Physics

The Nature of Science and Physics

Physics: An Introduction

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be

able to:

Explain the difference between

a principle and a law.

Explain the difference between

a model and a theory.

The physical uni-

verse is enormously
complex in its detail.
Every day, each of us
observes a great va-
riety of objects and Figure 1. The flight
formations of migratory
phenomena. Over birds such as Canada
the centuries, the cu- geese are governed by
the laws of physics.
riosity of the human (credit: David Merrett)
race has led us col-
lectively to explore
and catalog a tremendous wealth of informa-
tion. From the flight of birds to the colors of
flowers, from lightning to gravity, from quarks to
clusters of galaxies, from the flow of time to the
mystery of the creation of the universe, we
have asked questions and assembled huge ar-
rays of facts. In the face of all these details, we
have discovered that a surprisingly small and
unified set of physical laws can explain what we
observe. As humans, we make generalizations
and seek order. We have found that nature is
remarkably cooperative—it exhibits the underly-
ing order and simplicity we so value.
It is the underlying order of nature that makes
science in general, and physics in particular, so
enjoyable to study. For example, what do a bag
of chips and a car battery have in common?
Both contain energy that can be converted to
other forms. The law of conservation of energy
(which says that energy can change form but is
never lost) ties together such topics as food
calories, batteries, heat, light, and watch
springs. Understanding this law makes it easier
to learn about the various forms energy takes
and how they relate to one another. Apparently
unrelated topics are connected through broad-
ly applicable physical laws, permitting an un-
derstanding beyond just the memorization of
lists of facts.

The unifying aspect of physical laws and the

basic simplicity of nature form the underlying
themes of this text. In learning to apply these
laws, you will, of course, study the most impor-
tant topics in physics. More importantly, you will
gain analytical abilities that will enable you to
apply these laws far beyond the scope of what
can be included in a single book. These analyti-
cal skills will help you to excel academically,
and they will also help you to think critically in
any professional career you choose to pursue.
This module discusses the realm of physics (to
define what physics is), some applications of
physics (to illustrate its relevance to other disci-
plines), and more precisely what constitutes a
physical law (to illuminate the importance of
experimentation to theory).

Science and the Realm of Physics

Science consists of the theories and laws that

are the general truths of nature as well as the
body of knowledge they encompass. Scientists
are continually trying to expand this body of
knowledge and to perfect the expression of the
laws that describe it. Physics is concerned with
describing the interactions of energy, matter,
space, and time, and it is especially interested
in what fundamental mechanisms underlie
every phenomenon. The concern for describing
the basic phenomena in nature essentially de-
fines the realm of physics.

Physics aims to describe the function of every-

thing around us, from the movement of tiny
charged particles to the motion of people, cars,
and spaceships. In fact, almost everything
around you can be described quite accurately
by the laws of physics. Consider a smart phone
(Figure 2). Physics describes how electricity in-
teracts with the various circuits inside the de-
vice. This knowledge helps engineers select
the appropriate materials and circuit layout
when building the smart phone. Next, consider
a GPS system. Physics describes the relation-
ship between the speed of an object, the dis-
tance over which it travels, and the time it takes
to travel that distance. When you use a GPS
device in a vehicle, it utilizes these physics
equations to determine the travel time from one
location to another.

Applications of
Physics

You need not be a

scientist to use
physics. On the con-
trary, knowledge of
physics is useful in
everyday situations
as well as in nonsci-
entific professions. It
can help you under-
stand how mi- Figure 2. The Apple
“iPhone” is a common
crowave ovens work, smart phone with a GPS
why metals should function. Physics
describes the way that
not be put into them, electricity flows through
the circuits of this device.
and why they might Engineers use their
affect pacemakers. knowledge of physics to
construct an iPhone with
(See Figure 3.) features that consumers
will enjoy. One specific
Physics allows you to feature of an iPhone is the
understand the haz- GPS function. GPS uses
physics equations to
ards of radiation and determine the driving
time between two
rationally evaluate locations on a map.
these hazards more (credit: @gletham GIS,
Social, Mobile Tech
easily. Physics also Images)
explains the reason
why a black car radiator helps remove heat in a
car engine, and it explains why a white roof
helps keep the inside of a house cool. Similarly,
the operation of a car’s ignition system as well
as the transmission of electrical signals through
our body’s nervous system are much easier to
understand when you think about them in
terms of basic physics.

