Force

The proton has a charge of +1.602 10−19 coulombs (C), while the electron has a charge of
−1.602 × 10−19 C. The neutron has zero charge. Electric charge and, more so, its movement
are the most basic items of interest in electrical engineering. When many charged particles are
collected together, larger charges and charge distributions occur. There may be point charges (C),
line charges (C/m), surface charge distributions (C/m2), and volume charge distributions (C/m3).
A charge is responsible for an electric field and charges exert forces on each other. Like
charges repel, whereas unlike charges attract. Such an electric force can be controlled and utilized
for some useful purpose. Coulomb’s law gives an expression to evaluate the electric force in
newtons (N) exerted on one point charge by the other:
Q1 Q2
Force on Q1 due to Q2 = F̄21 = ā21 (1.1.1a)
4π ε0 R 2
Q2 Q1
Force on Q2 due to Q1 = F̄12 = ā12 (1.1.1b)
4π ε0 R 2
where Q1 and Q2 are the point charges (C); R is the separation in meters (m) between them; ε0
is the permittivity of the free-space medium with units of C2 /N · m or, more commonly, farads
per meter (F/m); and ā21 and ā12 are unit vectors along the line joining Q1 and Q2 , as shown in
Figure 1.1.1.
Equation (1.1.1) shows the following:
1. Forces F̄21 and F̄12 are experienced by Q1 and Q2 , due to the presence of Q2 and Q1 ,
respectively. They are equal in magnitude and opposite of each other in direction.
2. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the charge magnitudes.
3. The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the charges.
4. The magnitude of the force depends on the medium.
5. The direction of the force is along the line joining the charges.
Note that the SI system of units will be used throughout this text, and the student should be
conversant with the conversion factors for the SI system.
The force per unit charge experienced by a small test charge placed in an electric field is
known as the electric field intensity Ē, whose units are given by N/C or, more commonly, volts
per meter (V/m),
F̄
Ē = lim (1.1.2)
Q→0 Q
 1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 5

F12
R a12
Q2

a21 Q1
F21

Figure 1.1.1 Illustration of Coulomb’s law.

Equation (1.1.2) is the defining equation for the electric field intensity (with units of N/C or V/m),
irrespective of the source of the electric field. One may then conclude:
F̄21 = Q1 Ē2 (1.1.3a)
F̄12 = Q2 Ē1 (1.1.3b)
where Ē2 is the electric field due to Q2 at the location of Q1 , and Ē1 is the electric field due to
Q1 at the location of Q2 , given by
Q2
Ē2 = ā21 (1.1.4a)
4π ε0 R 2
Q1
Ē1 = ā12 (1.1.4b)
4π ε0 R 2
Note that the electric field intensity due to a positive point charge is directed everywhere
radially away from the point charge, and its constant-magnitude surfaces are spherical surfaces
centered at the point charge.

EXAMPLE 1.1.1
(a) A small region of an impure silicon crystal with dimensions 1.25 × 10−6 m ×10−3 m
×10−3 m has only the ions (with charge +1.6 10−19 C) present with a volume density of
1025/m3. The rest of the crystal volume contains equal densities of electrons (with charge
−1.6 × 10−19 C) and positive ions. Find the net total charge of the crystal.
(b) Consider the charge of part (a) as a point charge Q1 . Determine the force exerted by this
on a charge Q2 = 3µC when the charges are separated by a distance of 2 m in free space,
as shown in Figure E1.1.1.

y
− Q3 = −2 × 10−6 C

F32 F2

1m
76°
Q1 = 2 × 10−6 C + + x
F12 Q2 = 3 × 10−6 C
2m

Figure E1.1.1
6 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

(c) If another charge Q3 = −2µC is added to the system 1 m above Q2 , as shown in Figure
E1.1.1, calculate the force exerted on Q2 .

Solution

(a) In the region where both ions and free electrons exist, their opposite charges cancel, and
the net charge density is zero. From the region containing ions only, the volume-charge
density is given by

ρ = (1025 )(1.6 × 10−19 ) = 1.6 × 106 C/m3

The net total charge is then calculated as:

Q = ρv = (1.6 × 106 )(1.25 × 10−6 × 10−3 × 10−3 ) = 2 × 10−6 C

(b) The rectangular coordinate system shown defines the locations of the charges: Q1 =
2 × 10−6 C; Q2 = 3 × 10−6 C. The force that Q1 exerts on Q2 is in the positive direction
of x, given by Equation (1.1.1),
(3 × 10−6 )(2 × 10−6 )
F̄12 = āx = āx 13.5 × 10−3 N
4π(10−9 /36π )22

This is the force experienced by Q2 due to the effect of the electric field of Q1 . Note the
value used for free-space permittivity, ε0 , as (8.854×10−12 ), or approximately 10−9 /36π
F/m. āx is the unit vector in the positive x-direction.
(c) When Q3 is added to the system, as shown in Figure E1.1.1, an additional force on Q2
directed in the positive y-direction occurs (since Q3 and Q2 are of opposite sign),
(3 × 10−6 )(−2 × 10−6 )
F̄32 = (−āy ) = āy 54 × 10−3 N
4π(10−9 36π )12

The resultant force F̄2 acting on Q2 is the superposition of F̄12 and F̄32 due to Q1 and
Q3 , respectively.
The vector combination of F̄12 and F̄32 is given by:


F̄32
F̄2 = F122
+ F32 2 
tan−1
F̄12
 54
= 13 .52 + 542 × 10−3  tan−1
13 .5
= 55.7 × 10−3  76° N

Conductors and Insulators

In order to put charge in motion so that it becomes an electric current, one must provide a path
through which it can flow easily by the movement of electrons. Materials through which charge
flows readily are called conductors. Examples include most metals, such as silver, gold, copper,
and aluminum. Copper is used extensively for the conductive paths on electric circuit boards and
for the fabrication of electrical wires.
 1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 7

Insulators are materials that do not allow charge to move easily. Examples include glass,
plastic, ceramics, and rubber. Electric current cannot be made to flow through an insulator, since
a charge has great difficulty moving through it. One sees insulating (or dielectric) materials often
wrapped around the center conducting core of a wire.
Although the term resistance will be formally defined later, one can say qualitatively that
a conductor has a very low resistance to the flow of charge, whereas an insulator has a very
high resistance to the flow of charge. Charge-conducting abilities of various materials vary in
a wide range. Semiconductors fall in the middle between conductors and insulators, and have
a moderate resistance to the flow of charge. Examples include silicon, germanium, and gallium
arsenide.

Current and Magnetic Force

The rate of movement of net positive charge per unit of time through a cross section of a conductor
is known as current,
dq
i(t) = (1.1.5)
dt
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), which represents 1 coulomb per second. In most
metallic conductors, such as copper wires, current is exclusively the movement of free electrons
in the wire. Since electrons are negative, and since the direction designated for the current
is that of the net positive charge movement, the charges in the wire are thus moving in the
direction opposite to the direction of the current designation. The net charge transferred at a
particular time is the net area under the current–time curve from the beginning of time to the
present,
t
q(t) = i(τ ) dτ (1.1.6)
−∞

While Coulomb’s law has to do with the electric force associated with two charged bodies,
Ampere’s law of force is concerned with magnetic forces associated with two loops of wire carrying
currents by virtue of the motion of charges in the loops. Note that isolated current elements do
not exist without sources and sinks of charges at their ends; magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Figure 1.1.2 shows two loops of wire in freespace carrying currents I1 and I2 .
Considering a differential element d l¯1 of loop 1 and a differential element d l¯2 of loop 2,
the differential magnetic forces d F̄21 and d F̄12 experienced by the differential current elements
I1 d l¯1 , and I2 d l¯2 , due to I2 and I1 , respectively, are given by
 
µ0 I2 d l¯2 × ā21
d F̄21 = I1 d l¯1 × (1.1.7a)
4π R2
 
µ0 I1 d l¯1 × ā12
d F̄12 = I2 d l¯2 × (1.1.7b)
4π R2
where ā21 and ā12 are unit vectors along the line joining the two current elements, R is the distance
between the centers of the elements, µ0 is the permeability of free space with units of N/A2 or
commonly known as henrys per meter (H/m). Equation (1.1.7) reveals the following:

1. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the two currents and the
product of the lengths of the two current elements.
8 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

I2 Figure 1.1.2 Illustration of Ampere’s law (of

I1 force).
a21 dl2
a12
dl1
R

Loop 1 Loop 2

2. The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the current elements.
3. To determine the direction of, say, the force acting on the current element I1 d l¯1 , the cross
product d l¯2 × ā21 must be found. Then crossing d l¯1 with the resulting vector will yield
the direction of d F̄21 .
4. Each current element is acted upon by a magnetic field due to the other current element,

d F̄21 = I1 d l¯1 × B̄2 (1.1.8a)

d F̄12 = I2 d l¯2 × B̄1 (1.1.8b)

where B̄ is known as the magnetic flux density vector with units of N/A · m, commonly
known as webers per square meter (Wb/m2) or tesla (T).

Current distribution is the source of magnetic field, just as charge distribution is the source
of electric field. As a consequence of Equations (1.1.7) and (1.1.8), it can be seen that
µ0
B̄2 = I2 d l¯2 × ā21 (1.1.9a)
4π
µ0 I1 d l¯1 × ā12
B̄1 = (1.1.9b)
4π R2
which depend on the medium parameter. Equation (1.1.9) is known as the Biot–Savart law.
Equation (1.1.8) can be expressed in terms of moving charge, since current is due to the flow
of charges. With I = dq/dt and d l¯ = v̄ dt, where v̄ is the velocity, Equation (1.1.8) can be
rewritten as
 
dq
d F̄ = (v̄ dt) × B̄ = dq (v̄ × B̄) (1.1.10)
dt
Thus it follows that the force F̄ experienced by a test charge q moving with a velocity v̄ in a
magnetic field of flux density B̄ is given by
F̄ = q (v̄ × B̄) (1.1.11)
The expression for the total force acting on a test charge q moving with velocity v̄ in a region
characterized by electric field intensity Ē and a magnetic field of flux density B̄ is
F̄ = F̄E + F̄M = q (Ē + v̄ × B̄) (1.1.12)
which is known as the Lorentz force equation.
 1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 9

EXAMPLE 1.1.2
Figure E1.1.2 (a) gives a plot of q(t) as a function of time t.
(a) Obtain the plot of i(t).
(b) Find the average value of the current over the time interval of 1 to 7 seconds.

q(t), coulombs Figure E1.1.2 (a) Plot of q(t).

