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Mathematics
Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, theories and theorems that
are developed and proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are
many areas of mathematics, which include number theory (the study of numbers), algebra (the
study of formulas and related structures), geometry (the study of shapes and spaces that contain
them), analysis (the study of continuous changes), and set theory (presently used as a foundation
for all mathematics).

Mathematics involves the description and manipulation of abstract objects that consist of either
abstractions from nature or—in modern mathematics—purely abstract entities that are stipulated
to have certain properties, called axioms. Mathematics uses pure reason to prove properties of
objects, a proof consisting of a succession of applications of deductive rules to already established
results. These results include previously proved theorems, axioms, and—in case of abstraction
from nature—some basic properties that are considered true starting points of the theory under
consideration.[1]

Mathematics is essential in the natural sciences, engineering, medicine, finance, computer science,
and the social sciences. Although mathematics is extensively used for modeling phenomena, the
fundamental truths of mathematics are independent of any scientific experimentation. Some areas
of mathematics, such as statistics and game theory, are developed in close correlation with their
applications and are often grouped under applied mathematics. Other areas are developed
independently from any application (and are therefore called pure mathematics) but often later
find practical applications.[2][3]

Historically, the concept of a proof and its associated mathematical rigour first appeared in Greek
mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements.[4] Since its beginning, mathematics was primarily
divided into geometry and arithmetic (the manipulation of natural numbers and fractions), until
the 16th and 17th centuries, when algebra[a] and infinitesimal calculus were introduced as new
fields. Since then, the interaction between mathematical innovations and scientific discoveries has
led to a correlated increase in the development of both.[5] At the end of the 19th century, the
foundational crisis of mathematics led to the systematization of the axiomatic method,[6] which
heralded a dramatic increase in the number of mathematical areas and their fields of application.
The contemporary Mathematics Subject Classification lists more than sixty first-level areas of
mathematics.

Areas of mathematics
Before the Renaissance, mathematics was divided into two main areas: arithmetic, regarding the
manipulation of numbers, and geometry, regarding the study of shapes.[7] Some types of
pseudoscience, such as numerology and astrology, were not then clearly distinguished from
mathematics.[8]

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During the Renaissance, two more areas appeared. Mathematical notation led to algebra which,
roughly speaking, consists of the study and the manipulation of formulas. Calculus, consisting of
the two subfields differential calculus and integral calculus, is the study of continuous functions,
which model the typically nonlinear relationships between varying quantities, as represented by
variables. This division into four main areas—arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and calculus[9]—
endured until the end of the 19th century. Areas such as celestial mechanics and solid mechanics
were then studied by mathematicians, but now are considered as belonging to physics.[10] The
subject of combinatorics has been studied for much of recorded history, yet did not become a
separate branch of mathematics until the seventeenth century.[11]

At the end of the 19th century, the foundational crisis in mathematics and the resulting
systematization of the axiomatic method led to an explosion of new areas of mathematics.[12][6]
The 2020 Mathematics Subject Classification contains no less than sixty-three first-level areas.[13]
Some of these areas correspond to the older division, as is true regarding number theory (the
modern name for higher arithmetic) and geometry. Several other first-level areas have "geometry"
in their names or are otherwise commonly considered part of geometry. Algebra and calculus do
not appear as first-level areas but are respectively split into several first-level areas. Other first-
level areas emerged during the 20th century or had not previously been considered as
mathematics, such as mathematical logic and foundations.[14]

Number theory
Number theory began with the manipulation of numbers, that
is, natural numbers and later expanded to integers
and rational numbers Number theory was once called
arithmetic, but nowadays this term is mostly used for
numerical calculations.[15] Number theory dates back to
ancient Babylon and probably China. Two prominent early
number theorists were Euclid of ancient Greece and
Diophantus of Alexandria.[16] The modern study of number
theory in its abstract form is largely attributed to Pierre de
Fermat and Leonhard Euler. The field came to full fruition with
the contributions of Adrien-Marie Legendre and Carl Friedrich
This is the Ulam spiral, which
Gauss.[17]
illustrates the distribution of prime
numbers. The dark diagonal lines in
Many easily stated number problems have solutions that
the spiral hint at the hypothesized
require sophisticated methods, often from across mathematics. approximate independence between
A prominent example is Fermat's Last Theorem. This being prime and being a value of a
conjecture was stated in 1637 by Pierre de Fermat, but it was quadratic polynomial, a conjecture
proved only in 1994 by Andrew Wiles, who used tools including now known as Hardy and
scheme theory from algebraic geometry, category theory, and Littlewood's Conjecture F.
homological algebra.[18] Another example is Goldbach's
conjecture, which asserts that every even integer greater than 2
is the sum of two prime numbers. Stated in 1742 by Christian Goldbach, it remains unproven
despite considerable effort.[19]

