Music

Music is the arrangement of sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody,
rhythm, or otherwise expressive content.[1][2][3] Music is generally agreed to be a cultural
universal that is present in all human societies.[4] Definitions of music vary widely in substance
and approach.[5] While scholars agree that music is defined by a small number of specific
elements, there is no consensus as to what these necessary elements are.[6] Music is often
characterized as a highly versatile medium for expressing human creativity.[7] Diverse
activities are involved in the creation of music, and are often divided into categories of
composition, improvisation, and performance.[8] Music may be performed using a wide
variety of musical instruments, including the human voice. It can also be composed,
sequenced, or otherwise produced to be indirectly played mechanically or electronically, such
as via a music box, barrel organ, or digital audio workstation software on a computer.

Grooved side of the Voyager Golden

Record launched along the Voyager
probes to space, which feature music
from around the world

Music often plays a key role in social events and religious ceremonies. The techniques of
making music are often transmitted as part of a cultural tradition. Music is played in public
and private contexts, highlighted at events such as festivals and concerts for various different
types of ensembles. Music is used in the production of other media, such as in soundtracks to
films, TV shows, operas, and video games.

Listening to music is a common means of entertainment. The culture surrounding music

extends into areas of academic study, journalism, philosophy, psychology, and therapy. The
music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour
organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and publishers of sheet music and
recordings. Technology facilitating the recording and reproduction of music has historically
included sheet music, microphones, phonographs, and tape machines, with playback of
digital musics being a common use for MP3 players, CD players, and smartphones.

Etymology and terminology

In Greek mythology, the nine Muses were the inspiration for

many creative endeavors, including the arts, and eventually
became closely aligned with music specifically.

The modern English word 'music' came into use in the 1630s.[9] It is derived from a long line of
successive precursors: the Old English 'musike' of the mid-13th century; the Old French
musique of the 12th century; and the Latin mūsica.[10][7][n 1] The Latin word itself derives from
the Ancient Greek mousiké (technē)—μουσική (τέχνη)—literally meaning "(art) of the
Muses".[10][n 2] The Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek mythology who presided over
the arts and sciences.[13][14] They were included in tales by the earliest Western authors,
Homer and Hesiod,[15] and eventually came to be associated with music specifically.[14] Over
time, Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently than the other muses.[11] The
Latin word musica was also the originator for both the Spanish música and French musique
via spelling and linguistic adjustment, though other European terms were probably loanwords,
including the Italian musica, German Musik, Dutch muziek, Norwegian musikk, Polish muzyka
and Russian muzïka.[14]

The modern Western world usually defines music as an all-encompassing term used to
describe diverse genres, styles, and traditions.[16] This is not the case worldwide, and
languages such as modern Indonesian (musik) and Shona (musakazo) have recently adopted
words to reflect this universal conception, as they did not have words that fit exactly the
Western scope.[14] Before Western contact in East Asia, neither Japan nor China had a single
word that encompasses music in a broad sense, but culturally, they often regarded music in
such a fashion.[17] The closest word to mean music in Chinese, yue, shares a character with
le, meaning joy, and originally referred to all the arts before narrowing in meaning.[17] Africa is
too diverse to make firm generalizations, but the musicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia has
emphasized African music's often inseparable connection to dance and speech in general.[18]
Some African cultures, such as the Songye people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
and the Tiv people of Nigeria, have a strong and broad conception of 'music' but no
corresponding word in their native languages.[18] Other words commonly translated as 'music'
often have more specific meanings in their respective cultures: the Hindi word for music,
sangita, properly refers to art music,[19] while the many Indigenous languages of the Americas
have words for music that refer specifically to song but describe instrumental music
regardless.[20] Though the Arabic musiqi can refer to all music, it is usually used for
instrumental and metric music, while khandan identifies vocal and improvised music.[21]

History

Origins and prehistory

Bone flute from

Geissenklösterle,
Germany, dated around
c. 43,150–39,370
BP.[22]

It is often debated to what extent the origins of music will ever be understood,[23] and there
are competing theories that aim to explain it.[24] Many scholars highlight a relationship
between the origin of music and the origin of language, and there is disagreement
surrounding whether music developed before, after, or simultaneously with language.[25] A
similar source of contention surrounds whether music was the intentional result of natural
selection or was a byproduct spandrel of evolution.[25] The earliest influential theory was
proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871, who stated that music arose as a form of sexual
selection, perhaps via mating calls.[26] Darwin's original perspective has been heavily
criticized for its inconsistencies with other sexual selection methods,[27] though many
scholars in the 21st century have developed and promoted the theory.[28] Other theories
include that music arose to assist in organizing labor, improving long-distance
communication, benefiting communication with the divine, assisting in community cohesion
or as a defense to scare off predators.[29]

Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic archaeology sites.
The disputed Divje Babe flute, a perforated cave bear femur, is at least 40,000 years old,
though there is considerable debate surrounding whether it is truly a musical instrument or an
object formed by animals.[30] The earliest objects whose designations as musical instruments
are widely accepted are bone flutes from the Swabian Jura, Germany, namely from the
Geissenklösterle, Hohle Fels and Vogelherd caves.[31] Dated to the Aurignacian (of the Upper
Paleolithic) and used by Early European modern humans, from all three caves there are eight
examples, four made from the wing bones of birds and four from mammoth ivory; three of
these are near complete.[31] Three flutes from the Geissenklösterle are dated as the oldest,
c. 43,150–39,370 BP.[22][n 3]

Antiquity
The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to
the Predynastic period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when
harps, flutes and double clarinets were played.[32] Percussion instruments, lyres, and lutes
were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom. Cymbals[33] frequently accompanied
music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music, including the
traditional Sufi dhikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian
music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments.[34][35]

The "Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal", found on clay tablets in the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit, is the
oldest surviving notated work of music, dating back to approximately 1400 BCE.[36][37]

Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece, in fact it was one of
the main subjects taught to children. Musical education was considered important for the
development of an individual's soul. Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek
theater,[38] and those who received a musical education were seen as nobles and in perfect
harmony (as can be read in the Republic, Plato). Mixed gender choruses performed for
entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies.[39] Instruments included the double-
reed aulos and a plucked string instrument, the lyre, principally a special kind called a kithara.
Music was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at age six.
Greek musical literacy created significant musical development. Greek music theory included
the Greek musical modes, that eventually became the basis for Western religious and
classical music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the Byzantine
Empire changed Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a
complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world.[40]
The oldest surviving work written about music theory is Harmonika Stoicheia by
Aristoxenus.[41]

Asian cultures
Asian music covers a swath of music cultures surveyed in the articles on Arabia, Central Asia,
East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several have traditions reaching into antiquity.