(b) Plot of i(t).

t, seconds
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1

(a)

i(t), amperes

1.5
1.0

t, seconds
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

−2.0

(b)

Solution

(a) Applying Equation (1.1.5) and interpreting the first derivative as the slope, one obtains
the plot shown in Figure E1.1.2(b).
T
(b) Iav = (1/T ) 0 i dt. Interpreting the integral as the area enclosed under the curve, one
gets:
1
Iav = [(1.5 × 2) − (2.0 × 2) + (0 × 1) + (1 × 1)] = 0
(7 − 1)

Note that the net charge transferred during the interval of 1 to 7 seconds is zero in this case.
10 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

EXAMPLE 1.1.3
Consider an infinitesimal length of 10−6 m of wire whose center is located at the point (1, 0, 0),
carrying a current of 2 A in the positive direction of x.
(a) Find the magnetic flux density due to the current element at the point (0, 2, 2).
(b) Let another current element (of length 10−3 m) be located at the point (0, 2, 2), carrying
a current of 1 A in the direction of (−āy + āz ). Evaluate the force on this current element
due to the other element located at (1, 0, 0).

Solution

(a) I1 d l¯1 = 2 × 10−6 āx . The unit vector ā12 is given by

(0 − 1)āx + (2 − 0)āy + (2 − 0)āz
ā12 = √
12 + 2 2 + 2 2
(−āx + 2āy + 2āz )
=
3
Using the Biot–Savart law, Equation (1.1.9), one gets
µ0 I1 d l¯1 × ā12
[B̄1 ](0,2,2) =
4π R2
where µ0 is the free-space permeability constant given in SI units as 4π × 10−7 H/m,
and R 2 in this case is {(0 − 1)2 + (2 − 0)2 + (2 − 0)2 }, or 9. Hence,
 
4π × 10−7 (2 × 10−6 āx ) × (−āx + 2āy + 2āz )
[B̄1 ](0,2,2) =
4π 9×3
10−7
= × 4 × 10−6 (āz − āy ) Wb/m2
27
= 0.15 × 10−13 (āz − āy ) T

(b) I2 d l¯2 = 10−3 (−āy + āz )

d F̄12 = I2 d l¯2 × B̄1

= 10−3 (−āy + āz ) × 0.15 × 10−13 (āz − āy ) = 0

Note that the force is zero since the current element I2 d l¯2 and the field B̄1 due to I1 d l¯1
at (0, 2, 2) are in the same direction.
The Biot–Savart law can be extended to find the magnetic flux density due to a current-
carrying filamentary wire of any length and shape by dividing the wire into a number of
infinitesimal elements and using superposition. The net force experienced by a current loop can
be similarly evaluated by superposition.

Electric Potential and Voltage

When electrical forces act on a particle, it will possess potential energy. In order to describe the
potential energy that a particle will have at a point x, the electric potential at point x is defined as
 1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 11

dw(x)
v(x) = (1.1.13)
dq
where w(x) is the potential energy that a particle with charge q has when it is located at the
position x. The zero point of potential energy can be chosen arbitrarily since only differences in
energy have practical meaning. The point where electric potential is zero is known as the reference
point or ground point, with respect to which potentials at other points are then described. The
potential difference is known as the voltage expressed in volts (V) or joules per coulomb (J/C).
If the potential at B is higher than that at A,
vBA = vB − vA (1.1.14)
which is positive. Obviously voltages can be either positive or negative numbers, and it follows that
vBA = −vAB (1.1.15)
The voltage at point A, designated as vA , is then the potential at point A with respect to the
ground.

Energy and Power

If a charge dq gives up energy dw when going from point a to point b, then the voltage across
those points is defined as
dw
v= (1.1.16)
dq
If dw/dq is positive, point a is at the higher potential. The voltage between two points is the
work per unit positive charge required to move that charge between the two points. If dw and dq
have the same sign, then energy is delivered by a positive charge going from a to b (or a negative
charge going the other way). Conversely, charged particles gain energy inside a source where dw
and dq have opposite polarities.
The load and source conventions are shown in Figure 1.1.3, in which point a is at a
higher potential than point b. The load receives or absorbs energy because a positive charge
goes in the direction of the current arrow from higher to lower potential. The source has
a capacity to supply energy. The voltage source is sometimes known as an electromotive
force, or emf, to convey the notation that it is a force that drives the current through the
circuit.
The instantaneous power p is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of change of
energy dw/dt,
  
dw dw dq
p= = = vi (1.1.17)
dt dq dt
The electric power consumed or produced by a circuit element is given by its voltage–current
product, expressed in volt-amperes (VA) or watts (W). The energy over a time interval is found
by integrating power,
T
w = p dt (1.1.18)
0

which is expressed in watt-seconds or joules (J), or commonly in electric utility bills in kilowatt-
hours (kWh). Note that 1 kWh equals 3.6 × 106 J.
12 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

+ + Figure 1.1.3 Load and source conventions.

a a
i

vab Load iab vab Source iba

b b
− −

EXAMPLE 1.1.4
A typical 12-V automobile battery, storing about 5 megajoules (MJ) of energy, is connected to a
4-A headlight system.
(a) Find the power delivered to the headlight system.
(b) Calculate the energy consumed in 1 hour of operation.
(c) Express the auto-battery capacity in ampere-hours (Ah) and compute how long the
headlight system can be operated before the battery is completely discharged.

Solution

(a) Power delivered: P = V I = 124 = 48W.

(b) Assuming V and I remain constant, the energy consumed in 1 hour will equal

W = 48(60 × 60) = 172.8 × 103 J = 172.8kJ

(c) 1 Ah = (1 C/s)(3600 s) = 3600C. For the battery in question, 5 × 106 J/12 V =

0.417 × 106 C. Thus the auto-battery capacity is 0.417 × 106 /3600 ∼= 116 Ah. Without
completely discharging the battery, the headlight system can be operated for 116/4 = 29
hours.

Sources and Loads

A source–load combination is represented in Figure 1.1.4. A node is a point at which two or
more components or devices are connected together. A part of a circuit containing only one
component, source, or device between two nodes is known as a branch. A voltage rise indicates
an electric source, with the charge being raised to a higher potential, whereas a voltage drop
indicates a load, with a charge going to a lower potential. The voltage across the source is the
same as the voltage across the load in Figure 1.1.4. The current delivered by the source goes
through the load. Ideally, with no losses, the power (p = vi) delivered by the source is consumed
by the load.
When current flows out of the positive terminal of an electric source, it implies that non-
electric energy has been transformed into electric energy. Examples include mechanical energy
transformed into electric energy as in the case of a generator source, chemical energy changed
 1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 13

into electric energy as in the case of a battery source, and solar energy converted into electric
energy as in the case of a solar-cell source. On the other hand, when current flows in the direction
of voltage drop, it implies that electric energy is transformed into nonelectric energy. Examples
include electric energy converted into thermal energy as in the case of an electric heater, electric
energy transformed into mechanical energy as in the case of motor load, and electric energy
changed into chemical energy as in the case of a charging battery.
Batteries and ac outlets are the familiar electric sources. These are voltage sources. An ideal
voltage source is one whose terminal voltage v is a specified function of time, regardless of the
current i through the source. An ideal battery has a constant voltage V with respect to time, as
shown in Figure 1.1.5(a). It is known as a dc source, because i = I is a direct current. Figure
1.1.5(b) shows the symbol and time variation for a sinusoidal voltage source with v = Vm cos ωt.
The positive sign on the source symbol indicates instantaneous polarity of the terminal at the
higher potential whenever cos ωt is positive. A sinusoidal source is generally termed an ac source
because such a voltage source tends to produce an alternating current.
The concept of an ideal current source, although less familiar but useful as we shall see later,
is defined as one whose current i is a specified function of time, regardless of the voltage across its
terminals. The circuit symbols and the corresponding i–v curves for the ideal voltage and current
sources are shown in Figure 1.1.6.
Even though ideal sources could theoretically produce infinite energy, one should recognize
that infinite values are physically impossible. Various circuit laws and device representations or
models are approximations of physical reality, and significant limitations of the idealized concepts
or models need to be recognized. Simplified representations or models for physical devices are
the most powerful tools in electrical engineering. As for ideal sources, the concept of constant V
or constant I for dc sources and the general idea of v or i being a specified function of time should
be understood.
When the source voltage or current is independent of all other voltages and currents, such
sources are known as independent sources. There are dependent or controlled sources, whose

i Figure 1.1.4 Source–load combination.

Node a +
+
Source Load
−
Node b −

Ground

i i
+ v + v

+ Vm
V
V t v = Vm cos ωt t
0 − 0 2π/ω
−Vm
− −
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1.5 Voltage sources. (a) Ideal dc source (battery). (b) Ideal sinusoidal ac source.
14 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

i is
+ i + i
is
+
vs vs v is v v
− 0 vs 0

− −
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1.6 Circuit symbols and i–v curves. (a) Ideal voltage source. (b) Ideal current source.

voltage or current does depend on the value of some other voltage or current. As an example, a
voltage amplifier producing an output voltage vout = Avin , where vin is the input voltage and A is
the constant-voltage amplification factor, is shown in Figure 1.1.7, along with its controlled-source
model using the diamond-shaped symbol. Current sources controlled by a current or voltage will
also be considered eventually.