Number theory includes several subareas, including analytic number theory, algebraic number
theory, geometry of numbers (method oriented), diophantine equations, and transcendence theory
(problem oriented).[14]

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Geometry
Geometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It
started with empirical recipes concerning shapes, such as lines,
angles and circles, which were developed mainly for the needs
of surveying and architecture, but has since blossomed out into
many other subfields.[20]

A fundamental innovation was the ancient Greeks' introduction

of the concept of proofs, which require that every assertion
must be proved. For example, it is not sufficient to verify by
measurement that, say, two lengths are equal; their equality On the surface of a sphere,
must be proven via reasoning from previously accepted results Euclidean geometry only applies as
(theorems) and a few basic statements. The basic statements a local approximation. For larger
are not subject to proof because they are self-evident scales the sum of the angles of a
triangle is not equal to 180°.
(postulates), or are part of the definition of the subject of study
(axioms). This principle, foundational for all mathematics, was
first elaborated for geometry, and was systematized by Euclid around 300 BC in his book
Elements.[21][22]

The resulting Euclidean geometry is the study of shapes and their arrangements constructed from
lines, planes and circles in the Euclidean plane (plane geometry) and the three-dimensional
Euclidean space.[b][20]

Euclidean geometry was developed without change of methods or scope until the 17th century,
when René Descartes introduced what is now called Cartesian coordinates. This constituted a
major change of paradigm: Instead of defining real numbers as lengths of line segments (see
number line), it allowed the representation of points using their coordinates, which are numbers.
Algebra (and later, calculus) can thus be used to solve geometrical problems. Geometry was split
into two new subfields: synthetic geometry, which uses purely geometrical methods, and analytic
geometry, which uses coordinates systemically.[23]

Analytic geometry allows the study of curves unrelated to circles and lines. Such curves can be
defined as the graph of functions, the study of which led to differential geometry. They can also be
defined as implicit equations, often polynomial equations (which spawned algebraic geometry).
Analytic geometry also makes it possible to consider Euclidean spaces of higher than three
dimensions.[20]

In the 19th century, mathematicians discovered non-Euclidean geometries, which do not follow the
parallel postulate. By questioning that postulate's truth, this discovery has been viewed as joining
Russell's paradox in revealing the foundational crisis of mathematics. This aspect of the crisis was
solved by systematizing the axiomatic method, and adopting that the truth of the chosen axioms is
not a mathematical problem.[24][6] In turn, the axiomatic method allows for the study of various
geometries obtained either by changing the axioms or by considering properties that do not change
under specific transformations of the space.[25]

Today's subareas of geometry include:[14]

Projective geometry, introduced in the 16th century by Girard Desargues, extends Euclidean
geometry by adding points at infinity at which parallel lines intersect. This simplifies many
aspects of classical geometry by unifying the treatments for intersecting and parallel lines.

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Affine geometry, the study of properties relative to parallelism and independent from the
concept of length.
Differential geometry, the study of curves, surfaces, and their generalizations, which are
defined using differentiable functions.
Manifold theory, the study of shapes that are not necessarily embedded in a larger space.
Riemannian geometry, the study of distance properties in curved spaces.
Algebraic geometry, the study of curves, surfaces, and their generalizations, which are defined
using polynomials.
Topology, the study of properties that are kept under continuous deformations.
Algebraic topology, the use in topology of algebraic methods, mainly homological algebra.
Discrete geometry, the study of finite configurations in geometry.
Convex geometry, the study of convex sets, which takes its importance from its applications in
optimization.
Complex geometry, the geometry obtained by replacing real numbers with complex numbers.

Algebra
Algebra is the art of manipulating equations and formulas.
Diophantus (3rd century) and al-Khwarizmi (9th century) were
the two main precursors of algebra.[27][28] Diophantus solved
some equations involving unknown natural numbers by
The quadratic formula, which
deducing new relations until he obtained the solution.[29] Al-
concisely expresses the solutions of
Khwarizmi introduced systematic methods for transforming all quadratic equations
equations, such as moving a term from one side of an equation
into the other side.[30] The term algebra is derived from the
Arabic word al-jabr meaning 'the reunion of broken parts' that
he used for naming one of these methods in the title of his main
treatise.[31][32]