Indian women dressed in regional

attire playing a variety of musical
instruments popular in different
parts of India

Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.[42] Sculptures from
the Indus Valley civilization show dance[43] and old musical instruments, like the seven-holed
flute. Stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro
by excavations carried out by Mortimer Wheeler.[44] The Rigveda, an ancient Hindu text, has
elements of present Indian music, with musical notation to denote the meter and mode of
chanting.[45] Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line
or raga rhythmically organized through talas. The poem Cilappatikaram provides information
about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale.[46]
Present day Hindi music was influenced by Persian traditional music and Afghan Mughals.
Carnatic music, popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the majority of the songs
are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are songs emphasizing love and other social issues.
 Indonesia is the home of gong
chime, there are variants across
Indonesia, especially in Java and
Bali.

Indonesian music has been formed since the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian
archipelago in the 2nd-3rd centuries BCE. Indonesian traditional music uses percussion
instruments, especially kendang and gongs. Some of them developed elaborate and
distinctive instruments, such as the sasando stringed instrument on the island of Rote, the
Sundanese angklung, and the complex and sophisticated Javanese and Balinese gamelan
orchestras. Indonesia is the home of gong chime, a general term for a set of small, high
pitched pot gongs. Gongs are usually placed in order of note, with the boss up on a string
held in a low wooden frame. The most popular form of Indonesian music is gamelan, an
ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and
spike fiddles along with bamboo suling (like a flute).[47][48]

Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching
over about 3,000 years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical
tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-
diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 + 7 = 12) as does European-
influenced music.[49]
Western classical
Early music
Breves dies hominis
3:32
by Léonin or Pérotin

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Musical notation from a

Catholic Missal, c. 1310–
1320

The medieval music era (500 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages, started with
the introduction of monophonic (single melodic line) chanting into Catholic Church services.
Musical notation was used since ancient times in Greek culture, but in the Middle Ages,
notation was first introduced by the Catholic Church, so chant melodies could be written
down, to facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the Catholic
empire. The only European Medieval repertory that has been found, in written form, from
before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant of the Catholic Church, the central
tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and
church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (non-religious songs). Examples
of composers from this period are Léonin, Pérotin, Guillaume de Machaut, and Walther von
der Vogelweide.[50][51][52][53]

Renaissance music (c. 1400 to 1600) was more focused on secular themes, such as courtly
love. Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which made printed sheet music much
less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the press, all notated
music was hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music spread musical styles
quicker and across a larger area. Musicians and singers often worked for the church, courts
and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important patron of
music. By the middle of the 15th century, composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in
which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers from this
era include Guillaume Du Fay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley, Orlando di
Lasso and Josquin des Prez. As musical activity shifted from the church to aristocratic courts,
kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading composers
came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and France; they are called the Franco-Flemish
composers.[54] They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other
countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany, England, and Spain.

Common practice period

Baroque

Toccata and Fugue in D minor,

BWV 565
8:34
Toccata and Fugue by J.S. Bach

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J. S. Bach

The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750, coinciding with the flourishing of the
Baroque artistic style in Europe. The start of the Baroque era was marked by the penning of
the first operas. Polyphonic contrapuntal music (music with separate, simultaneous melodic
lines) remained important during this period. German Baroque composers wrote for small
ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as for choirs and keyboard
instruments such as pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. Musical complexity increased
during this time. Several major musical forms were created, some of them which persisted
into later periods, seeing further development. These include the fugue, the invention, the
sonata, and the concerto.[55] The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly
ornamented. Important composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach
(Cello suites), George Frideric Handel (Messiah), Georg Philipp Telemann and Antonio Vivaldi
(The Four Seasons).
Classicism

Symphony No. 40 G minor

8:14
Symphony 40 G minor by W.A.
Mozart

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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a

prolific and influential composer of
the Classical period.

The music of the Classical period (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were seen as the key
elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome: the ideals of balance,
proportion and disciplined expression. (Note: the music from the Classical period should not
be confused with Classical music in general, a term which refers to Western art music from
the 5th century to the 2000s, which includes the Classical period as one of a number of
periods). Music from the Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler
texture than the Baroque music which preceded it. The main style was homophony,[56] where
a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly distinct.
Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were
developed, and the fortepiano, the forerunner to the modern piano, replaced the Baroque era
harpsichord and pipe organ as the main keyboard instrument (though pipe organ continued to
be used in sacred music, such as Masses).

Importance was given to instrumental music. It was dominated by further development of

musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, the concerto, and the
symphony. Other main kinds were the trio, string quartet, serenade and divertimento. The
sonata was the most important and developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote
sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms
of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based on the
structure of the sonata. The instruments used chamber music and orchestra became more
standardized. In place of the basso continuo group of the Baroque era, which consisted of
harpsichord, organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the discretion
of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello, theorbo, serpent), Classical chamber groups used
specified, standardized instruments (e.g., a string quartet would be performed by two violins,
a viola and a cello). The practice of improvised chord-playing by the continuo keyboardist or
lute player, a hallmark of Baroque music, underwent a gradual decline between 1750 and
1800.[57]

One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the development of
public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts
and compositions, but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent
employees of queens or princes. The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth
in the number and types of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the
building of large public performance spaces. Symphonic music including symphonies,
musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal/instrumental genres, such as opera and
oratorio, became more popular.[58][59][60]

The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Christoph Willibald
Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van
Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be
composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism.