Waveforms
We are often interested in waveforms, which may not be constant in time. Of particular interest
is a periodic waveform, which is a time-varying waveform repeating itself over intervals of time
T > 0.
f (t) = f (t ± nT ) n = 1, 2, 3, · · · (1.1.19)
The repetition time T of the waveform is called the period of the waveform. For a waveform
to be periodic, it must continue indefinitely in time. The dc waveform of Figure 1.1.5(a) can be
considered to be periodic with an infinite period. The frequency of a periodic waveform is the
reciprocal of its period,
1
f = Hertz (Hz) (1.1.20)
T
A sinusoidal or cosinusoidal waveform is typically described by
f (t) = A sin(ωt + φ) (1.1.21)
where A is the amplitude, φ is the phase offset, and ω = 2πf = 2π/T is the radian frequency
of the wave. When φ = 0, a sinusoidal wave results, and when φ = 90°, a cosinusoidal wave
results. The average value of a periodic waveform is the net positive area under the curve for one
period, divided by the period,
T
1
Fav = f (t) dt (1.1.22)
T
0

+ Figure 1.1.7 Voltage amplifier and its

+ + + controlled-source model.
Voltage
vin vout Avin vout
amplifier
− − −
−
(a) (b)
 1.1 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 15

The effective, or root-mean square (rms), value is the square root of the average of f 2 (t),
T
1
Frms = f 2 (t) dt (1.1.23)
T
0

Determining the square of the function f (t), then finding the mean (average) value, and finally
taking the square root yields the rms value, known as effective value. This concept will be seen
to be useful in comparing the effectiveness of different sources in delivering power to a resistor.
The effective value of a periodic current, for example, is a constant, or dc value, which delivers
the same average power to a resistor, as will be seen later.
For the special case of a dc waveform, the following holds:
f (t) = F ; Fav = Frms = F (1.1.24)
For the sinusoid or cosinusoid, it can be seen that
√
f (t) = A sin(ωt + φ); Fav = 0; Frms = A/ 2 ∼
= 0.707 A (1.1.25)
The student is encouraged to show the preceding results using graphical and analytical means.
Other common types of waveforms are exponential in nature,
f (t) = Ae−t/τ (1.1.26a)
f (t) = A(1 − e−t/τ ) (1.1.26b)
where τ is known as the time constant. After a time of one time constant has elapsed, looking at
Equation (1.1.26a), the value of the waveform will be reduced to 37% of its initial value; Equation
(1.1.26b) shows that the value will rise to 63% of its final value. The student is encouraged to
study the functions graphically and deduce the results.

EXAMPLE 1.1.5
A periodic current waveform in a rectifier is shown in Figure E1.1.5. The wave is sinusoidal for
π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ π , and is zero for the rest of the cycle. Calculate the rms and average values of the
current.

i Figure E1.1.5

10

π π 2π ωt
3

Solution
 
π/3 π 2π
1  
Irms =  i 2 d(ωt) + i 2 d(ωt) + i 2 d(ωt)
2π
0 π/3 π
16 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

Notice that ωt rather than t is chosen as the variable for convenience; ω = 2πf = 2π/T;
and integration is performed over three discrete intervals because of the discontinuous current
function. Since i = 0 for 0 ≤ ωt < π/3 and π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π,
π
1
Irms = 102 sin2 ωt d(ωt) = 4.49 A
2π
π/3

π
1
Iav = 10 sin ωt d(ωt) = 2.39 A
2π
π/3

Note that the base is the entire period 2π , even though the current is zero for a substantial part of
the period.

1.2 LUMPED-CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Electric circuits or networks are formed by interconnecting various devices, sources, and com-
ponents. Although the effects of each element (such as heating effects, electric-field effects,
or magnetic-field effects) are distributed throughout space, one often lumps them together as
lumped elements. The passive components are the resistance R representing the heating effect,
the capacitance C representing the electric-field effect, and the inductance L representing the
magnetic-field effect. Their characteristics will be presented in this section. The capacitor models
the relation between voltage and current due to changes in the accumulation of electric charge, and
the inductor models the relation due to changes in magnetic flux linkages, as will be seen later.
While these phenomena are generally distributed throughout an electric circuit, under certain
conditions they can be considered to be concentrated at certain points and can therefore be
represented by lumped parameters.

Resistance
An ideal resistor is a circuit element with the property that the current through it is linearly
proportional to the potential difference across its terminals,
i = v/R = Gv, or v = iR (1.2.1)
which is known as Ohm’s law, published in 1827. R is known as the resistance of the resistor
with the SI unit of ohms (), and G is the reciprocal of resistance called conductance, with the SI
unit of siemens (S). The circuit symbols of fixed and variable resistors are shown in Figure 1.2.1,
along with an illustration of Ohm’s law. Most resistors used in practice are good approximations
to linear resistors for large ranges of current, and their i–v characteristic (current versus voltage
plot) is a straight line.
The value of resistance is determined mainly by the physical dimensions and the resistivity
ρ of the material of which the resistor is composed. For a bar of resistive material of length l and
cross-sectional area A the resistance is given by
ρl l
R= = (1.2.2)
A σA
where ρ is the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters ( · m), and σ is the conductivity of the
material in S/m, which is the reciprocal of the resistivity. Metal wires are often considered as ideal
 1.2 LUMPED-CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 17

iab iab Figure 1.2.1 Circuit symbols of fixed

+ − + − and variable resistors and illustration of
a (Fixed) R b a (Variable) R b Ohm’s law.
vab vab
iab = vab /R = Gvab

TABLE 1.2.1 Resistivity of Some Materials

Type Material ρ( · m)

Conductors Silver 16 × 10−9

(at 20°C) Copper 17 × 10−9
Gold 24 × 10−9
Aluminum 28 × 10−9
Tungsten 55 × 10−9
Brass 67 × 10−9
Sodium 0.04 × 10−6
Stainless steel 0.91 × 10−6
Iron 0.1 × 10−6
Nichrome 1 × 10−6
Carbon 35 × 10−6
Seawater 0.25
Semiconductors Germanium 0.46
(at 27°C or 300 K) Silicon 2.3 × 103
Insulators Rubber 1 × 1012
Polystyrene 1 × 1015

conductors with zero resistance as a good approximation. Table 1.2.1 lists values of ρ for some
materials.
The resistivity of conductor metals varies linearly over normal operating temperatures
according to
 
T2 + T
ρT 2 = ρT 1 (1.2.3)
T1 + T
where ρT 2 and ρT 1 are resistivities at temperatures T2 and T1 , respectively, and T is a temperature
constant that depends on the conductor material. All temperatures are in degrees Celsius. The
conductor resistance also depends on other factors, such as spiraling, frequency (the skin effect
which causes the ac resistance to be slightly higher than the dc resistance), and current magnitude
in the case of magnetic conductors (e.g., steel conductors used for shield wires).
Practical resistors are manufactured in standard values, various resistance tolerances, several
power ratings (as will be explained shortly), and in a number of different forms of construction.
The three basic construction techniques are composition type, which uses carbon or graphite and
is molded into a cylindrical shape, wire-wound type, in which a length of enamel-coated wire
is wrapped around an insulating cylinder, and metal-film type, in which a thin layer of metal is
vacuum deposited. Table 1.2.2 illustrates the standard color-coded bands used for evaluating
resistance and their interpretation for the common carbon composition type. Sometimes a fifth
band is also present to indicate reliability. Black is the least reliable color and orange is 1000
times more reliable than black.
For resistors ranging from 1 to 9.1 , the standard resistance values are listed in Table 1.2.3.
Other available values can be obtained by multiplying the values shown in Table 1.2.3 by factors
18 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

TABLE 1.2.2 Standard Color-Coded Bands for Evaluating Resistance and Their Interpretation

Color bands 1–4 b1 b2 b3 b4

Color of Band Digit of Band Multiplier % Tolerance in Actual Value

Black 0 100 —
Brown 1 101 —
Red 2 102 —
Orange 3 103 —
Yellow 4 104 —
Green 5 105 —
Blue 6 106 —
Violet 7 107 —
Grey 8 108 —
White 9 — —
Gold — 10−1 ± 5%
Silver — 10−2 ± 10%
Black or no color — — ± 20%

Resistance value = (10b1 + b2 ) × 10b3 .

of 10 ranging from 10  to about 22 × 106 . For example, 8.2 , 82 , 820 , . . . , 820 k

are standard available values.
The maximum allowable power dissipation or power rating is typically specified for com-
mercial resistors. A common power rating for resistors used in electronic circuits is 1Ⲑ4 W; other
ratings such as 1Ⲑ8, 1Ⲑ2, 1, and 2 W are available with composition-type resistors, whereas larger
ratings are also available with other types. Variable resistors, known as potentiometers, with a
movable contact are commonly found in rotary or linear form. Wire-wound potentiometers may
have higher power ratings up to 1000 W.
The advent of integrated circuits has given rise to packaged resistance arrays fabricated by
using film technology. These packages are better suited for automated manufacturing and are
usually less costly than discrete resistors in large production runs.
An important property of the resistor is its ability to convert energy from electrical form into
heat. The manufacturer generally states the maximum power dissipation of the resistor in watts.
If more power than this is converted to heat by the resistor, the resistor will be damaged due to
overheating. The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is given by
p(t) = v(t)i(t) = i 2 R = v 2 /R = v 2 G (1.2.4)
where v is the voltage drop across the resistance and i is the current through the resistance. It can
be shown (see Problem 1.2.13) that the average value of Equation (1.2.4) is given by
Pav = Vrms Irms = Irms
2
R = Vrms
2
/R = Vrms
2
G (1.2.5)
for periodically varying current and voltage as a function of time. Equation (1.2.5) gives the
expression for the power converted to heat by the resistor.
 1.2 LUMPED-CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 19

TABLE 1.2.3 Standard Available Values of Resistors

1.0 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8

1.1 1.6 2.4 3.6 5.1 7.5
1.2 1.8 2.7 3.9 5.6 8.2
1.3 2.0 3.0 4.3 6.2 9.1

Series and parallel combinations of resistors occur very often. Figure 1.2.2 illustrates these
combinations.
Figure 1.2.2(a) shows two resistors R1 and R2 in series sharing the voltage v in direct
proportion to their values, while the same current i flows through both of them,
v = vAC = vAB + vBC = iR1 + iR2 = i(R1 + R2 ) = iReq
or, when R1 and R2 are in series,
Req = R1 + R2 (1.2.6)
Figure 1.2.2(b) shows two resistors in parallel sharing the current i in inverse proportion to
their values, while the same voltage v is applied across each of them. At node B,
   
v v 1 1 R1 R2 v
i = i1 + i2 = + =v + = v/ =
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 + R2 Req
or, when R1 and R2 are in parallel,
R1 R 2 1 1 1
Req = or = + or Geq = G1 + G2 (1.2.7)
R1 + R 2 Req R1 R2
Notice the voltage division shown in Figure 1.2.2(a), and the current division in Figure
1.2.2(b).

i = i1 + i2
i
+
+ A
A B
R1 vAB = iR1 i1 = v/R1 i2 = v/R2
vR1 = vG1 = vG2
v = vAC = vAB + vBC =
B R1 + R2 vAD = vBC = v R1 iG1 R2 iG2
= =
vBC = iR2 G1 + G2 G1 + G2
R2
C vR2 D C
− = −
R1 + R2
(a) (b)
Figure 1.2.2 Resistances in series and in parallel. (a) R1 and R2 in series. (b) R1 and R2 in parallel.