Algebra became an area in its own right only with François

Viète (1540–1603), who introduced the use of variables for
representing unknown or unspecified numbers.[33] Variables
allow mathematicians to describe the operations that have to
be done on the numbers represented using mathematical
formulas.[34]

Until the 19th century, algebra consisted mainly of the study of The Rubik's Cube group is a
linear equations (presently linear algebra), and polynomial concrete application of group
equations in a single unknown, which were called algebraic theory.[26]
equations (a term still in use, although it may be ambiguous).
During the 19th century, mathematicians began to use
variables to represent things other than numbers (such as matrices, modular integers, and
geometric transformations), on which generalizations of arithmetic operations are often valid.[35]
The concept of algebraic structure addresses this, consisting of a set whose elements are
unspecified, of operations acting on the elements of the set, and rules that these operations must
follow. The scope of algebra thus grew to include the study of algebraic structures. This object of
algebra was called modern algebra or abstract algebra, as established by the influence and works
of Emmy Noether.[36]

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Some types of algebraic structures have useful and often fundamental properties, in many areas of
mathematics. Their study became autonomous parts of algebra, and include:[14]

group theory
field theory
vector spaces, whose study is essentially the same as linear algebra
ring theory
commutative algebra, which is the study of commutative rings, includes the study of
polynomials, and is a foundational part of algebraic geometry
homological algebra
Lie algebra and Lie group theory
Boolean algebra, which is widely used for the study of the logical structure of computers
The study of types of algebraic structures as mathematical objects is the purpose of universal
algebra and category theory.[37] The latter applies to every mathematical structure (not only
algebraic ones). At its origin, it was introduced, together with homological algebra for allowing the
algebraic study of non-algebraic objects such as topological spaces; this particular area of
application is called algebraic topology.[38]

Calculus and analysis

Calculus, formerly called infinitesimal calculus, was introduced
independently and simultaneously by 17th-century
mathematicians Newton and Leibniz. [39] It is fundamentally
the study of the relationship of variables that depend on each
other. Calculus was expanded in the 18th century by Euler with
the introduction of the concept of a function and many other
results.[40] Presently, "calculus" refers mainly to the A Cauchy sequence consists of
elementary part of this theory, and "analysis" is commonly elements such that all subsequent
used for advanced parts.[41] terms of a term become arbitrarily
close to each other as the sequence
Analysis is further subdivided into real analysis, where progresses (from left to right).
variables represent real numbers, and complex analysis, where
variables represent complex numbers. Analysis includes many
subareas shared by other areas of mathematics which include:[14]

Multivariable calculus
Functional analysis, where variables represent varying functions
Integration, measure theory and potential theory, all strongly related with probability theory on a
continuum
Ordinary differential equations
Partial differential equations
Numerical analysis, mainly devoted to the computation on computers of solutions of ordinary
and partial differential equations that arise in many applications

Discrete mathematics
Discrete mathematics, broadly speaking, is the study of individual, countable mathematical
objects. An example is the set of all integers.[42] Because the objects of study here are discrete, the
methods of calculus and mathematical analysis do not directly apply.[c] Algorithms—especially

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their implementation and computational complexity—play a

major role in discrete mathematics.[43]

The four color theorem and optimal sphere packing were two
major problems of discrete mathematics solved in the second
half of the 20th century.[44] The P versus NP problem, which
remains open to this day, is also important for discrete
mathematics, since its solution would potentially impact a large
number of computationally difficult problems.[45]

Discrete mathematics includes:[14]

A diagram representing a two-state
Combinatorics, the art of enumerating mathematical objects
Markov chain. The states are
that satisfy some given constraints. Originally, these objects
represented by 'A' and 'E'. The
were elements or subsets of a given set; this has been
extended to various objects, which establishes a strong link numbers are the probability of
between combinatorics and other parts of discrete flipping the state.
mathematics. For example, discrete geometry includes
counting configurations of geometric shapes.
Graph theory and hypergraphs
Coding theory, including error correcting codes and a part of cryptography
Matroid theory
Discrete geometry
Discrete probability distributions
Game theory (although continuous games are also studied, most common games, such as
chess and poker are discrete)
Discrete optimization, including combinatorial optimization, integer programming, constraint
programming

Mathematical logic and set theory

The two subjects of mathematical logic and set theory have
belonged to mathematics since the end of the 19th
century.[46][47] Before this period, sets were not considered to
be mathematical objects, and logic, although used for
mathematical proofs, belonged to philosophy and was not
specifically studied by mathematicians.[48]