Romanticism

Die Walküre
27:57
Die Walküre by Richard Wagner

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The piano was the centrepiece of

social activity for middle-class
urbanites in the 19th century (Moritz
von Schwind, 1868). The man at the
piano is composer Franz Schubert.

Romantic music (c. 1820 to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements in common with
the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era. Romanticism was an artistic, literary,
and intellectual movement was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism
as well as glorification of all the past and nature. Romantic music expanded beyond the rigid
styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic expressive pieces and
songs. Romantic composers such as Wagner and Brahms attempted to increase emotional
expression and power in their music to describe deeper truths or human feelings. With
symphonic tone poems, composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using
instrumental music. Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral
music inspired by folk music. The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take
precedence over tradition.[61]

Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of exploring
different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature), history (historical figures and
legends), or nature itself. Romantic love or longing was a prevalent theme in many works
composed during this period. In some cases, the formal structures from the classical period
continued to be used (e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but
these forms were expanded and altered. In many cases, new approaches were explored for
existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, new forms were created that were deemed better
suited to the new subject matter. Composers continued to develop opera and ballet music,
exploring new styles and themes.[38]

In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert
introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's case, short motifs, developed
organically, came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit (an example is
the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony). Later Romantic composers such
as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords
and more dissonance to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much
longer musical works. During the late Romantic period, composers explored dramatic
chromatic alterations of tonality, such as extended chords and altered chords, which created
new sound "colors." The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the
orchestra, and the Industrial Revolution helped to create better instruments, creating a more
powerful sound. Public concerts became an important part of well-to-do urban society. It
also saw a new diversity in theatre music, including operetta, and musical comedy and other
forms of musical theatre.[38]
20th and 21st century

Landman's 2006
Moodswinger, a 3rd-
bridged overtone zither
and an example of
experimental musical
instruments

In the 19th century, a key way new compositions became known to the public was by the
sales of sheet music, which middle class amateur music lovers would perform at home, on
their piano or other common instruments, such as the violin. With 20th-century music, the
invention of new electric technologies such as radio broadcasting and mass market
availability of gramophone records meant sound recordings heard by listeners (on the radio or
record player) became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces.[62] There was a
vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to
replay and distribute music; anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas,
symphonies and big bands in their own living room. During the 19th century, the focus on
sheet music had restricted access to new music to middle and upper-class people who could
read music and who owned pianos and other instruments. Radios and record players allowed
lower-income people, who could not afford an opera or symphony concert ticket, to hear this
music. As well, people could hear music from different parts of the country, or even different
parts of the world, even if they could not afford to travel to these locations. This helped to
spread musical styles.[63]

The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of new rhythms,
styles, and sounds. The horrors of World War I influenced many of the arts, including music,
and composers began exploring darker, harsher sounds. Traditional music styles such as jazz
and folk music were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music. Igor
Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were influential composers in 20th-century
art music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new
subgenres of classical music, including the acousmatic[64] and Musique concrète schools of
electronic composition. Sound recording was a major influence on the development of
popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely
distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock
music, because it could do more than record a band's performance. Using a multitrack
system, a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and
vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance.[65][66]

Jazz evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the 20th century,
and during the second half, rock music did the same. Jazz is an American musical artform
that originated in the beginning of the 20th century, in African American communities in the
Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The
style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms,
syncopation, and the swung note.[67]

A selection of guitars and amps at Apple

Music Row

Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1950s from rock and roll,
rockabilly, blues, and country music.[68] The sound of rock often revolves around the electric
or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section. Along with
the guitar or keyboards, saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing
instruments. In its "purest form", it "has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a
catchy melody."[69] The traditional rhythm section for popular music is rhythm guitar, electric
bass guitar, drums. Some bands have keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since
the 1970s, analog synthesizers. In the 1980s, pop musicians began using digital synthesizers,
such as the DX-7 synthesizer, electronic drum machines such as the TR-808 and synth bass
devices (such as the TB-303) or synth bass keyboards. In the 1990s, an increasingly large
range of computerized hardware musical devices and instruments and software (e.g. digital
audio workstations) were used. In the 2020s, soft synths and computer music apps make it
possible for bedroom producers to create and record types of music, such as electronic
dance music, in their home, adding sampled and digital instruments and editing the recording
digitally. In the 1990s, bands in genres such as nu metal began including DJs in their bands.
DJs create music by manipulating recorded music, using a DJ mixer.[70][71]

Creation

Composition

French Baroque music composer

Michel Richard Delalande (1657–
1726), pen in hand

People composing music in 2013

using electronic keyboards and
computers

"Composition" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music piece, a work
with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In many cultures, including
Western classical music, the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation,
such as a sheet music "score", which is then performed by the composer or by other singers
or musicians. In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically
called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead
sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, the
composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions, but in musical theatre and in
pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a
songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead, compose the song in her mind and then
play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential
performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music.[72][73]

Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there are many
decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements
of music precisely. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously
composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the
same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing
or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their
own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of
others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given
place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean
the individual choices of a performer.[74]

Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, this is
not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in
popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, when one
person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates
the songs. In some styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create,
perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation. A
piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs that explain
or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from
avant-garde music that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as Aus den sieben
Tagen, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy
use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music,[75] and is associated with
contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman,
and Witold Lutosławski. A commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of
wind chimes jingling in a breeze.

The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and
practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to
include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as
well as spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African
percussionists such as Ewe drummers.

Performance

Chinese Naxi musicians

Assyrians playing zurna and Davul,

instruments that go back thousands
of years

Performance is the physical expression of music, which occurs when a song is sung or piano
piece, guitar melody, symphony, drum beat or other musical part is played. In classical music,
a work is written in music notation by a composer and then performed once the composer is
satisfied with its structure and instrumentation. However, as it gets performed, the
interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change. In classical music, instrumental
performers, singers or conductors may gradually make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a
piece. In popular and traditional music, the performers have more freedom to make changes
to the form of a song or piece. As such, in popular and traditional music styles, even when a
band plays a cover song, they can make changes such as adding a guitar solo or inserting an
introduction.[76]

A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed (practiced)—which is the norm in
classical music, jazz big bands, and many popular music styles–or improvised over a chord
progression (a sequence of chords), which is the norm in small jazz and blues groups.
Rehearsals of orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor. Rock, blues and
jazz bands are usually led by the bandleader. A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song
or piece by the performers until it can be sung or played correctly and, if it is a song or piece
for more than one musician, until the parts are together from a rhythmic and tuning
perspective.