EXAMPLE 1.2.1
A no. 14 gauge copper wire, commonly used in extension cords, has a circular wire diameter of
64.1 mils, where 1 mil = 0.001 inch.
(a) Determine the resistance of a 100-ft-long wire at 20°C.
20 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

(b) If such a 2-wire system is connected to a 110-V (rms) residential source outlet in order
to power a household appliance drawing a current of 1 A (rms), find the rms voltage at
the load terminals.
(c) Compute the power dissipated due to the extension cord.
(d) Repeat part (a) at 50°C, given that the temperature constant for copper is 241.5°C.

Solution

(a) d = 64.1 mils = 64.1 × 10−3 in = 64.1 × 10−3 × 2.54 cm/1 in × 1 m/100 cm =
1.628 × 10−3 m. From Table 1.2.1, ρ of copper at 20°C is 17 × 10−9 m,
12 in 2.54 cm 1m
l = 100 ft = 100 ft × × × = 30.48 m
1 ft 1 in 100 cm
π d2 π(1.628 × 10−3 )2
A= = = 2.08 × 10−6 m2
4 4

Per Equation (1.2.2),

17 × 10−9 × 30.48 ∼
R20°C = ‘ = 0.25 
2.08 × 10−6

(b) Rms voltage at load terminals, V = 110 − (0.25)2 = 109.5 V (rms). Note that two
100-ft-long wires are needed for the power to be supplied.
(c) Power dissipated, per Equation (1.2.5), P = (1)2 (0.25)(2) = 0.5 W.
(d) Per Equation (1.2.3),
 
50 + 241.5 17 × 10−9 × 291.5
ρ 50°C = ρ 20°C = = 18.95 × 10−9  · m
20 + 241.5 261.5

Hence,
18.95 × 10−9 × 30.48 ∼
R50°C = = 0.28 
2.08 × 10−6

EXAMPLE 1.2.2
(a) Consider a series–parallel combination of resistors as shown in Figure E1.2.2(a). Find
the equivalent resistance as seen from terminals A–B.
(b) Determine the current I and power P delivered by a 10-V dc voltage source applied at
terminals A–B, with A being at higher potential than B.
(c) Replace the voltage source by an equivalent current source at terminals A–B.
(d) Show the current and voltage distribution clearly in all branches of the original circuit
configuration.
 1.2 LUMPED-CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 21

Solution

(a) The circuit is reduced as illustrated in Figure E1.2.2(b).

(b) I = 5 A; P = V I = I 2 R = V 2 /R = 50 W [see Figure E1.2.2(c)].
(c) See Figure E1.2.2(d).
(d) See Figure E1.2.2(e).

1Ω 1Ω C
C
A A

1Ω 1Ω

D D 2Ω
2Ω
2Ω 2Ω 2 Ω || 2 Ω
=1Ω

B B
B B
(a)
1Ω C
Figure E1.2.2
A

1Ω+1Ω
(In series) 2Ω
=2Ω

B
B

1Ω C
A

2 Ω || 2 Ω
=1Ω

B
B

1Ω+1Ω
Req = 2 Ω (In series)
=2Ω

B
(b)
22 CIRCUIT CONCEPTS

A
I = 10/2 = 5 A A +
+
10 V 2Ω 5A
− 2 Ω V = 5 × 2 = 10 V

B
(c) B −
(d)

5A 1Ω
C
+
A + 5V − 2.5 A
+ 2.5 A
1 Ω 2.5 V
−
+
2Ω 5V
10 V 1.25 A D 1.25 A
−
+ +
2 Ω 2.5 V 2 Ω 2.5 V
− −

B B
−
5A
(e)

Maximum Power Transfer

In order to investigate the power transfer between a practical source and a load connected to it,
let us consider Figure 1.2.3, in which a constant voltage source v with a known internal resistance
RS is connected to a variable load resistance RL . Note that when RL is equal to zero, it is called
a short circuit, in which case vL becomes zero and iL is equal to v/RS . When RL approaches
infinity, it is called an open circuit, in which case iL becomes zero and vL is equal to v. One is
generally interested to find the value of the load resistance that will absorb maximum power from
the source.
The power PL absorbed by the load is given by
PL = iL2 RL (1.2.8)
where the load current iL is given by
v2
iL = (1.2.9)
RS + R L
Substituting Equation (1.2.9) in Equation (1.2.8), one gets
v2
PL = RL (1.2.10)
(RS + RL )2
For given fixed values of v and RS , in order to find the value of RL that maximizes the power
absorbed by the load, one sets the first derivative dPL /dRL equal to zero,
dPL v 2 (RL + RS )2 − 2v 2 RL (RL + RS )
= =0 (1.2.11)
dRL (RL + RS )4
 1.2 LUMPED-CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 23

RS Figure 1.2.3 Power transfer between source and load. Note: RL = 0

+
A implies short circuit; vL = 0 and iL = RvS and RL → • implies open
iL
circuit; iL = 0 and vL = v.
+
v iL vL RL
−

B
Source − Load

which leads to the following equation:

(RL + RS )2 − 2RL (RL + RS ) = 0 (1.2.12)
The solution of Equation (1.2.12) is given by
RL = RS (1.2.13)
That is to say, in order to transfer maximum power to a load, the load resistance must be matched
to the source resistance or, in other words, they should be equal to each other.
A problem related to power transfer is that of source loading. Figure 1.2.4(a) illustrates a
practical voltage source (i.e., an ideal voltage source along with a series internal source resistance)
connected to a load resistance; Figure 1.2.4(b) shows a practical current source (i.e., an ideal
current source along with a parallel or shunt internal source resistance) connected to a load
resistance. It follows from Figure 1.2.4(a) that
vL = v − vint = v − iL RS (1.2.14)
where vint is the internal voltage drop within the source, which depends on the amount of current
drawn by the load. As seen from Equation (1.2.14), the voltage actually seen by the load vL
is somewhat lower than the open-circuit voltage of the source. When the load resistance RL is
infinitely large, the load current iL goes to zero, and the load voltage vL is then equal to the
open-circuit voltage of the source v. Hence, it is desirable to have as small an internal resistance
as possible in a practical voltage source.
From Figure 1.2.4(b) it follows that
vL
iL = i − iint = i − (1.2.15)
RS
where iint is the internal current drawn away from the load because of the presence of the internal
source resistance. Thus the load will receive only part of the short-circuit current available from
the source. When the load resistance RL is zero, the load voltage vL goes to zero, and the load

RS iL iL Figure 1.2.4 Source-loading

+ +
effects.
+ vint −
+ iint
v vL RL i vL RL
− RS

Voltage source − Load Current source − Load

(a) (b)
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
children store up memories of childhood’s joys, nor does it prepare
them as men and women to make good use of the leisure gained by
shorter hours of labour.
The use of leisure has not, I think, been sufficiently considered
from a National point of view. It concerns the happiness, the health,
and also the wealth of the nation. If their leisure dissipates the
strength of men’s minds, leaves them the prey to stimulants, and at
the same time absorbs the wages of work, there is a continual loss,
which must at last be fatal. The children’s August holiday, with its
dullness and its dependence on chance excitements, prepares the
way for Beanfeasts where parties of men find nothing better to do
amid the beauty of the country than to throw stones at bottles, or
for the vulgar futilities of Margate sands, Hampstead Heath and the
music hall, or for the soul-numbing variety of sport.
The recent report issued by the London County Council tells the
result of an experiment in a better use of the holiday by means of
Vacation Schools. The word “School” may suggest restraint, and put
off some of my readers, who are apt to think of “heaven as a place
where there are no masters”. They will say, “Let the children alone”.
But they do not realize what “letting alone” means for children
whose homes have no resources in space or interests. They do not
remember that the schoolhouse is the Mansion of the
neighbourhood, and that the Vacation School curriculum includes
visits to the parks and to London sights, such as the Zoological
Gardens, Hampton Court, and the Natural History Museum; manual
occupations in which really useful things are made, painting and
cardboard modelling, by which the children’s own imaginations have
play; lessons on nature, illustrated by plants and by pictures,
readings from interesting books, about which the teachers are ready
to talk, and organized games. When relieved from the trouble of
having to choose at what to play, the children find untroubled
enjoyment. Vacation Schools thus understood have no terror, but let
the children themselves give evidence whether they prefer to be let
alone.
In a Battersea Vacation School there was an average attendance
of 91·6 per cent, and on one day 153 children out of 154 on the roll
voluntarily attended. “The high rate of actual attendance at the
Vacation Schools, which compares not unfavourably with that of the
ordinary day schools, in spite of the fact that compulsion is
completely absent from the former, may be taken as an indication
that the London child does not know what to do during the long
vacation, and is anxious and ready to take advantage of any
opportunity that may be afforded for work and play under conditions
more healthy and congenial than the street or his home can offer.”
In another school the teachers report: “We had been asked to do
our best to keep up the numbers. Our difficulty was to keep them
down.” “The discipline of the boys specially surprised the staff; a hint
of possible expulsion was quite sufficient in dealing with two or three
boys reported during the month.”
The children, by their attendance, give the best evidence that the
Vacation School is in their opinion a good way of spending a holiday
and the report gives greater detail as to the reason. The teachers
tell how “listless manners give place to animation and energy, and
how the tendency prevalent among the boys to loaf or aimlessly to
idle away their holidays was checked by the introduction of an
objective, the absence of which is chiefly responsible for the loafing
tendency. . . . The absence of restraint appears to lead to more
honourable and more thoughtful conduct, and little acts of courtesy
and politeness increased in frequency as the holidays drew to an
end. . . . Educationally the children benefit in increased manual
dexterity, by the creation of motive, the training of the powers of
observation, and the development of memory and imagination. . . .
In many cases . . . new capabilities were discovered, and talents
awakened by the more congenial surroundings. Some children, who
at first appeared dull and inattentive, brightened up and became
most interested in one or more of their varied occupations. . . .
Little chats on the Excursions revealed a marked widening of
outlook.”
In such testimony as this it is quite easy to find the reason why
the children so greatly enjoyed themselves. They had a variety of
new interests and they had the sense of “life” which comes in the
exercise of new capacities. They were never bored and they felt
well. The parents, whose burden during holidays is often forgotten,
seem to have expressed great appreciation at the provision for the
children’s care, and as for the teachers, one goes so far as to say
that “the kind of experience gained is a teacher’s liberal education
and training”.
The Report as a result of such testimony, naturally recommends
an extension of the plan of Vacation Schools, so that this summer a
greater number may be provided. I would, however, submit that the
testimony justifies something more thorough.
The proposals of the Report assume that holidays must fall in the
month of August. Now there are many parents whose occupation
keeps them in town during that month, and who cannot therefore
take their children to the country. August too, is the period when all
health resorts are most crowded and expensive. And lastly, if
holidays are taken only in this autumn season the country of the
spring and summer, with its haymaking, its flowers and its birds,
remains unknown to the children. The obvious change—so obvious
that one wonders why it has not long ago been adopted—is to let
some schools take their holidays in the months of June and July. But
I would myself suggest the best plan would be to keep all, or most,
of the school in session during the whole summer, establishing for
the three months a summer curriculum on the lines of those adopted
in the Vacation Schools. The children would then be able to go with
their friends, or through the Children’s Country Holiday Fund for
their Country Holiday without any interference with the regular
school regime; and all, while they were at home, would have those
resources in the school hours which have proved to be powerful to
attract them from the streets. The teachers, free at last to take some
of their holidays in June or July, would be able to benefit by the
lower charges, to get, perhaps, a recreative holiday in the Alps
instead of one at the English seaside in the somewhat stale
companionship of a party of fellow-teachers.
This more thorough plan would do for all London children
everything which Vacation Schools attempt, and it has the further
advantage that it would put refreshing country visits within the reach
of more children and teachers.
 Middle-class families recognize the necessity of an annual visit to
the sea or country, as a consequence of which great towns exist
almost wholly as holiday resorts. The necessity of the middle class is
much more the necessity of the working class, whose children have
less room in their houses and fewer interests for their leisure. A
pressure which cannot be resisted will insist that for their health’s
sake and for the child’s sake, who is the father of the man, the
children shall have each year the opportunity of breathing for at
least a fortnight country air, and of learning to be Nature’s
playmates. The only practicable way in which such holidays may be
provided is by the extension of the holiday period to include other
than the month of August.
The plan I have suggested would make such extension
practicable with the least possible interference with school work,
while it would secure for all children some guidance in the use and
enjoyment of the leisure, which the experiment of Vacation Schools
has proved to be so acceptable. That guidance, by widening
children’s minds and awakening their powers of taking notice, would
make the country visits more full of interests, and develop a love of
Nature, to be a valuable resource in later life. If the Council’s Report
succeeds in moving London opinion it may mark a new departure in
the use and enjoyment of holidays.
It almost seems as if the education given at such cost ran to
waste during the holidays. There is a call for another Charles Booth,
to make an inquiry into “the life and leisure of the people” which
might be as epoch-making as that into “the life and labour of the
people”. Such an inquiry would show, I believe, the need of
energetic effort if leisure is to be a source of strength and not of
weakness to national life, a way to recreation and not to
demoralization.