Before Cantor's study of infinite sets, mathematicians were

reluctant to consider actually infinite collections, and The Venn diagram is a commonly
considered infinity to be the result of endless enumeration. used method to illustrate the
relations between sets.
Cantor's work offended many mathematicians not only by
considering actually infinite sets[49] but by showing that this
implies different sizes of infinity, per Cantor's diagonal argument. This led to the controversy over
Cantor's set theory.[50] In the same period, various areas of mathematics concluded the former
intuitive definitions of the basic mathematical objects were insufficient for ensuring mathematical
rigour.[51]

This became the foundational crisis of mathematics.[52] It was eventually solved in mainstream
mathematics by systematizing the axiomatic method inside a formalized set theory. Roughly
speaking, each mathematical object is defined by the set of all similar objects and the properties
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that these objects must have.[12]

For example, in Peano arithmetic, the natural numbers are
defined by "zero is a number", "each number has a unique successor", "each number but zero has a
unique predecessor", and some rules of reasoning.[53] This mathematical abstraction from reality
is embodied in the modern philosophy of formalism, as founded by David Hilbert around 1910.[54]

The "nature" of the objects defined this way is a philosophical problem that mathematicians leave
to philosophers, even if many mathematicians have opinions on this nature, and use their opinion
—sometimes called "intuition"—to guide their study and proofs. The approach allows considering
"logics" (that is, sets of allowed deducing rules), theorems, proofs, etc. as mathematical objects,
and to prove theorems about them. For example, Gödel's incompleteness theorems assert, roughly
speaking that, in every consistent formal system that contains the natural numbers, there are
theorems that are true (that is provable in a stronger system), but not provable inside the
system.[55] This approach to the foundations of mathematics was challenged during the first half of
the 20th century by mathematicians led by Brouwer, who promoted intuitionistic logic, which
explicitly lacks the law of excluded middle.[56][57]

These problems and debates led to a wide expansion of mathematical logic, with subareas such as
model theory (modeling some logical theories inside other theories), proof theory, type theory,
computability theory and computational complexity theory.[14] Although these aspects of
mathematical logic were introduced before the rise of computers, their use in compiler design,
formal verification, program analysis, proof assistants and other aspects of computer science,
contributed in turn to the expansion of these logical theories.[58]

Statistics and other decision sciences

The field of statistics is a mathematical
application that is employed for the collection
and processing of data samples, using
procedures based on mathematical methods
especially probability theory. Statisticians
generate data with random sampling or
randomized experiments.[60]
Whatever the form of a random population distribution
Statistical theory studies decision problems (μ), the sampling mean (x̄) tends to a Gaussian
such as minimizing the risk (expected loss) of a distribution and its variance (σ) is given by the central
statistical action, such as using a procedure in, limit theorem of probability theory.[59]
for example, parameter estimation, hypothesis
testing, and selecting the best. In these
traditional areas of mathematical statistics, a statistical-decision problem is formulated by
minimizing an objective function, like expected loss or cost, under specific constraints. For
example, designing a survey often involves minimizing the cost of estimating a population mean
with a given level of confidence.[61] Because of its use of optimization, the mathematical theory of
statistics overlaps with other decision sciences, such as operations research, control theory, and
mathematical economics.[62]

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Computational mathematics
Computational mathematics is the study of mathematical problems that are typically too large for
human, numerical capacity.[63][64] Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis
using functional analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis broadly includes the study
of approximation and discretization with special focus on rounding errors.[65] Numerical analysis
and, more broadly, scientific computing also study non-analytic topics of mathematical science,
especially algorithmic-matrix-and-graph theory. Other areas of computational mathematics
include computer algebra and symbolic computation.

History

Etymology
The word mathematics comes from the Ancient Greek word máthēma (μάθημα), meaning
'something learned, knowledge, mathematics', and the derived expression mathēmatikḗ tékhnē
(μαθηματικὴ τέχνη), meaning 'mathematical science'. It entered the English language during the
Late Middle English period through French and Latin.[66]

Similarly, one of the two main schools of thought in Pythagoreanism was known as the
mathēmatikoi (μαθηματικοί)—which at the time meant "learners" rather than "mathematicians" in
the modern sense. The Pythagoreans were likely the first to constrain the use of the word to just
the study of arithmetic and geometry. By the time of Aristotle (384–322 BC) this meaning was fully
established.[67]

In Latin and English, until around 1700, the term mathematics more commonly meant "astrology"
(or sometimes "astronomy") rather than "mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its
present one from about 1500 to 1800. This change has resulted in several mistranslations: For
example, Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should beware of mathematici, meaning
"astrologers", is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.[68]