Many cultures have strong traditions of solo performance (in which one singer or
instrumentalist performs), such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western art-music
tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance. All
cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing
to highly planned and organized performances such as the modern classical concert,
religious processions, classical music festivals or music competitions. Chamber music, which
is music for a small ensemble with only one or a few of each type of instrument, is often seen
as more intimate than large symphonic works.[77]

Improvisation
Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or based on) a pre-
existing harmonic framework, chord progression, or riffs. Improvisers use the notes of the
chord, various scales that are associated with each chord, and chromatic ornaments and
passing tones which may be neither chord tones nor from the typical scales associated with a
chord. Musical improvisation can be done with or without preparation. Improvisation is a
major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental
performers improvise solos, melody lines, and accompaniment parts.[78]

In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era
and during the Classical era. In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments, and
basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation.
As well, the top soloists were expected to be able to improvise pieces such as preludes. In the
Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts.

However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as "common practice" Western art music
performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses, and ballets,
improvisation has played a smaller role, as more and more music was notated in scores and
parts for musicians to play. At the same time, some 20th and 21st century art music
composers have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work. In Indian classical
music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances.
Art and entertainment

Khatia Buniatishvili playing a grand

piano

Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure,
religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. When
music was only available through sheet music scores, such as during the Classical and
Romantic eras, music lovers would buy the sheet music of their favourite pieces and songs so
that they could perform them at home on the piano. With the advent of the phonograph,
records of popular songs, rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music
lovers would enjoy their favourite songs. With the advent of home tape recorders in the 1980s
and digital music in the 1990s, music lovers could make tapes or playlists of favourite songs
and take them with them on a portable cassette player or MP3 player. Some music lovers
create mix tapes of favourite songs, which serve as a "self-portrait, a gesture of friendship,
prescription for an ideal party... [and] an environment consisting solely of what is most
ardently loved".[79]

Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure and derive income
elsewhere. Professional musicians are employed by institutions and organisations, including
armed forces (in marching bands, concert bands and popular music groups), religious
institutions, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music
schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians,
seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There are often many links
between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons
with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform
with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and
community orchestras.

A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and music that is
performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed through the music retail
system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live
performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings
are popular in both classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally
taped live concerts are prized by music lovers. In the jam band scene, live, improvised jam
sessions are preferred to studio recordings.[80]

Notation

Sheet music is a written representation of music. Homorhythmic

(i.e., hymn-style) arrangement of the traditional "Adeste Fideles" in
standard two-staff format for mixed voices. playⓘ

Music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper
using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the
notes of a melody, are notated. Music notation often provides instructions on how to perform
the music. For example, the sheet music for a song may state the song is a "slow blues" or a
"fast swing", which indicates the tempo and the genre. To read notation, a person must have
an understanding of music theory, harmony and the performance practice associated with a
particular song or piece's genre.

Written notation varies with the style and period of music. Nowadays, notated music is
produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer scorewriter programs, as an image
on a computer screen. In ancient times, music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets.[37]
To perform music from notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the
rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is
associated with a piece of music or genre. In genres requiring musical improvisation, the
performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the song are
written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music's structure,
harmony and the styles of a particular genre e.g., jazz or country music.

In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all
the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the
individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical
notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and
structure of the music. Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or
simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment
part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in
large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music, guitarists and electric bass
players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the
location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass
fingerboard. Tablature was used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed,
fretted instrument.[81]

Oral and aural tradition

Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were not written down in sheet
music; instead, they were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs
were handed down orally, from one musician or singer to another, or aurally, in which a
performer learns a song "by ear". When the composer of a song or piece is no longer known,
this music is often classified as "traditional" or as a "folk song". Different musical traditions
have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source
material, from quite strict, to those that demand improvisation or modification to the music. A
culture's history and stories may also be passed on by ear through song.[82]

Elements

Music has many different fundamentals or elements. Depending on the definition of

"element" being used, these can include pitch, beat or pulse, tempo, rhythm, melody,
harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre or color, dynamics, expression,
articulation, form, and structure. The elements of music feature prominently in the music
curriculums of Australia, the UK, and the US. All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics,
timbre, and texture as elements, but the other identified elements of music are far from
universally agreed upon. Below is a list of the three official versions of the "elements of
music":

Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and structure.[83]

UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure.[84]

USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony, style/articulation.[85]

In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: "appropriate musical notations" was added
to their list of elements and the title of the list was changed from the "elements of music" to
the "inter-related dimensions of music". The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as:
pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure, and appropriate musical
notations.[86]

The phrase "the elements of music" is used in a number of different contexts. The two most
common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the "rudimentary elements of
music" and the "perceptual elements of music".[n 4]

Pitch
Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note, or
tone is "higher" or "lower" than another musical sound, note, or tone. We can talk about the
highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a
piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass
drum. We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies,
basslines and chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency
that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is much easier for
listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch
of a crash cymbal that is struck.[91]

Melody

The melody to the traditional song "Pop Goes the Weasel" playⓘ

A melody, also called a "tune", is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in succession (one after
the other), often in a rising and falling pattern. The notes of a melody are typically created
using pitch systems such as scales or modes. Melodies also often contain notes from the
chords used in the song. The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use
only the notes of a single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a given
song. For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C major) may have a
melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the individual notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B,
and C; these are the "white notes" on a piano keyboard. On the other hand, Bebop-era jazz
from the 1940s and contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies
with many chromatic notes (i.e., notes in addition to the notes of the major scale; on a piano,
a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard, including the "white notes" and
"black notes" and unusual scales, such as the whole tone scale (a whole tone scale in the key
of C would contain the notes C, D, E, F♯, G♯ and A♯). A low musical line played by bass
instruments, such as double bass, electric bass, or tuba, is called a bassline.[92]