Samuel A. Barnett.
 RECREATION IN TOWN AND COUNTRY.[1]
Recreation and Character.

By Mrs. S. A. Barnett.

October, 1906.
1 A paper written for the Church Congress, and read at its meeting at
Barrow-in-Furness by the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Truro, the late C. W.
Stubbs.

A people’s play is a fair test of a people’s character. Men and women

in their hours of leisure show their real admiration and their inner
faith. Their “idle words,” in more than one sense, are those by which
they are judged.
No one who has reached an age from which he can overlook
fifteen or twenty years can doubt but that pleasure-seeking has
greatly increased. The railway statistics show that during the last
year more people have been taken to seaside and pleasure resorts
than ever before. On Bank Holidays a larger number travel, and
more and more facilities are annually offered for day trips and
evening entertainments.
The newspapers give many pages to recording games, pages
which are eagerly scanned even when, as in the case of the “Daily
News,” the betting on their results is omitted.
Face to face with these facts we need some principles to enable
us to advise this pleasure-seeking generation what to seek and what
to avoid. To arrive at principles one has to probe below the surface,
to seek the cause of the pleasure given by various amusements.
Briefly, what persons of all ages seek in pleasure is (1) excitement,
(2) interest, (3) memories. These are natural desires; no amount of
preaching or scolding, or hiding them away will abolish them. It is
the part of wisdom to recognize facts and use them for the uplifting
of human nature.
May I offer two principles for your consideration?
1. Pleasure, while offering excitement, should not depend on
excitement; it should not involve a fellow-creature’s loss or pain, nor
lay its foundation on greed or gain.
2. Pleasure should not only give enjoyment, it should also
increase capacities for enjoyment. It should strengthen a man’s
whole being, enrich memory and call forth effort.

The Quality of English Playing.

If these principles have a basis of truth, the questions arise, “Are

the common recreations of the people such as to encourage our
hope of English progress? Do they make us proud of the growth of
national character, and give us a ground of security for the high
place we all long that England shall hold in the future?” The country
may be lost as well as won on her playing fields.
Recreation means the refreshment of the sources of life. Routine
wears life, and “It is life of which our nerves are scant”. The
excitement which stirs the worn or sleeping centres of a man’s body,
mind or spirit, is the first step in such refreshment, but followed by
nothing else it defeats its own ends. It uses strength and creates
nothing, and if unmixed with what endures it can but leave the
partaker the poorer. The fire must be stirred, but unless fuel be
supplied the flames will soon sink in ashes.
It behoves us then to accept excitement as a necessary part of
recreation, and to seek to add to it those things which lead to
increased resources and leave purer memories. Such an addition is
skill. A wise manager of a boys’ refuge once said to me that it was
the first step upwards to induce a lad to play a game of skill instead
of a game of chance. Another such addition is co-operation, that is a
call on the receiver to give something. It is better for instance to
play a game than to watch a game. It may, perhaps, be helpful to
recall the principle, and let it test some of the popular pleasures.

Popular Pleasures.

Pleasure, while offering excitement, should not depend on

excitement; it should not involve a fellow-creature’s loss or pain, nor
lay its foundation on greed or gain.
This principle excludes the recreations which, like drink or
gambling, stir without feeding, or the pleasures which are blended
with the sorrows of the meanest thing that feels. It excludes also the
dull Museum which feeds without stirring, and makes no provision
for excitement. Tried by this standard, what is to be said of Margate,
Blackpool, and such popular resorts, with their ribald gaiety and
inane beach shows? Of music halls, where the entertainment was
described by Mr. Stead as the “most insufferable banality and
imbecility that ever fell upon human ears,” disgusting him not so
much for its immorality as by the vulgar stupidity of it all. Of racing,
the acknowledged interest of which is in the betting, a method of
self-enrichment by another’s impoverishment, which tends to sap the
very foundations of honesty and integrity; of football matches, which
thousands watch, often ignorant of the science of the game, but
captivated by the hope of winning a bet or by the spectacle of brutal
conflict; of monster school-treats or excursions, when numbers
engender such monopolizing excitement that all else which the
energetic curate or the good ladies have provided is ruthlessly
swallowed up; shooting battues, where skill and effort give place to
organization and cruelty; of plays, where the interest centres round
the breaking of the commandments and “fools make a mock of sin”.
Such pleasures may amuse for the time, but they fail to be
recreative in so far as they do not make life fuller, do not increase
the powers of admiration, hope and love; do not store the memory
to be “the bliss of solitude”. Of most of them it can be easily foretold
that the “crime of sense will be avenged by sense which wears with
time”. Such pleasures cannot lay the foundation for a glad old age.
 Does this sound as if all popular pleasures are to be condemned?
No! brought to the test of our second principle, there are whole
realms of pleasure-lands which the Christian can explore and
introduce to others, to the gladdening, deepening, and
strengthening of their lives. May I read the principle again?
Pleasure should not only give enjoyment, it should also increase
the capacity for enjoyment. It should strengthen a man’s whole
being, enrich memory and call forth effort and co-operation.
Music, games of skill, books, athletics, foreign travel, cycling,
walking tours, sailing, photography, picture galleries, botanical
rambles, antiquarian researches, and many other recreations too
numerous to mention call out the growth of the powers, as well as
feed what exists; they excite active as well as passive emotions;
they enlist the receiver as a co-operator; they allow the pleasure-
seekers to feel the joy of being the creating children of a creating
God.
As we consider the subject, the chasm between right and wrong
pleasures, worthy and unworthy recreations, seems to become
deeper and broader, often though crossed by bridges of human
effort, triumphs of dexterity, evidences of skill wrought by patient
practice, which, though calling for no thought in the spectator, yet
rouses his admiration and provides standards of executive
excellence, albeit directed in regrettable channels.
Still, broadly, recreations may be divided between those which
call for effort, and therefore make towards progress, and those
which breed idleness and its litter of evils; but (and this is the
inherent difficulty for reformers) the mass of the people, rich and
poor alike, will not make efforts, and as the “Times” once so
admirably put it—“They preach to each other the gospel of idleness
and call it the gospel of recreation”.
The mass, however, is our concern. Those idle rich, who seek
their stimulus in competitive expenditure; those ignorant poor, who
turn to the examples of brute force for their pleasure; those
destructive classes, whose delight is in slaying or eliminating space;
they are all alike in being content to be “Vacant of our glorious
gains, like a beast with lower pleasures, like a beast with lower
pains”.

Our Church and Recreation.