The apparent plural form in English goes back to the Latin neuter plural mathematica (Cicero),
based on the Greek plural ta mathēmatiká (τὰ μαθηματικά) and means roughly "all things
mathematical", although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective mathematic(al)
and formed the noun mathematics anew, after the pattern of physics and metaphysics, inherited
from Greek.[69] In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular verb. It is often shortened to
maths[70] or, in North America, math.[71]

Ancient
In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also known
how to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.[72][73] Evidence for more
complex mathematics does not appear until around 3000 BC, when the Babylonians and Egyptians
began using arithmetic, algebra, and geometry for taxation and other financial calculations, for
building and construction, and for astronomy.[74] The oldest mathematical texts from
Mesopotamia and Egypt are from 2000 to 1800 BC.[75] Many early texts mention Pythagorean
triples and so, by inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient and
widespread mathematical concept after basic arithmetic and geometry. It is in Babylonian

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mathematics that elementary arithmetic (addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division) first appear in the archaeological
record. The Babylonians also possessed a place-value system
and used a sexagesimal numeral system which is still in use
today for measuring angles and time.[76]

In the 6th century BC, Greek mathematics began to emerge as a

distinct discipline and some Ancient Greeks such as the
Pythagoreans appeared to have considered it a subject in its The Babylonian mathematical tablet
own right. [77] Around 300 BC, Euclid organized mathematical Plimpton 322, dated to 1800 BC
knowledge by way of postulates and first principles, which
evolved into the axiomatic method that is used in mathematics
today, consisting of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof.[78] His book, Elements, is widely
considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time.[79] The greatest mathematician
of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287 – c. 212 BC) of Syracuse.[80] He developed
formulas for calculating the surface area and volume of solids of revolution and used the method of
exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite
series, in a manner not too dissimilar from modern calculus.[81] Other notable achievements of
Greek mathematics are conic sections (Apollonius of Perga, 3rd century BC),[82] trigonometry
(Hipparchus of Nicaea, 2nd century BC),[83] and the beginnings of algebra (Diophantus, 3rd
century AD).[84]

The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the

rules for the use of its operations, in use
throughout the world today, evolved over the
course of the first millennium AD in India and The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated
were transmitted to the Western world via between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD
Islamic mathematics.[85] Other notable
developments of Indian mathematics include
the modern definition and approximation of sine and cosine, and an early form of infinite
series.[86][87]

Medieval and later

During the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and
10th centuries, mathematics saw many important innovations building
on Greek mathematics. The most notable achievement of Islamic
mathematics was the development of algebra. Other achievements of the
Islamic period include advances in spherical trigonometry and the
addition of the decimal point to the Arabic numeral system.[88] Many
notable mathematicians from this period were Persian, such as Al-
Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam and Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī.[89] The Greek and
Arabic mathematical texts were in turn translated to Latin during the
Middle Ages and made available in Europe.[90]

During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an

accelerating pace in Western Europe, with innovations that A page from al-
Khwarizmi's Al-Jabr
revolutionized mathematics, such as the introduction of variables and
symbolic notation by François Viète (1540–1603), the introduction of

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logarithms by John Napier in 1614, which greatly simplified numerical calculations, especially for
astronomy and marine navigation, the introduction of coordinates by René Descartes (1596–1650)
for reducing geometry to algebra, and the development of calculus by Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
and Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), the most notable mathematician
of the 18th century, unified these innovations into a single corpus with a standardized terminology,
and completed them with the discovery and the proof of numerous theorems.[91]

Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the

German mathematician Carl Gauss, who made numerous
contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential
geometry, matrix theory, number theory, and statistics.[92] In the
early 20th century, Kurt Gödel transformed mathematics by
publishing his incompleteness theorems, which show in part that any
consistent axiomatic system—if powerful enough to describe
arithmetic—will contain true propositions that cannot be proved.[55]

Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a
fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit
of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made to this very
Carl Friedrich Gauss
day. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of
the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, "The number of
papers and books included in the Mathematical Reviews (MR) database since 1940 (the first year
of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to
the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new
mathematical theorems and their proofs."[93]

Symbolic notation and terminology

Mathematical notation is widely used in science and
engineering for representing complex concepts and properties
in a concise, unambiguous, and accurate way. This notation
consists of symbols used for representing operations,
unspecified numbers, relations and any other mathematical
objects, and then assembling them into expressions and
formulas.[94] More precisely, numbers and other mathematical
objects are represented by symbols called variables, which are
An explanation of the sigma (Σ)
generally Latin or Greek letters, and often include subscripts.
summation notation
Operation and relations are generally represented by specific
symbols or glyphs,[95] such as + (plus), × (multiplication),
(integral), = (equal), and < (less than).[96] All these symbols are generally grouped according to
specific rules to form expressions and formulas.[97] Normally, expressions and formulas do not
appear alone, but are included in sentences of the current language, where expressions play the
role of noun phrases and formulas play the role of clauses.