Harmony

A player performing a chord

(combination of many different
notes) on a guitar

Harmony refers to the "vertical" sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches that are
played or sung together at the same time creates a chord. Usually, this means the notes are
played at the same time, although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a
harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining
the notes of a chord). In music written using the system of major-minor tonality ("keys"),
which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock,
and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the "home note" or tonic to which the
piece generally resolves, and the character (e.g. major or minor) of the scale in use. Simple
classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that all the music is
in a single key. More complex Classical, pop, and traditional music songs and pieces may
have two keys (and in some cases three or more keys). Classical music from the Romantic
era (written from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys,[93] as does jazz, especially
Bebop jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or "home note" of a song may change every four
bars or even every two bars.[94]

Rhythm
Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time. Meter animates time in regular
pulse groupings, called measures or bars, which in Western classical, popular, and traditional
music often group notes in sets of two (e.g., 2/4 time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as
Waltz time, or 3/8 time), or four (e.g., 4/4 time). Meters are made easier to hear because
songs and pieces often (but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping.
Notable exceptions exist, such as the backbeat used in much Western pop and rock, in which
a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats (called 4/4 time or common time) will
have accents on beats two and four, which are typically performed by the drummer on the
snare drum, a loud and distinctive-sounding percussion instrument. In pop and rock, the
rhythm parts of a song are played by the rhythm section, which includes chord-playing
instruments (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or other keyboard instruments), a
bass instrument (typically electric bass or for some styles such as jazz and bluegrass, double
bass) and a drum kit player.[95]

Texture
Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song. The texture of a piece or
song is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a
composition, thus determining the overall nature of the sound in a piece. Texture is often
described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and
highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the
number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see common types
below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One layer can be a
string section or another brass. The thickness is affected by the amount and the richness of
the instruments.[96] Texture is commonly described according to the number of and
relationship between parts or lines of music:

monophony: a single melody (or "tune") with neither instrumental accompaniment nor a
harmony part. A mother singing a lullaby to her baby would be an example.

heterophony: two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same melody, but with
each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the melody or adding different
ornaments to the melody. Two bluegrass fiddlers playing the same traditional fiddle tune
together will typically each vary the melody by some degree and each add different
ornaments.

polyphony: multiple independent melody lines that interweave together, which are sung or
played at the same time. Choral music written in the Renaissance music era was typically
written in this style. A round, which is a song such as "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", which
different groups of singers all start to sing at a different time, is an example of polyphony.

homophony: a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment. Most Western popular

music songs from the 19th century onward are written in this texture.
Music that contains a large number of independent parts (e.g., a double concerto
accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines) is
generally said to have a "thicker" or "denser" texture than a work with few parts (e.g., a solo
flute melody accompanied by a single cello).

Timbre

Spectrogram of the first second of

an E9 suspended chord played on
a Fender Stratocaster guitar. Below
is the E9 suspended chord audio:
0:13

Timbre, sometimes called "color" or "tone color" is the quality or sound of a voice or
instrument.[97] Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even
when they have the same pitch and loudness. For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different
when it is played on oboe, piano, violin, or electric guitar. Even if different players of the same
instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in
instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different types of accessories (e.g.,
mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon players) or strings made out of
different materials for string players (e.g., gut strings versus steel strings). Even two
instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may
sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might
hold the bow differently).

The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include the
spectrum, envelope, and overtones of a note or musical sound. For electric instruments
developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar, electric bass and electric piano, the
performer can also change the tone by adjusting equalizer controls, tone controls on the
instrument, and by using electronic effects units such as distortion pedals. The tone of the
electric Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars.
Expression
Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music without
changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the melody and its
accompaniment. Performers, including singers and instrumentalists, can add musical
expression to a song or piece by adding phrasing, by adding effects such as vibrato (with
voice and some instruments, such as guitar, violin, brass instruments, and woodwinds),
dynamics (the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo fluctuations (e.g.,
ritardando or accelerando, which are, respectively slowing down and speeding up the
tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas on a cadence, and by changing the articulation of the
notes (e.g., making notes more pronounced or accented, by making notes more legato,
which means smoothly connected, or by making notes shorter).

Expression is achieved through the manipulation of pitch (such as inflection, vibrato, slides
etc.), volume (dynamics, accent, tremolo etc.), duration (tempo fluctuations, rhythmic
changes, changing note duration such as with legato and staccato, etc.), timbre (e.g.
changing vocal timbre from a light to a resonant voice) and sometimes even texture (e.g.
doubling the bass note for a richer effect in a piano piece). Expression therefore can be seen
as a manipulation of all elements to convey "an indication of mood, spirit, character etc."[98]
and as such cannot be included as a unique perceptual element of music,[99] although it can
be considered an important rudimentary element of music.

Form

Sheet music notation for the chorus (refrain) of the

Christmas song "Jingle Bells"
Jingle Bells refrain vector.midⓘ
In music, form describes the overall structure or plan of a song or piece of music,[100] and it
describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.[101] In the early 20th century,
Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway musical songs were often in AABA thirty-two-bar form, in
which the A sections repeated the same eight bar melody (with variation) and the B section
provided a contrasting melody or harmony for eight bars. From the 1960s onward, Western
pop and rock songs are often in verse-chorus form, which comprises a sequence of verse
and chorus ("refrain") sections, with new lyrics for most verses and repeating lyrics for the
choruses. Popular music often makes use of strophic form, sometimes in conjunction with the
twelve bar blues.[102]

In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes defines musical form
as "a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes
of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration."[103] Examples of common forms of
Western music include the fugue, the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and
variations, and rondo.

Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary,
simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue (although musicologist
Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has
sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.[104])

Where a piece cannot readily be broken into sectional units (though it might borrow some
form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be through-composed. Such is often the
case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody, etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle,
impromptu or similar composition.[105] Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal
detail as "sectional, developmental, or variational."[106]
Philosophy

The Woman in Red by

Giovanni Boldini

The philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music and has
connections with questions in metaphysics and aesthetics. Questions include:

What is the definition of music? (What are the necessary and sufficient conditions for
classifying something as music?)