Physics is the foundation of many important dis-

ciplines and contributes directly to others.
Chemistry, for example—since it deals with the
interactions of atoms and molecules—is rooted
in atomic and molecular physics. Most branch-
es of engineering are applied physics. In archi-
tecture, physics is at the heart of structural sta-
bility, and is involved in the acoustics, heating,
lighting, and cooling of buildings. Parts of geol-
ogy rely heavily on physics, such as radioactive
dating of rocks, earthquake analysis, and heat
transfer in the Earth. Some disciplines, such as
biophysics and geophysics, are hybrids of
physics and other disciplines.

Physics has many applications in the biological

sciences. On the microscopic level, it helps de-
scribe the properties of cell walls and cell mem-
branes (Figure 4 and Figure 5). On the macro-
scopic level, it can explain the heat, work, and
power associated with the human body.
Physics is involved in medical diagnostics, such
as x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
and ultrasonic blood flow measurements. Med-
ical therapy sometimes directly involves
physics; for example, cancer radiotherapy uses
ionizing radiation. Physics can also explain sen-
sory phenomena, such as how musical instru-
ments make sound, how the eye detects color,
and how lasers can transmit information.

It is not necessary to formally study all ap-

plications of physics. What is most useful is
knowledge of the basic laws of physics and a
skill in the analytical methods for applying
them. The study of physics also can improve
your problem-solving skills. Furthermore,
physics has retained the most basic aspects of
science, so it is used by all of the sciences, and
the study of physics makes other sciences easi-
er to understand.

Figure 3. These two applications of physics

have more in common than meets the eye.
Microwave ovens use electromagnetic
waves to heat food. Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) also uses electromagnetic
waves to yield an image of the brain, from
which the exact location of tumors can be
determined. (credit: Rashmi Chawla, Daniel
Smith, and Paul E. Marik)

Figure 4. Physics, chemistry, and

biology help describe the properties
of cell walls in plant cells, such as the
onion cells seen here. (credit:
Umberto Salvagnin)

Figure 5. An artist’s rendition of the the structure of a

cell membrane. Membranes form the boundaries of
animal cells and are complex in structure and function.
Many of the most fundamental properties of life, such as
the firing of nerve cells, are related to membranes. The
disciplines of biology, chemistry, and physics all help us
understand the membranes of animal cells. (credit:
Mariana Ruiz)

Models, Theories, and Laws; The Role

of Experimentation

The laws of nature are concise descriptions of

the universe around us; they are human state-
ments of the underlying laws or rules that all
natural processes follow. Such laws are intrinsic
to the universe; humans did not create them
and so cannot change them. We can only dis-
cover and understand them. Their discovery is
a very human endeavor, with all the elements of
mystery, imagination, struggle, triumph, and dis-
appointment inherent in any creative effort.
(See Figure 6 and Figure 7.) The cornerstone of
discovering natural laws is observation; science
must describe the universe as it is, not as we
may imagine it to be.

We all are curious to

some extent. We look
around, make gener-
alizations, and try to
understand what we
see—for example, we
look up and wonder
whether one type of
cloud signals an on-
coming storm. As we
become serious
about exploring na- Figure 6. Isaac Newton
(1642–1727) was very
ture, we become reluctant to publish his
revolutionary work and
more organized and had to be convinced to do
formal in collecting so. In his later years, he
stepped down from his
and analyzing data. academic post and
became exchequer of the
We attempt greater Royal Mint. He took this
precision, perform post seriously, inventing
reeding (or creating
controlled experi- ridges) on the edge of
coins to prevent
ments (if we can), unscrupulous people from
and write down ideas trimming the silver off of
them before using them
about how the data as currency. (credit: Arthur
Shuster and Arthur E.
may be organized Shipley: Britain’s Heritage
and unified. We then of Science. London, 1917.)

formulate models,
theories, and laws
based on the data
we have collected
and analyzed to gen-
eralize and communi-
cate the results of
these experiments.