What can the clergymen and the clergy women do? It is not easy
to reply, but there are some things they need not do. They need not
promote monster treats, they need not mistake excitement for
pleasure, and call their day’s outing a “huge success,” because it was
accompanied by much noise and the running hither and thither of
excited children; they need not use their Institutes and Schoolrooms
to compete with the professional entertainer, and feel a glow of
satisfaction because a low programme and a low price resulted in a
full room; they need not accept the people’s standard for songs and
recitations, and think they have “had a capital evening,” when the
third-rate song is clapped, or the comic reading or dramatic scene
appreciated by vulgar minds. Oh! the waste of curates’ time and
brain in such “parish work”. How often it has left me mourning.
What the clergymen and women can do is to show the people
that they have other powers within them for enjoyment, that effort
promotes pleasure, and that the use of limbs, with (not instead of)
brains, and of imagination, can be made sources of joy for
themselves and refreshment for others. Too often, toys, playthings,
or appliances of one sort or another are considered necessary for
pleasure both of the young and the mature. Might we not
concentrate efforts to provide recreation on those methods which
show how people can enjoy themselves, their own powers and
capacities? Such powers need cultivation as much as the powers of
bread-winning, and they include observation and criticism. “What did
you think of it?” should be asked more frequently than “How did you
like it?” The curiosity of children (so often wearying to their elders)
is a natural quality which might be directed to observation of the
wonders of Nature, and to the conclusion of a story other than its
author conceived.
 “From change to change unceasingly, the soul’s wings never
furled,” wrote Browning; and change brings food and growth to the
soul; but the limits of interest must be extended to allow of the flight
of the soul, and interests are often, in all classes, woefully restricted.
It is no change for a blind man to be taken to a new view. Christ had
to open the eyes of the blind before they could see God’s fair world,
and in a lesser degree we may open the eyes of the born blind to
see the hidden glories lying unimagined in man and Nature. In
friendship also there are sources of recreation which the clergy could
do much to foster and strengthen, and the introduction and
opportunities which allow of the cultivation of friendship between
persons of all classes with a common interest, is peculiarly one
which parsons have opportunities to develop.
And last but not least, there are the joys which come from the
cultivation of a garden—joys which continue all the year round, and
which can be shared by every member of the family of every age.
These might be more widely spread in town as well as country.
Municipalities, Boards of Guardians, School Managers, and private
owners often have both the control of people and land. If the Church
would influence them, more children and more grown-ups might get
health and pleasure on the land. I must not entrench on the subject
of Garden Cities and Garden Suburbs—but the two subjects can be
linked together, inasmuch as the purest, deepest, and most
recreative of pleasures can be found in the gardens which are the
distinctive feature of the new cities and suburbs.

The Clergy and the Press.

If the clergy knew more of the people’s pleasures they would

yearn more over their erring flocks and talk more on present-day
subjects. Take horse-racing for instance, who can defend it? Who
can find one good result of it, and its incalculable evils of betting,
lying, cheating, drinking? Yet the clergy are strangely loth to
condemn it! Is it because King Edward VII (God bless him for his
love of peace) encourages the Turf? The King has again and again
shown his care for his people’s good, and maybe he would modify
his actions—and the world would follow his lead—if the Church
would speak out and condemn this baneful national pleasure.
It is not for me to preach to the clergy, but they have so often
preached to me to my edification, that I would in gratitude give
them in return an exhortation; and so I beg you good men to give
more thought to the people’s pleasures; and then give guidance
from the Pulpit and the Press concerning them.

Henrietta O. Barnett.
 SECTION III.

SETTLEMENTS.

Settlements of University Men in Great Towns—Twenty-one Years of University

Settlements—The Beginning of Toynbee Hall.

SETTLEMENTS OF UNIVERSITY MEN IN GREAT

TOWNS.[1]
By Canon Barnett.
1 A paper read at a meeting in the rooms of Mr. Sidney Ball at St. John’s
College, Oxford, November, 1883.

“Something must be done” is the comment which follows the tale of

how the poor live. Those who make the comment have, however,
their business—their pieces of ground to see, their oxen to prove,
their wives to consider, and so there is among them a general
agreement that the “Something” must be done by Law or by
Societies. “What can I do?” is a more healthy comment, and it is a
sign of the times that this question is being widely asked, and by
none more eagerly than by members of the Universities.
Undergraduates and graduates, long before the late outcry, had
become conscious that social conditions were not right, and that
they themselves were called to do something. It is nine years since
four or five Oxford undergraduates chose to spend part of their
vacation in East London, working as Charity Organization Agents,
becoming members of clubs, and teaching in classes or schools. It is
long since a well-known Oxford man said, “The great work of our
time is to connect centres of learning with centres of industry”.
Freshmen have become fellows, since the Master of Balliol
recommended his hearers, at a small meeting in the College Hall, to
“find their friends among the poor”.
Thus slowly has men’s attention been drawn to consider the
social condition of our great towns. The revelations of recent
pamphlets have fallen on ears prepared to hear. The fact that the
wealth of England means only wealth in England, and that the mass
of the people live without knowledge, without hope, and often
without health has come home to open minds and consciences. If
inquiry has shown that statements have been exaggerated, and the
blame badly directed, it is nevertheless evident that the best is the
privilege of the few, and that the Gospel—God’s message to this age
—does not reach the poor. A workman’s wages cannot procure for
him the knowledge which means fullness of life, or the leisure in
which he might “possess his soul”. Hardly by saving can he lay up for
old age, and only by charity can he get the care of a skilled
physician. If it be thus with the first-class workman, the case of the
casual labourer, whose strength of mind and body is consumed by
anxiety, must be almost intolerable. Statistics, which show the
number in receipt of poor relief, the families which occupy single
rooms, the death rate in poor quarters, make a “cry” which it needs
no words to express.
The thought of the condition of the people has made a strange
stirring in the calm life of the Universities, and many men feel
themselves driven by a new spirit, possessed by a master idea. They
are eager in their talk and in their inquiries, and they ask “What can
we do to help the poor?”
A College Mission naturally suggests itself as a form in which the
idea should take shape. It seems as if all the members of a college
might unite in helping the poor, by adopting a district in a great
town, finding for it a clergyman and associating themselves in his
work.
A Mission, however, has necessarily its limitations.
The clergyman begins with a hall into which he gathers a
congregation, and which he uses as a centre for “Mission” work. He
himself is the only link between the college and the poor. He gives
frequent reports of his progress, and enlists such personal help as
he can, always keeping it in mind that the “district” is destined to
become a “parish”. Many districts thus created in East London now
take their places among the regular parishes, and the income of the
clergyman is paid by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, the patronage
of the living is probably with the Bishop, and the old connexion has
become simply a matter of history. Apart from the doubt whether
this multiplication of parochial organizations, with its consequent
division of interests, represents a wise policy, it is obvious that a
college mission does not wholly cover the idea which possessed the
college. The social spirit fulfils itself in many ways, and no one form
is adequate to its total expression.
The idea was that all members of the college should unite in
good work. A college mission excludes Nonconformists. “Can we do
nothing,” complained one, “as we cannot join in building a church?”
The idea was to bring to bear the life of the University on the life
of the poor. The tendency of a mission is to limit efforts within the
recognized parochial machinery. “Can I help,” I am often asked, “in
social work, which is not necessarily connected with your church or
creed?” A college mission may—as many missions have done—result
in bringing devoted workers to the service of the poor—where a
good man leads, good must follow—but it is not, I think, the form
best fitted to receive the spirit which is at present moving the
Universities.
As a form more adequate, I would suggest a Settlement of
University men in the midst of some great industrial centre.
In East London large houses are often to be found; they were
formerly the residences of the wealthy, but are now let out in
tenements or as warehouses. Such a house, affording sufficient
sleeping rooms and large reception rooms, might be taken by a
college, fitted with furniture, and (it may be) associated with its
name. As director or head, some graduate might be appointed, a
man of the right spirit, trusted by all parties; qualified by character
to guide men, and by education to teach. He would be maintained
by the college just as the clergyman of the mission district. Around
such a man graduates and undergraduates would gather. Some
working in London as curates, barristers, government clerks, medical
students, or business men would be glad to make their home in the
house for long periods. They would find there less distraction and
more interest than in a West-End lodging. Others engaged
elsewhere would come to spend some weeks or months of the
vacation, taking up such work as was possible, touching with their
lives the lives of the poor, and learning for themselves facts which
would revolutionize their minds. There would be, of course, a
graduated scale of payment so as to suit the means of the various
settlers, but the scale would have to be so fixed as to cover the
expense of board and lodging.
Let it, however, be assumed that the details have been arranged,
and that, under a wise director, a party of University men have
settled in East London. The director—welcomed here, as University
men are always welcomed—will have opened relations with the
neighbouring clergy, and with the various charitable agencies; he will
have found out the clubs and centres of social life, and he will have
got some knowledge of the bodies engaged in local government. His
large rooms will have been offered for classes, directed by the
University Extension or Popular Concert Societies, and for meetings