What is the relationship between music and mind?

What does music history reveal to us about the world?

What is the connection between music and emotions?

What is meaning in relation to music?

In ancient times, such as with the Ancient Greeks, the aesthetics of music explored the
mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization. In the
18th century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing music, and thus to questions about its
beauty and human enjoyment (plaisir and jouissance) of music. The origin of this philosophic
shift is sometimes attributed to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the 18th century, followed
by Immanuel Kant. Through their writing, the ancient term 'aesthetics', meaning sensory
perception, received its present-day connotation. In the 2000s, philosophers have tended to
emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment. For example, music's capacity to express
emotion has been foregrounded.[107]

In the 20th century, important contributions were made by Peter Kivy, Jerrold Levinson, Roger
Scruton, and Stephen Davies. However, many musicians, music critics, and other non-
philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music. In the 19th century, a significant
debate arose between Eduard Hanslick, a music critic and musicologist, and composer
Richard Wagner regarding whether music can express meaning. Harry Partch and some
other musicologists, such as Kyle Gann, have studied and tried to popularize microtonal
music and the usage of alternate musical scales. Modern composers like La Monte Young,
Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca paid much attention to a scale called just
intonation.[108][109][110]

It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions, intellect, and psychology; it
can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. The philosopher Plato suggests in The
Republic that music has a direct effect on the soul. Therefore, he proposes that in the ideal
regime music would be closely regulated by the state (Book VII).[111] In Ancient China, the
philosopher Confucius believed that music and rituals or rites are interconnected and
harmonious with nature; he stated that music was the harmonization of heaven and earth,
while the order was brought by the rites order, making them extremely crucial functions in
society.[112]

Psychology

Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior and
experience.[113] Research in this field and its subfields are primarily empirical; their knowledge
tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation
of and interaction with human participants. In addition to its focus on fundamental
perceptions and cognitive processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical
relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism,
and therapy, as well as investigations of human aptitude, skill, intelligence, creativity, and
social behavior.
Neuroscience

The primary auditory cortex is one

of the main areas associated with
superior pitch resolution.

Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved

in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening,
performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly
concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. The field is
distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS),
magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission
tomography (PET).

Cognitive musicology
Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally
modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.[114]
The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate
and test theories and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science.[115]

Cognitive musicology investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in
the brain. Research often includes biologically inspired models of computation, such as neural
networks and evolutionary programs.[116] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is
represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured
computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be
investigated.[117]
Psychoacoustics
Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch
of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound
(including speech and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics.

Evolutionary musicology
Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origins of music, the question of animal song,
selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human
evolution".[118] It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of
evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive
advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,[119] a view which has spawned several
competing theories of music evolution.[120][121][122] An alternate view sees music as a by-
product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses
without providing any adaptive function.[123] This view has been directly countered by
numerous music researchers.[124][125][126]

Cultural effects
An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their
preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased
toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of
the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural
features.[127][128] Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally
familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.[129][130]

Perceptual
Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s, most lists of elements of
music have related more to how we hear music than how we learn to play it or study it. C.E.
Seashore, in his book Psychology of Music,[131] identified four "psychological attributes of
sound". These were: "pitch, loudness, time, and timbre" (p. 3). He did not call them the
"elements of music" but referred to them as "elemental components" (p. 2). Nonetheless,
these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements:
"Pitch" and "timbre" match exactly, "loudness" links with dynamics, and "time" links with the
time-based elements of rhythm, duration, and tempo. This usage of the phrase "the elements
of music" links more closely with Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary definition of an
element as: "a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods"[132]
and educational institutions' lists of elements generally align with this definition as well.

Although writers of lists of "rudimentary elements of music" can vary their lists depending on
their personal (or institutional) priorities, the perceptual elements of music should consist of
an established (or proven) list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated
to achieve an intended musical effect. It seems at this stage that there is still research to be
done in this area.

A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of music, is to

identify the "elements of sound" as: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial
location,[133] and then to define the "elements of music" as: sound, structure, and artistic
intent.[133]

Sociological aspects

Song dynasty (960–1279) painting, Night Revels of Han Xizai, showing Chinese musicians
entertaining guests at a party in a 10th-century household

Ethnographic studies demonstrate that music is a participatory, community-based

activity.[134][135] Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings from being
alone, to attending a large concert, forming a music community, which cannot be understood
as a function of individual will or accident; it includes both commercial and non-commercial
participants with a shared set of common values. Musical performances take different forms
in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus.

In Europe and North America, there was a divide between what types of music were viewed
as "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" included Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and
modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal
concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly. Other types of music
—including jazz, blues, soul, and country—are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and
theatres, where the audience may drink, dance and cheer. Until the 20th century, the division
between "high" and "low" musical forms was accepted as a valid distinction that separated
out "art music", from popular music heard in bars and dance halls. Musicologists, such as
David Brackett, note a "redrawing of high-low cultural-aesthetic boundaries" in the 20th
century.[136] And, "when industry and public discourses link categories of music with
categories of people, they tend to conflate stereotypes with actual listening communities."[136]
Stereotypes can be based on socioeconomic standing, or social class, of the performers or
audience of the different types of music.

When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention, there can be strong
resistance from academics and others. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky
ballet scores, serialism, bebop, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica were controversial and
criticised, when they were first introduced. Such themes are examined in the sociology of
music, sometimes called sociomusicology, which is pursued in departments of sociology,
media studies, or music, and is closely related to ethnomusicology.

Role of women

19th-century composer and pianist

Clara Schumann

Women have played a major role in music throughout history, as composers, songwriters,
instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music educators, music
critics/music journalists and other musical professions. In the 2010s, while women comprise a
significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers, and a significant
proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women
record producers, rock critics and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge
number of women composers in classical music, from the medieval period to the present day,
women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical
music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for example, in the
Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Schumann is one of the few female composers who is
mentioned.

Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the
percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major
Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the Montreal
Symphony Orchestra were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked
Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular
music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable
female instrumentalists and all-female bands. Women are particularly underrepresented in
extreme metal genres.[137] In the 1960s pop-music scene, "[l]ike most aspects of the...music
business, [in the 1960s,] songwriting was a male-dominated field. Though there were plenty
of female singers on the radio, women ...were primarily seen as consumers:... Singing was
sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument, writing songs, or
producing records simply wasn't done."[138] Young women "...were not socialized to see
themselves as people who create [music]."[138]

Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music

journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. While women were discouraged from
composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women became
involved in music education "...to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the
later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century."[139]

According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London's The Independent, women
musicians in classical music are "...too often judged for their appearances, rather than their
talent" and they face pressure "...to look sexy onstage and in photos."[140] Duchen states that
while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks,...the ones who do tend
to be more materially successful."[140] According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina
Wolstencroft, the music industry has long been open to having women in performance or
entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as
being the conductor of an orchestra.[141] In popular music, while there are many women
singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music
producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.[142] One of the most
recorded artists is Asha Bhosle, an Indian singer best known as a playback singer in Hindi
cinema.[143]

Media and technology

Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA)

revolutionized audio music formatting.
It allowed for music to be played
portably without the need to rewind a
series of tape. The CD surpassed LP
sales in 1988, and cassette tapes in
1991. By 1999, the CD accounted for
87.9% of the entire market share in
regard to music sales.[144]

Since the 20th century, live music can be broadcast over the radio, television or the Internet,
or recorded and listened to on a CD player or MP3 player.

In the early 20th century (in the late 1920s), as talking pictures emerged in the early 20th
century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse
orchestra musicians found themselves out of work.[145] During the 1920s, live musical
performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at first-run
theaters.[146] With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances
were largely eliminated. The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper
advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices.
One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled
"Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional
Reaction Whatever"[147]

Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey
uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument
or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Some pop bands
use recorded backing tracks. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to
produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also
become performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a
device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines
also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the
lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks.

Music production in the 2000s

using a digital audio workstation
(DAW) with an electronic keyboard
and a multi-monitor set-up

The advent of the Internet and widespread high-speed broadband access has transformed
the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to recordings of music
via streaming video and vastly increased choice of music for consumers. Another effect of
the Internet arose with online communities and social media websites like YouTube and
Facebook, a social networking service. These sites make it easier for aspiring singers and
amateur bands to distribute videos of their songs, connect with other musicians, and gain
audience interest. Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of
promotional material. YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to
MP3s, but also actively create their own. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams,
in their book Wikinomics, there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they
call a "prosumer" role, a consumer who both creates content and consumes. Manifestations
of this in music include the production of mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans.[148]
Education

Non-institutional

A Suzuki violin recital with students

of varying ages

The incorporation of music into general education from preschool to post secondary
education, is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in playing and singing
music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening, and
cooperation while also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall
information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas.[149] In
elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in
small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music and traditional music. Some
elementary school children also learn about popular music styles. In religious schools,
children sing hymns and other religious music. In secondary schools (and less commonly in
elementary schools), students may have the opportunity to perform in some types of musical
ensembles, such as choirs (a group of singers), marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands,
or orchestras. In some school systems, music lessons on how to play instruments may be
provided. Some students also take private music lessons after school with a singing teacher
or instrument teacher. Amateur musicians typically learn basic musical rudiments (e.g.,
learning about musical notation for musical scales and rhythms) and beginner- to
intermediate-level singing or instrument-playing techniques.

At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for
taking a few music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the
history of music, or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and
learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European
universities have some types of musical ensembles that students in arts and humanities are
able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, or orchestras. The
study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe,
such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the classical music
programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the
same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music
of non-Western cultures, such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music).

Institutional

Manhattan School of Music

professor and professional double
bass player Timothy Cobb teaching
a bass lesson in the late 2000s. His
bass has a low C extension with a
metal "machine" with buttons for
playing the pitches on the
extension.

People aiming to become professional musicians, singers, composers, songwriters, music

teachers and practitioners of other music-related professions such as music history
professors, sound engineers, and so on study in specialized post-secondary programs
offered by colleges, universities and music conservatories. Some institutions that train
individuals for careers in music offer training in a wide range of professions, as is the case
with many of the top U.S. universities, which offer degrees in music performance (including
singing and playing instruments), music history, music theory, music composition, music
education (for individuals aiming to become elementary or high school music teachers) and,
in some cases, conducting. On the other hand, some small colleges may only offer training in
a single profession (e.g., sound recording).

While most university and conservatory music programs focus on training students in
classical music, there are universities and colleges that train musicians for careers as jazz or
popular music musicians and composers, with notable U.S. examples including the
Manhattan School of Music and the Berklee College of Music. Two schools in Canada which
offer professional jazz training are McGill University and Humber College. Individuals aiming
at careers in some types of music, such as heavy metal music, country music or blues are
unlikely to become professionals by completing degrees or diplomas. Instead, they typically
learn about their style of music by singing or playing in bands (often beginning in amateur
bands, cover bands and tribute bands), studying recordings on DVD and the Internet, and
working with already-established professionals in their style of music, either through informal
mentoring or regular music lessons. Since the 2000s, the increasing popularity and availability
of Internet forums and YouTube "how-to" videos have enabled singers and musicians from
metal, blues and similar genres to improve their skills. Many pop, rock and country singers
train informally with vocal coaches and voice teachers.[150][151]

Academic study

Musicology
Musicology, the academic study of music, is studied in universities and music conservatories.
The earliest definitions from the 19th century defined three sub-disciplines of musicology:
systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology or
ethnomusicology. In 2010-era scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division into
music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been
enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of
music of non-Western cultures, and cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology.
Students can pursue study of musicology, ethnomusicology, music history, and music theory
through different types of degrees, including bachelor's, master's and PhD.[152][153][154]

Music theory
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other
disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with
compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is
most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of
the common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even of music of the common practice
period, may take other forms.[155] Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set
theory to music, first applied to atonal music. Speculative music theory, contrasted with
analytic music theory, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example
tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition.[156]
Zoomusicology
Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of
sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have
music?" François-Bernard Mâche's Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion (1983), a
study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's Language, musique,
poésie (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised
according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that
"in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when
the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and
conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that
perceives it, then music is uniquely human."[157]

Ethnomusicology

Ethnomusicologist Frances
Densmore at the Smithsonian
Institution in 1916 where she was
recording Blackfoot chief Mountain
Chief for the Bureau of American
Ethnology. In this picture, Mountain
Chief is listening to a recording.