A model is a repre-
Figure 7. Marie Curie
(1867–1934) sacrificed sentation of some-
monetary assets to help
finance her early research thing that is often too
and damaged her difficult (or impossi-
physical well-being with
radiation exposure. She is ble) to display direct-
the only person to win
Nobel prizes in both ly. While a model is
physics and chemistry. justified with experi-
One of her daughters also
won a Nobel Prize. (credit: mental proof, it is
Wikimedia Commons)
only accurate under
limited situations. An
example is the planetary model of the atom in
which electrons are pictured as orbiting the nu-
cleus, analogous to the way planets orbit the
Sun. (See Figure 8.) We cannot observe elec-
tron orbits directly, but the mental image helps
explain the observations we can make, such as
the emission of light from hot gases (atomic
spectra). Physicists use models for a variety of
purposes. For example, models can help physi-
cists analyze a scenario and perform a calcula-
tion, or they can be used to represent a situa-
tion in the form of a computer simulation. A the-
ory is an explanation for patterns in nature that
is supported by scientific evidence and verified
multiple times by various groups of re-
searchers. Some theories include models to
help visualize phenomena, whereas others do
not. Newton’s theory of gravity, for example,
does not require a model or mental image, be-
cause we can observe the objects directly with
our own senses. The kinetic theory of gases, on
the other hand, is a model in which a gas is
viewed as being composed of atoms and mole-
cules. Atoms and molecules are too small to be
observed directly with our senses—thus, we
picture them mentally to understand what our
instruments tell us about the behavior of gases.

A law uses concise language to describe a

generalized pattern in nature that is supported
by scientific evidence and repeated experi-
ments. Often, a law can be expressed in the
form of a single mathematical equation. Laws
and theories are similar in that they are both
scientific statements that result from a tested
hypothesis and are supported by scientific evi-
dence. However, the designation law is re-
served for a concise and very general state-
ment that describes phenomena in nature, such
as the law that energy is conserved during any
process, or Newton’s second law of motion,
which relates force, mass, and acceleration by
the simple equation F = ma. A theory, in con-
trast, is a less concise statement of observed
phenomena. For example, the Theory of Evolu-
tion and the Theory of Relativity cannot be ex-
pressed concisely enough to be considered a
law. The biggest difference between a law and
a theory is that a theory is much more complex
and dynamic. A law describes a single action,
whereas a theory explains an entire group of
related phenomena. And, whereas a law is a
postulate that forms the foundation of the sci-
entific method, a theory is the end result of that
process.

Less broadly applicable statements are usually

called principles (such as Pascal’s principle,
which is applicable only in fluids), but the dis-
tinction between laws and principles often is
not carefully made.

Figure 8. What is a model? This planetary model of the

atom shows electrons orbiting the nucleus. It is a
drawing that we use to form a mental image of the atom
that we cannot see directly with our eyes because it is
too small.

MODELS, THEORIES, AND LAWS

Models, theories, and laws are used to help

scientists analyze the data they have al-
ready collected. However, often after a mod-
el, theory, or law has been developed, it
points scientists toward new discoveries
they would not otherwise have made.

The models, theories, and laws we devise

sometimes imply the existence of objects or
phenomena as yet unobserved. These predic-
tions are remarkable triumphs and tributes to
the power of science. It is the underlying order
in the universe that enables scientists to make
such spectacular predictions. However, if ex-
periment does not verify our predictions, then
the theory or law is wrong, no matter how ele-
gant or convenient it is. Laws can never be
known with absolute certainty because it is im-
possible to perform every imaginable experi-
ment in order to confirm a law in every possible
scenario. Physicists operate under the assump-
tion that all scientific laws and theories are valid
until a counterexample is observed. If a good-
quality, verifiable experiment contradicts a well-
established law, then the law must be modified
or overthrown completely.

The study of science in general and physics in

particular is an adventure much like the explo-
ration of uncharted ocean. Discoveries are
made; models, theories, and laws are formulat-
ed; and the beauty of the physical universe is
made more sublime for the insights gained.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

As scientists inquire and gather infor-

mation about the world, they follow a
process called the scientific method.
This process typically begins with an
observation and question that the sci-
entist will research. Next, the scientist
typically performs some research
about the topic and then devises a hy-
pothesis. Then, the scientist will test
the hypothesis by performing an ex-
periment. Finally, the scientist analyzes
the results of the experiment and
draws a conclusion. Note that the sci-
entific method can be applied to many
situations that are not limited to sci-
ence, and this method can be modified
to suit the situation.