Mathematics has developed a rich terminology covering a broad range of fields that study the
properties of various abstract, idealized objects and how they interact. It is based on rigorous
definitions that provide a standard foundation for communication. An axiom or postulate is a
mathematical statement that is taken to be true without need of proof. If a mathematical statement

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has yet to be proven (or disproven), it is termed a conjecture. Through a series of rigorous
arguments employing deductive reasoning, a statement that is proven to be true becomes a
theorem. A specialized theorem that is mainly used to prove another theorem is called a lemma. A
proven instance that forms part of a more general finding is termed a corollary.[98]

Numerous technical terms used in mathematics are neologisms, such as polynomial and
homeomorphism.[99] Other technical terms are words of the common language that are used in an
accurate meaning that may differ slightly from their common meaning. For example, in
mathematics, "or" means "one, the other or both", while, in common language, it is either
ambiguous or means "one or the other but not both" (in mathematics, the latter is called "exclusive
or"). Finally, many mathematical terms are common words that are used with a completely
different meaning.[100] This may lead to sentences that are correct and true mathematical
assertions, but appear to be nonsense to people who do not have the required background. For
example, "every free module is flat" and "a field is always a ring".

Relationship with sciences

Mathematics is used in most sciences for modeling phenomena, which then allows predictions to
be made from experimental laws.[101] The independence of mathematical truth from any
experimentation implies that the accuracy of such predictions depends only on the adequacy of the
model.[102] Inaccurate predictions, rather than being caused by invalid mathematical concepts,
imply the need to change the mathematical model used.[103] For example, the perihelion
precession of Mercury could only be explained after the emergence of Einstein's general relativity,
which replaced Newton's law of gravitation as a better mathematical model.[104]

There is still a philosophical debate whether mathematics is a science. However, in practice,

mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists, and mathematics shares much in common
with the physical sciences. Like them, it is falsifiable, which means in mathematics that, if a result
or a theory is wrong, this can be proved by providing a counterexample. Similarly as in science,
theories and results (theorems) are often obtained from experimentation.[105] In mathematics, the
experimentation may consist of computation on selected examples or of the study of figures or
other representations of mathematical objects (often mind representations without physical
support). For example, when asked how he came about his theorems, Gauss once replied "durch
planmässiges Tattonieren" (through systematic experimentation).[106] However, some authors
emphasize that mathematics differs from the modern notion of science by not relying on empirical
evidence.[107][108][109][110]

Pure and applied mathematics

Until the 19th century, the development of mathematics in the West was mainly motivated by the
needs of technology and science, and there was no clear distinction between pure and applied
mathematics.[111] For example, the natural numbers and arithmetic were introduced for the need
of counting, and geometry was motivated by surveying, architecture and astronomy. Later, Isaac
Newton introduced infinitesimal calculus for explaining the movement of the planets with his law
of gravitation. Moreover, most mathematicians were also scientists, and many scientists were also
mathematicians.[112] However, a notable exception occurred with the tradition of pure

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mathematics in Ancient
Greece.[113] The problem
of integer factorization,
for example, which goes
back to Euclid in 300 BC,
had no practical
application before its use
in the RSA cryptosystem,
now widely used for the
security of computer
networks.[114] Isaac Newton (left) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus.

In the 19th century,

mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass and Richard Dedekind increasingly focused their
research on internal problems, that is, pure mathematics.[111][115] This led to split mathematics
into pure mathematics and applied mathematics, the latter being often considered as having a
lower value among mathematical purists. However, the lines between the two are frequently
blurred.[116]

The aftermath of World War II led to a surge in the development of applied mathematics in the US
and elsewhere.[117][118] Many of the theories developed for applications were found interesting
from the point of view of pure mathematics, and many results of pure mathematics were shown to
have applications outside mathematics; in turn, the study of these applications may give new
insights on the "pure theory".[119][120]

An example of the first case is the theory of distributions, introduced by Laurent Schwartz for
validating computations done in quantum mechanics, which became immediately an important
tool of (pure) mathematical analysis.[121] An example of the second case is the decidability of the
first-order theory of the real numbers, a problem of pure mathematics that was proved true by
Alfred Tarski, with an algorithm that is impossible to implement because of a computational
complexity that is much too high.[122] For getting an algorithm that can be implemented and can
solve systems of polynomial equations and inequalities, George Collins introduced the cylindrical
algebraic decomposition that became a fundamental tool in real algebraic geometry.[123]

In the present day, the distinction between pure and applied mathematics is more a question of
personal research aim of mathematicians than a division of mathematics into broad areas.[124][125]
The Mathematics Subject Classification has a section for "general applied mathematics" but does
not mention "pure mathematics".[14] However, these terms are still used in names of some
university departments, such as at the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge.