of instruction or entertainment. He will have thus won the reputation
of a man with something to give, who is willing to be friendly with
his neighbours. At once he will be able to introduce the settlers to
duties, which will mean introductions to friendships. Those to whom
it is given to know the high things of God, he will introduce to the
clergy, who will guide them to find friends among those who, in
trouble and sickness, will listen to a life-giving message. Honour men
have confessed that they have found a key to life in teaching the
Bible to children, and not once nor twice has it happened that old
truths have seemed to take new meaning when spoken by a man
brought fresh from Oxford to face the poor. Those with the passion
for righteousness the director will bring face to face with the victims
of sin. In the degraded quarters of the town, in the wards of the
workhouses, they will find those to whom the friendship of the pure
is strange, and who are to be saved only by the mercy which can be
angry as well as pitiful. As I write, I recall one who was brought to
us by an undergraduate out of a wretched court, overwhelmed by
the look and words of his young enthusiasm. I recall another who
was taken from the police court by a Cambridge man, put to an
Industrial School, and is now touchingly grateful, not to him, but to
God for the service. Some, whose spare time is in the day, will
become visitors for the Charity Organization Society, Managers of
Industrial and Public Elementary Schools, Members of the
Committees which direct Sanitary, Shoe Black, and other Societies,
and in these positions form friendships, which to officials, weary of
the dull routine, will let in light, and to the poor, fearful of law, will
give strength. Others who can spare time only in the evening will
teach classes, join clubs, and assist in Co-operative and Friendly
Societies, and they will, perhaps, be surprised to find that they know
so much that is useful when they see the interest their talk arouses.
In one club, I know, whist ceases to be attractive when the
gentleman is not there to talk. There are friendly societies worked by
artisans, which owe their success to the inspiration of University
men, and there is one branch of the Charity Organization Society
which still keeps the mark impressed on it, when a man of culture
did the lowest work.
The elder settlers will, perhaps, take up official positions. If they
could be qualified, they might be Vestry-men and Guardians, or they
might qualify themselves to become Schoolmasters. What University
men can do in local government is written on the face of parishes
redeemed from the demoralizing influence of out-relief, and cleansed
by well-administered law. Further reforms are already seen to be
near, but it has not entered into men’s imaginations to conceive the
change for good which might be wrought if men of culture would
undertake the education of the people. The younger settlers will
always find occupation day or night in playing with the boys, taking
them in the daytime to open spaces, or to visit London sights,
amusing them in the evening with games and songs. Unconsciously,
they will set up a higher standard of man’s life, and through
friendship will commend to these boys respect for manhood, honour
for womanhood, reverence for God. Work of such kind will be
abundant, and, as it must result in the settlers forming many
acquaintances, the large rooms of the house will be much used for
receptions. Parties will be frequent, and whatever be the form of
entertainment provided, be it books or pictures, lectures or reading,
dancing or music, the guests will find that their pleasure lies in
intercourse. Social pleasure is unknown to those who have no large
rooms and no place for common meeting. The parties of the
Settlement will thus be attractive just in so far as they are useful.
The more means of intercourse they offer, the more will they be
appreciated. The pleasure which binds all together will give force to
every method of good-doing, be it the words of the preacher, spoken
to the crowd, hushed, perhaps, by the presence of death, or be it
the laughter-making tale told during the Saturday ramble in the
country.
If something like this is to be the work of a College Settlement,
“How far,” it may be asked, “is it adequate to the hope of the college
to do something for the poor?” Obviously, it affords an outlet for
every form of earnestness. No man—call himself what he may—need
be excluded from the service of the poor on account of his views. No
talent, be it called spiritual or secular, need be lost on account of its
unfitness to existing machinery. If there be any virtue, if there be
any good in man, whatsoever is beautiful, whatsoever is pure in
things will find a place in the Settlement.
There is yet a fuller answer to the question. A Settlement enables
men to live within sight of the poor. Many a young man would be
saved from selfishness if he were allowed at once to translate feeling
into action. It is the facility for talk, and the ready suggestion that a
money gift is the best relief, which makes some dread lest, after this
awakening of interest, there may follow a deeper sleep. He who has,
even for a month, shared the life of the poor can never again rest in
his old thoughts. If with these obvious advantages, a Settlement
seems to want that something which association with religious forms
gives to the mission, I can only say that such association does not
make work religious, if the workers have not its spirit. If the director
be such a man as I can imagine, and if there be any truth in the
saying that “Every one that loveth knoweth God,” then it must be
that the work of settlers, inspired and guided by love, will be
religious. The man in East London, who is the simplest worker for
God I know, has added members to many churches, and has no sect
or church of his own. The true religious teacher is he who makes
known God to man. God is manifest to every age by that which is
the Best of the age. The modern representatives of those who
healed diseases, taught the ignorant, and preached the Gospel to
the poor, are those who make common the Best which can be
known or imagined. Christ the Son of God is still the “Christ which is
to be”—and even through our Best He will be but darkly seen.
That such work as I have described would be useful in East
London, I myself have no doubt. The needs of East London are often
urged, but they are little understood. Its inhabitants are at one
moment assumed to be well paid workmen, who will get on if they
are left to themselves; at another, they are assumed to be outcasts,
starving for the necessaries of living. It is impossible but that
misunderstanding should follow ignorance, and at the present
moment the West-End is ignorant of the East-End. The want of that
knowledge which comes only from the sight of others’ daily life, and
from sympathy with “the joys and sorrows in widest commonalty
spread,” is the source of the mistaken charity which has done much
to increase the hardness of the life of the poor.
The much-talked of East London is made up of miles of mean
streets, whose inhabitants are in no want of bread or even of better
houses; here and there are the courts now made familiar by
descriptions. They are few in number, and West-End visitors who
have come to visit their “neighbours” confess themselves—with a
strange irony on their motives—“disappointed that the people don’t
look worse”.
The settlers will find themselves related to two distinct classes of
“the poor,” and it will be well if they keep in mind the fact that they
must serve both those who, like the artisans, need the necessaries
for life, and also those who, like casual labourers, need the
necessaries for livelihood. They will not of course come believing
that their Settlement will make the wicked good, the dull glad, and
the poor rich, but they may be assured that results will follow the
sympathy born of close neighbourhood. It will be something, if they
are able to give to a few the higher thoughts in which men’s minds
can move, to suggest other forms of recreation, and to open a view
over the course of the river of life as it flows to the Infinite Sea. It
will be something if they create among a few a distaste for dirt and
disorder, if they make some discontented with their degrading
conditions, if they leaven public opinion with the belief that the law
which provides cleanliness, light and order should be applied equally
in all quarters of the town. It will be something, if thus they give to
the one class the ideal of life, and stir up in the other those feelings
of self-respect, without which increased means of livelihood will be
useless. It will be more if to both classes they can show that
selfishness or sin is the only really bad thing, and that the best is not
“too good for human nature’s daily food”. Nothing that is divine is
alien to man, and nothing which can be learnt at the University is
too good for East London.
Many have been the schemes of reform I have known, but, out
of eleven years’ experience, I would say that none touches the root
of the evil which does not bring helper and helped into friendly
relations. Vain will be higher education, music, art, or even the
Gospel, unless they come clothed in the life of brother men—“it took
the Life to make God known”. Vain, too, will be sanitary legislation
and model dwellings, unless the outcast are by friendly hands
brought in one by one to habits of cleanliness and order, to thoughts
of righteousness and peace. “What will save East London?” asked
one of our University visitors of his master. “The destruction of West
London” was the answer, and, in so far as he meant the abolition of
the influences which divide rich and poor, the answer was right. Not
until the habits of the rich are changed, and they are again content
to breathe the same air and walk the same streets as the poor, will
East London be “saved”. Meantime a Settlement of University men
will do a little to remove the inequalities of life, as the settlers share
their best with the poor and learn through feeling how they live. It
was by residence among the poor that Edward Denison learned the
lessons which have taken shape in the new philanthropy of our days.
It was by visiting in East London that Arnold Toynbee fed the
interest which in later years became such a force at Oxford. It was
around a University man, who chose to live as our neighbour, that a
group of East Londoners gathered, attracted by the hope of learning
something and held together after five years by the joy which
learning gives. Men like Mr. Goschen and Professor Huxley have
lately spoken out their belief that the intercourse of the highest with
the lowest is the only solution of the social problem.
Settlers may thus join the Settlement, looking back to the
example of others and to the opinions of the wise—looking forward
to the grandest future which has risen on the horizon of hope. It
may not be theirs to see the future realized, but it is theirs to cheer
themselves with the thought of the time when the disinherited sons
of God shall be received into their Father’s house, when the poor will
know the Higher Life as it is being revealed to those who watch by
the never silent spirit, when daily drudgery will be irradiated with
eternal thought, when neither wealth nor poverty will hinder men in
their pursuit of the Perfect life, because everything which is Best will
be made in love common to all.