Consider an example. Let us say that

you try to turn on your car, but it will
not start. You undoubtedly wonder:
Why will the car not start? You can fol-
low a scientific method to answer this
question. First off, you may perform
some research to determine a variety
of reasons why the car will not start.
Next, you will state a hypothesis. For
example, you may believe that the car
is not starting because it has no engine
oil. To test this, you open the hood of
the car and examine the oil level. You
observe that the oil is at an acceptable
level, and you thus conclude that the
oil level is not contributing to your car
issue. To troubleshoot the issue further,
you may devise a new hypothesis to
test and then repeat the process again.

The Evolution of Natural Philosophy

into Modern Physics

Physics was not always a separate and distinct

discipline. It remains connected to other sci-
ences to this day. The word physics comes
from Greek, meaning nature. The study of na-
ture came to be called “natural philosophy.”
From ancient times through the Renaissance,
natural philosophy encompassed many fields,
including astronomy, biology, chemistry,
physics, mathematics, and medicine. Over the
last few centuries, the growth of knowledge
has resulted in ever-increasing specialization
and branching of natural philosophy into sepa-
rate fields, with physics retaining the most basic
facets. (See Figure 9, Figure 10, and Figure 11.)
Physics as it developed from the Renaissance
to the end of the 19th century is called classical
physics. It was transformed into modern
physics by revolutionary discoveries made
starting at the beginning of the 20th century.

Classical physics is
not an exact descrip-
tion of the universe,
but it is an excellent
approximation under
the following condi-
tions: Matter must be
moving at speeds
less than about 1% of
the speed of light,
Figure 9. Over the the objects dealt with
centuries, natural
philosophy has evolved must be large
into more specialized
disciplines, as illustrated
enough to be seen
by the contributions of with a microscope,
some of the greatest
minds in history. The and only weak gravi-
Greek philosopher
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)
tational fields, such
wrote on a broad range of as the field generat-
topics including physics,
animals, the soul, politics, ed by the Earth, can
and poetry. (credit:
Jastrow (2006)/Ludovisi
be involved. Because
Collection) humans live under

such circumstances,
classical physics
seems intuitively rea-
sonable, while many
aspects of modern
physics seem bizarre.
This is why models
are so useful in mod-
ern physics—they let
us conceptualize
Figure 11. Galileo Galilei
phenomena we do (1564–1642) laid the
foundation of modern
not ordinarily experi- experimentation and
ence. We can relate made contributions in
mathematics, physics, and
to models in human astronomy. (credit:
Domenico Tintoretto)
terms and visualize

what happens when

objects move at high
speeds or imagine
what objects too
small to observe with
our senses might be
like. For example, we
can understand an
atom’s properties be-
Figure 10. Niels Bohr cause we can picture
(1885–1962) made
fundamental contributions it in our minds, al-
to the development of though we have nev-
quantum mechanics, one
part of modern physics. er seen an atom with
(credit: United States
Library of Congress Prints our eyes. New tools,
and Photographs Division) of course, allow us to
better picture phe-
nomena we cannot see. In fact, new instrumen-
tation has allowed us in recent years to actually
“picture” the atom.

LIMITS ON THE LAWS OF CLASSICAL

PHYSICS

For the laws of classical physics to apply, the

following criteria must be met: Matter must
be moving at speeds less than about 1% of
the speed of light, the objects dealt with
must be large enough to be seen with a mi-
croscope, and only weak gravitational fields
(such as the field generated by the Earth)
can be involved.

Some of the most

spectacular ad-
vances in science
have been made in
modern physics.
Many of the laws of
classical physics
have been modified
Figure 12. Using a
or rejected, and revo- scanning tunneling
microscope (STM),
lutionary changes in scientists can see the
technology, society, individual atoms that
compose this sheet of
and our view of the gold. (credit: Erwinrossen)

universe have result-

ed. Like science fiction, modern physics is filled
with fascinating objects beyond our normal ex-
periences, but it has the advantage over sci-
ence fiction of being very real. Why, then, is the