Unreasonable effectiveness
The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics is a phenomenon that was named and first made
explicit by physicist Eugene Wigner.[3] It is the fact that many mathematical theories (even the
"purest") have applications outside their initial object. These applications may be completely
outside their initial area of mathematics, and may concern physical phenomena that were
completely unknown when the mathematical theory was introduced.[126] Examples of unexpected
applications of mathematical theories can be found in many areas of mathematics.

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A notable example is the prime factorization of natural numbers that was discovered more than
2,000 years before its common use for secure internet communications through the RSA
cryptosystem.[127] A second historical example is the theory of ellipses. They were studied by the
ancient Greek mathematicians as conic sections (that is, intersections of cones with planes). It was
almost 2,000 years later that Johannes Kepler discovered that the trajectories of the planets are
ellipses.[128]

In the 19th century, the internal development of geometry (pure mathematics) led to definition and
study of non-Euclidean geometries, spaces of dimension higher than three and manifolds. At this
time, these concepts seemed totally disconnected from the physical reality, but at the beginning of
the 20th century, Albert Einstein developed the theory of relativity that uses fundamentally these
concepts. In particular, spacetime of special relativity is a non-Euclidean space of dimension four,
and spacetime of general relativity is a (curved) manifold of dimension four.[129][130]

A striking aspect of the interaction between mathematics and physics is when mathematics drives
research in physics. This is illustrated by the discoveries of the positron and the baryon In
both cases, the equations of the theories had unexplained solutions, which led to conjecture of the
existence of an unknown particle, and the search for these particles. In both cases, these particles
were discovered a few years later by specific experiments.[131][132][133]

Specific sciences

Physics
Mathematics and physics have influenced each other over their
modern history. Modern physics uses mathematics
abundantly,[134] and is also considered to be the motivation of
major mathematical developments.[135]

Computing
Computing is closely related to mathematics in several
ways.[136] Theoretical computer science is considered to be
mathematical in nature.[137] Communication technologies
apply branches of mathematics that may be very old (e.g.,
arithmetic), especially with respect to transmission security, in
cryptography and coding theory. Discrete mathematics is
useful in many areas of computer science, such as complexity Diagram of a pendulum
theory, information theory, and graph theory.[138] In 1998, the
Kepler conjecture on sphere packing seemed to also be partially
proven by computer.[139]

Biology and chemistry

Biology uses probability extensively in fields such as ecology or neurobiology.[140] Most discussion
of probability centers on the concept of evolutionary fitness.[140] Ecology heavily uses modeling to
simulate population dynamics,[140][141] study ecosystems such as the predator-prey model,
measure pollution diffusion,[142] or to assess climate change.[143] The dynamics of a population can
be modeled by coupled differential equations, such as the Lotka–Volterra equations.[144]

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Statistical hypothesis testing, is run on data from clinical trials

to determine whether a new treatment works.[145] Since the
start of the 20th century, chemistry has used computing to
model molecules in three dimensions.[146]

Earth sciences
Structural geology and climatology use probabilistic models to
predict the risk of natural catastrophes.[147] Similarly,
meteorology, oceanography, and planetology also use
mathematics due to their heavy use of models.[148][149][150]
The skin of this giant pufferfish
Social sciences exhibits a Turing pattern, which can
be modeled by reaction–diffusion
Areas of mathematics used in the social sciences include systems.
probability/statistics and differential equations. These are used
in linguistics, economics, sociology,[151] and psychology.[152]

Often the fundamental postulate of mathematical economics is

that of the rational individual actor – Homo economicus
(lit. 'economic man').[153] In this model, the individual seeks to
maximize their self-interest,[153] and always makes optimal
choices using perfect information.[154] This atomistic view of
economics allows it to relatively easily mathematize its
thinking, because individual calculations are transposed into
mathematical calculations. Such mathematical modeling allows
one to probe economic mechanisms. Some reject or criticise the
concept of Homo economicus. Economists note that real people
have limited information, make poor choices and care about
fairness, altruism, not just personal gain.[155] Supply and demand curves, like this
one, are a staple of mathematical
Without mathematical modeling, it is hard to go beyond economics.
statistical observations or untestable speculation.
Mathematical modeling allows economists to create structured
frameworks to test hypotheses and analyze complex interactions. Models provide clarity and
precision, enabling the translation of theoretical concepts into quantifiable predictions that can be
tested against real-world data.[156]