In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art
music, known as classical music. The history of music in non-Western cultures ("world music"
or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western universities. This includes the
documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe,
as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures. Popular or folk styles of
music in non-Western countries varied from culture to culture, and period to period. Different
cultures emphasised different instruments, techniques, singing styles and uses for music.
Music has been used for entertainment, ceremonies, rituals, religious purposes and for
practical and artistic communication. Non-Western music has also been used for
propaganda purposes, as was the case with Chinese opera during the Cultural Revolution.

There is a host of music classifications for non-Western music, many of which are caught up
in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the division
between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or commercial music –
including non-Western styles of rock, country, and pop music-related styles). Some genres
do not fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music,
or jazz-related music).

As world cultures have come into greater global contact, their indigenous musical styles have
often merged with other styles, which produces new styles. For example, the United States
bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and African
instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic
"melting pot" society. Some types of world music contain a mixture of non-Western
indigenous styles with Western pop music elements. Genres of music are determined as
much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. Some works, like George
Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both jazz and classical music, while Gershwin's
Porgy and Bess and Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story are claimed by both opera and the
Broadway musical tradition. Many music festivals for non-Western music, include bands and
singers from a particular musical genre, such as world music.[158][159]

Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music, and is still
widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as internationally (especially since the
1960s). Indian music has mainly three forms of classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and
Dhrupad styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music
such as the talavadya performances famous in South India.
Therapy

A music therapist from a "Blues in

the Schools" program plays
harmonica with a US Navy sailor at
a Naval Therapy Center.

Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which a trained therapist uses music and all of its
facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve
or maintain their health. In some instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through
music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client
and therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of
conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical disabilities, sensory
impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse issues, communication disorders,
interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to improve learning, build self-esteem,
reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related
activities. Music therapists may encourage clients to sing, play instruments, create songs, or
do other musical activities.

In the 10th century, the philosopher Al-Farabi described how vocal music can stimulate the
feelings and souls of listeners.[160] Music has long been used to help people deal with their
emotions. In the 17th century, the scholar Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy argued
that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.[161] He
noted that music has an "excellent power ...to expel many other diseases" and he called it "a
sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy." He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus, a
Rhodian fiddler, used music to "make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more enamoured, a
religious man more devout."[162][163][164] In the Ottoman Empire, mental illnesses were treated
with music.[165] In November 2006, Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues also found that
music therapy helped schizophrenic patients.[166][167]

See also
 Portals: Music History Record production
Glossary of music terminology

Lists of musicians

List of musicology topics

Music and emotion

Music archaeology

Music history

Music-specific disorders

References

Notes
1. A now discredited theory held by many medieval thinkers was that 'music' was
descended from the Egyptian word moys, meaning water, thought to connect to
Moses.[11]

2. For the further etymological origins, mousiké derives from the feminine form of
mousikos, which is anything "pertaining to the muses", from the Ancient Greek word for
Muse, Mousa.[10] There is no agreement on the origins of the word Mousa,[12] though see
Muses § Etymology for proposed theories.

3. See Morley (2013, pp. 43–45) for a comprehensive table on all eight surviving flutes
from the Geissenklösterle, Hohle Fels and Vogelherd caves

4. In the 1800s, the phrases "the elements of music" and "the rudiments of music" were
used interchangeably.[87][88] The elements described in these documents refer to
aspects of music that are needed to become a musician, Recent writers such as Espie
Estrella seem to be using the phrase "elements of music" in a similar manner.[89] A
definition which most accurately reflects this usage is: "the rudimentary principles of an
art, science, etc.: the elements of grammar."[90] The UK's curriculum switch to the "inter-
related dimensions of music" seems to be a move back to using the rudimentary
elements of music.

Citations
1. OED, § 1.
 2. AHD, § 1.

3. Epperson 2022, § para. 1.

4. Morley 2013, p. 5.

5. Mithen 2005, pp. 26–27.

6. Gardner 1983, p. 104.

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8. Nettl 2001, §III "3. Music among the arts".

9. Online Etymology Dictionary, § para 2.

10. Online Etymology Dictionary, § para 1.

11. Apel 1969, p. 548.

12. Anderson & Mathiesen 2001, § para 1.

13. Murray 2020, pp. 13–14.

14. Nettl 2001, §I "1. Etymology".

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22. Morley 2013, p. 43.

23. Merker, Morley & Zuidema 2015, § "Introduction".

24. Morley 2013, pp. 2–3.

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26. Huron 2003, p. 61.

27. Huron 2003, p. 62.

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Further reading

Kennedy, Michal; Kennedy, Joyce Bourne (2013) [2012]. Tim Rutherford-Johnson (ed.). The
Oxford Dictionary of Music (https://books.google.com/books?id=XX2sAQAAQBAJ) (6th
paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957854-2.

Small, Christopher (1977). Music, Society, Education. John Calder Publishers, London.
ISBN 0-7145-3614-8

Tymoczko, Dmitri (2011). A Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counterpoint in the Extended
Common Practice (https://archive.org/details/geometrymusichar00tymo) . New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533667-2.

External links

Grove Music Online (http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/) — online version

of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.

All ten volumes (https://search.alexanderstreet.com/glnd) of the Garland Encyclopedia of

World Music (subscription required)

Dolmetsch free online music dictionary (http://dolmetsch.com/musictheorydefs.htm) ,

complete, with references to a list of specialised music dictionaries (by continent, by
instrument, by genre, etc.)

Some books on music (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/31911) by Carl Van

Vechten (1880–1964)