Samuel A. Barnett.
This paper was reprinted in February, 1884, when the following words and
names were added.
The following members of the University have undertaken to receive the names
of any graduates or undergraduates who feel disposed to join a “Settlement”
shortly or at any future time:—

The Rev. the Master of University.

The Hon. and Rev. W. H. Fremantle, Balliol.
A. Robinson, Esq., New College.
A. H. D. Acland, Esq., Christ Church.
A. Sidgwick, Esq., C.C.C.
W. H. Forbes, Esq., Balliol.
 A. L. Smith, Esq., Balliol.
T. H. Warren, Esq., Magdalen.
S. Ball, Esq., St. John’s.
C. E. Dawkins, Esq., Balliol.
B. King, Esq., Balliol.
M. E. Sadler, Esq., Trinity.
H. D. Leigh, Esq., New College.
G. C. Lang, Esq., Balliol.

Names should be sent in as soon as possible.

Oxford, Feb., 1884.
 THE BEGINNINGS OF TOYNBEE HALL.[1]
By Mrs. S. A. Barnett.

1903.
1 From “Towards Social Reform”. By kind permission of Messrs. Fisher
Unwin.

“How did the idea of a University Settlement arise?” “What was the
beginning?” are questions so often asked by Americans, Frenchmen,
Belgians, or the younger generations of earnest English people, that
it seems worth while to reply in print, and to trundle one’s mind back
to those early days of effort and loneliness before so many bore the
burden and shared the anxiety. The fear is that in putting pen to
paper on matters which are so closely bound up with our own lives,
the sin of egotism will be committed, or that a special plant, which is
still growing, may be damaged, as even weeds are if their roots are
looked at. And yet in the tale which has to be told there is so much
that is gladdening and strengthening to those who are fighting
apparently forlorn causes that I venture to tell it in the belief that to
some our experiences will give hope.
In the year 1869, Mr. Edward Denison took up his abode in East
London. He did not stay long nor accomplish much, but as he
breathed the air of the people he absorbed something of their
sufferings, saw things from their standpoint, and, as his letters in his
memoirs show, made frequent suggestions for social remedies. He
was the first settler, and was followed by the late Mr. Edmund
Hollond, to whom my husband and I owe our life in Whitechapel. He
was ever on the outlook for men and women who cared for the
people, and hearing that we wished to come Eastward, wrote to Dr.
Jackson, then Bishop of London, when the living of St. Jude’s fell
vacant in the autumn of 1872, and asked that it might be offered to
Mr. Barnett, who was at that time working as Curate at St. Mary’s,
Bryanston Square, with Mr. Fremantle, now the Dean of Ripon. I
have the Bishop’s letter, wise, kind and fatherly, the letter of a
general sending a young captain to a difficult outpost. “Do not hurry
in your decision,” he wrote, “it is the worst parish in my diocese,
inhabited mainly by a criminal population, and one which has I fear
been much corrupted by doles”.
How well I remember the day Mr. Barnett and I first came to see
it!—a sulky sort of drizzle filled the atmosphere; the streets, dirty
and ill kept, were crowded with vicious and bedraggled people,
neglected children, and overdriven cattle. The whole parish was a
network of courts and alleys, many houses being let out in furnished
rooms at 8d. a night—a bad system, which lent itself to every form
of evil, to thriftless habits, to untidiness, to loss of self-respect, to
unruly living, to vicious courses.
We did not “hurry in our decision,” but just before Christmas,
1872, Mr. Barnett became vicar. A month later we were married, and
took up our life-work on 6 March, 1873, accompanied by our friend
Edward Leonard, who joined us, “to do what he could”; his “could”
being ultimately the establishment of the Whitechapel Committee of
the Charity Organization Society, and a change in the lives and ideals
of a large number of young people, whom he gathered round him to
hear of the Christ he worshipped.
It would sound like exaggeration if I told my memories of those
times. The previous vicar had had a long and disabling illness, and
all was out of order. The church, unserved by either curate, choir, or
officials, was empty, dirty, unwarmed. Once the platform of popular
preachers, Mr. Hugh Allen, and Mr. (now Bishop) Thornton, it had
had huge galleries built to accommodate the crowds who came from
all parts of London to hear them—galleries which blocked the light,
and made the subsequent emptiness additionally oppressive. The
schools were closed, the schoolrooms all but devoid of furniture, the
parish organization nil; no Mothers’ meeting, no Sunday School, no
communicants’ class, no library, no guilds, no music, no classes,
nothing alive. Around this barren empty shell surged the people,
here to-day, gone to-morrow. Thieves and worse, receivers of stolen
goods, hawkers, casual dock labourers, every sort of unskilled low-
class cadger congregated in the parish. There was an Irish quarter
and a Jews’ quarter, while whole streets were given over to the
hangers-on of a vicious population, people whose conduct was
brutal, whose ideal was idleness, whose habits were disgusting, and
among whom goodness was laughed at, the honest man and the
right-living woman being scorned as impracticable. Robberies,
assaults, and fights in the street were frequent; and to me, a born
coward, it grew into a matter of distress when we became
sufficiently well known in the parish for our presence to stop, or at
least to moderate, a fight; for then it seemed a duty to join the
crowd, and not to follow one’s nervous instincts and pass by on the
other side. I recall one breakfast being disturbed by three fights
outside the Vicarage. We each went to one, and the third was
hindered by a hawker friend who had turned verger, and who
fetched the distant policeman, though he evidently remained
doubtful as to the value of interference.
We began our work very quietly and simply: opened the church
(the first congregation was made up of six or seven old women, all
expecting doles for coming), restarted the schools, established relief
committees, organized parish machinery, and tried to cauterise, if
not to cure, the deep cancer of dependence which was embedded in
all our parishioners alike, lowering the best among them and
degrading the worst. At all hours, and on all days, and with every
possible pretext, the people came and begged. To them we were
nothing but the source from which to obtain tickets, money, or food;
and so confident were they that help would be forthcoming that they
would allow themselves to get into circumstances of suffering or
distress easily foreseen, and then send round and demand
assistance.
I can still recall my emotions when summoned to a sick woman
in Castle Alley, an alley long since pulled down, where the houses,
three stories high, were hardly six feet apart; the sanitary
accommodation—pits in the cellars; and the whole place only fit for
the condemnation it got directly Cross’s Act was passed. This alley,
by the way, was in part the cause of Cross’s Act, so great an
impression did it make on Lord Cross (then Mr. Cross) when Mr.
Barnett induced him to come down and see it.
In this stinking alley, in a tiny dirty room, all the windows broken
and stuffed up, lay the woman who had sent for me. There were no
bedclothes; she lay on a sacking covered with rags.
“I do not know you,” said I, “but I hear you want to see me.”
“No, ma’am!” replied a fat beer-sodden woman by the side of the
bed, producing a wee, new-born baby; “we don’t know yer, but ’ere’s
the babby, and in course she wants clothes, and the mother
comforts like. So we jist sent round to the church.”
This was a compliment to the organization which represented
Christ, but one which showed how sunken was the character which
could not make even the simplest provision for an event which must
have been expected for months, and which even the poorest among
the respectable counts sacred.
The refusal of the demanded doles made the people very angry.
Once the Vicarage windows were broken, once we were stoned by
an angry crowd, who also hurled curses at us as we walked down a
criminal-haunted street, and howled out as a climax to their wrongs
“And it’s us as pays ’em”. But we lived all this down, and as the years
went by reaped a harvest of love and gratitude which is one of the
gladdest possessions of our lives, and is quite disproportionate to
the service we have rendered. But this is the end of the story, and I
must go back to the beginning.
In a parish which occupies only a few acres, and was inhabited
by 8,000 persons, we were confronted by some of the hardest
problems of city life. The housing of the people, the superfluity of
unskilled labour, the enforcement of resented education, the liberty
of the criminal classes to congregate and create a low public
opinion, the administration of the Poor Law, the amusement of the
ignorant, the hindrances to local government (in a neighbourhood
devoid of the leisured and cultured), the difficulty of uniting the
unskilled men and women, in trade unions, the necessity for stricter
Factory Acts, the joylessness of the masses, the hopefulness of the
young—all represented difficult problems, each waiting for a solution
and made more complicated by the apathy of the poor, who were
content with an unrighteous contentment and patient with an
ungodly patience. These were not the questions to be replied to by
doles, nor could the problem be solved by kind acts to individuals
nor by the healing of the suffering, which was but the symptom of
the disease.
In those days these difficulties were being dealt with mainly by
good kind women, generally elderly; few men, with the exception of
the clergy and noted philanthropists, as Lord Shaftesbury, were
interested in the welfare of the poor, and economists rarely joined
close experience with their theories.
“If men, cultivated, young, thinking men, could only know of
these things they would be altered,” I used to say, with girlish faith
in human goodwill—a faith which years has not shaken; and in the
spring of 1875 we went to Oxford, partly to tell about the poor,
partly to enjoy “eights week” with a group of young friends. Our
party was planned by Miss Toynbee, whom I had met when at
school, and whose brother Arnold was then an undergraduate at
Pembroke. Our days were filled with the hospitality with which
Oxford still rejoices its guests; but in the evenings we used to drop
quietly down the river with two or three earnest men, or sit long and
late in our lodgings in the Turl, and discuss the mighty problems of
poverty and the people.
How vividly Canon Barnett and I can recall each and all of the
first group of “thinking men,” so ready to take up enthusiasms in
their boyish strength—Arnold Toynbee, Sidney Ball, W. H. Forbes,
Arthur Hoare, Leonard Montefiore, Alfred Milner, Philip Gell, John
Falk, G. E. Underhill, Ralph Whitehead, Lewis Nettleship! Some of
these are still here, and caring for our people, but others have
passed behind the veil, where perhaps earth’s sufferings are
explicable.
We used to ask each undergraduate as he developed interest to
come and stay in Whitechapel, and see for himself. And they came,
some to spend a few weeks, some for the Long Vacation, while
others, as they left the University and began their life’s work, took
lodgings in East London, and felt all the fascination of its strong
pulse of life, hearing, as those who listen always may, the hushed,
unceasing moans underlying the cry which ever and anon makes
itself heard by an unheeding public.
From that first visit to Oxford in the “eights week” of 1875, date
many visits to both the Universities. Rarely a term passed without
our going to Oxford, where the men who had been down to East
London introduced us to others who might do as they had done.
Sometimes we stayed with Dr. Jowett, the immortal Master of Balliol,
sometimes we were the guests of the undergraduates, who would
get up meetings in their rooms, and organize innumerable
breakfasts, teas, river excursions, and other opportunities for
introducing the subject of the duty of the cultured to the poor and
degraded.
No organization was started, no committee, no society, no club
formed. We met men, told them of the needs of the out-of-sight
poor; and many came to see Whitechapel and stayed to help it. And
so eight years went by—our Oxford friends laughingly calling my
husband the “unpaid professor of social philosophy”.
In June, 1883, we were told by Mr. Moore Smith that some men
at St. John’s College at Cambridge were wishful to do something for
the poor, but that they were not quite prepared to start an ordinary
College Mission. Mr. Barnett was asked to suggest some other
possible and more excellent way. The letter came as we were leaving
for Oxford, and was slipped with others in my husband’s pocket.
Soon something went wrong with the engine and delayed the train
so long that the passengers were allowed to get out. We seated
ourselves on the railway bank, just then glorified by masses of large
ox-eyed daisies, and there he wrote a letter suggesting that men
might hire a house, where they could come for short or long periods,
and, living in an industrial quarter, learn to “sup sorrow with the
poor”. The letter pointed out that close personal knowledge of
individuals among the poor must precede wise legislation for
remedying their needs, and that as English local government was
based on the assumption of a leisured cultivated class, it was
necessary to provide it artificially in those regions where the line of
leisure was drawn just above sleeping hours, and where the
education ended at thirteen years of age and with the three R’s.
That letter founded Toynbee Hall. Insomnia had sapped my
health for a long time, and later, in the autumn of that year, we were
sent to Eaux Bonnes to try a water-cure. During that period the
Cambridge letter was expanded into a paper, which was read at a
college meeting at St. John’s College, Oxford, in November of the
same year. Mr. Arthur Sidgwick was present, and it is largely due to
his practical vigour that the idea of University Settlements in the
industrial working-class quarters of large towns fell not only on
sympathetic ears, but was guided until it came to fruition. The first
meeting of undergraduates met in the room of Mr. Cosmo Lang now
(1908), about to become Archbishop of York. Soon after the meeting
a small but earnest committee was formed; later on the committee
grew in size and importance, money was obtained on debenture
bonds, and a Head sought who would turn the idea into a fact. Here
was the difficulty. Such men as had been pictured in the paper which
Mr. Knowles had published in the “Nineteenth Century Review” of
February, 1884, are not met with every-day; and no inquiries
seemed to discover the wanted man who would be called upon to
give all and expect nothing.
Mr. Barnett and I had spent eleven years of life and work in
Whitechapel. We were weary. My health stores were limited and
often exhausted, and family circumstances had given us larger
means and opportunities for travel. We were therefore desirous to
turn our backs on the strain, the pain, the passion and the poverty
of East London, at least for a year or two, and take repose after
work which had aged and weakened us. But no other man was to be
found who would and could do the work; and, if this child-thought
was not to die, it looked as if we must undertake to try and rear it.
We went to the Mediterranean to consider the matter, and
solemnly, on a Sunday morning, made our decision. How well I recall
the scene as we sat at the end of the quaint harbour-pier at
Mentone, the blue waves dancing at our feet, everything around
scintillating with light and movement in contrast to the dull and
dulling squalor of the neighbourhood which had been our home for
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