At the start of the 20th century, there was a development to express historical movements in
formulas. In 1922, Nikolai Kondratiev discerned the ~50-year-long Kondratiev cycle, which
explains phases of economic growth or crisis.[157] Towards the end of the 19th century,
mathematicians extended their analysis into geopolitics.[158] Peter Turchin developed
cliodynamics since the 1990s.[159]

Mathematization of the social sciences is not without risk. In the controversial book Fashionable
Nonsense (1997), Sokal and Bricmont denounced the unfounded or abusive use of scientific
terminology, particularly from mathematics or physics, in the social sciences.[160] The study of
complex systems (evolution of unemployment, business capital, demographic evolution of a
population, etc.) uses mathematical knowledge. However, the choice of counting criteria,
particularly for unemployment, or of models, can be subject to controversy.[161][162]

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Philosophy

Reality
The connection between mathematics and material reality has led to philosophical debates since at
least the time of Pythagoras. The ancient philosopher Plato argued that abstractions that reflect
material reality have themselves a reality that exists outside space and time. As a result, the
philosophical view that mathematical objects somehow exist on their own in abstraction is often
referred to as Platonism. Independently of their possible philosophical opinions, modern
mathematicians may be generally considered as Platonists, since they think of and talk of their
objects of study as real objects.[163]

Armand Borel summarized this view of mathematics reality as follows, and provided quotations of
G. H. Hardy, Charles Hermite, Henri Poincaré and Albert Einstein that support his views.[131]

Something becomes objective (as opposed to "subjective") as soon as we are convinced

that it exists in the minds of others in the same form as it does in ours and that we can
think about it and discuss it together.[164] Because the language of mathematics is so
precise, it is ideally suited to defining concepts for which such a consensus exists. In my
opinion, that is sufficient to provide us with a feeling of an objective existence, of a reality
of mathematics ...

Nevertheless, Platonism and the concurrent views on abstraction do not explain the unreasonable
effectiveness of mathematics (as Platonism assumes mathematics exists independently, but does
not explain why it matches reality).[165]

Proposed definitions
There is no general consensus about the definition of mathematics or its epistemological status—
that is, its place inside knowledge. A great many professional mathematicians take no interest in a
definition of mathematics, or consider it undefinable. There is not even consensus on whether
mathematics is an art or a science. Some just say, "mathematics is what mathematicians
do".[166][167] A common approach is to define mathematics by its object of study.[168][169][170][171]

Aristotle defined mathematics as "the science of quantity" and this definition prevailed until the
18th century. However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish
mathematics from sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a
property "separable in thought" from real instances set mathematics apart.[172] In the 19th century,
when mathematicians began to address topics—such as infinite sets—which have no clear-cut
relation to physical reality, a variety of new definitions were given.[173] With the large number of
new areas of mathematics that have appeared since the beginning of the 20th century, defining
mathematics by its object of study has become increasingly difficult.[174] For example, in lieu of a
definition, Saunders Mac Lane in Mathematics, form and function summarizes the basics of
several areas of mathematics, emphasizing their inter-connectedness, and observes:[175]

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the development of Mathematics provides a tightly connected network of formal rules,

concepts, and systems. Nodes of this network are closely bound to procedures useful in
human activities and to questions arising in science. The transition from activities to the
formal Mathematical systems is guided by a variety of general insights and ideas.

Another approach for defining mathematics is to use its methods. For example, an area of study is
often qualified as mathematics as soon as one can prove theorems—assertions whose validity relies
on a proof, that is, a purely-logical deduction.[d][176]

Rigor
Mathematical reasoning requires rigor. This means that the definitions must be absolutely
unambiguous and the proofs must be reducible to a succession of applications of inference rules,[e]
without any use of empirical evidence and intuition.[f][177] Rigorous reasoning is not specific to
mathematics, but, in mathematics, the standard of rigor is much higher than elsewhere. Despite
mathematics' concision, rigorous proofs can require hundreds of pages to express, such as the 255-
page Feit–Thompson theorem.[g] The emergence of computer-assisted proofs has allowed proof
lengths to further expand.[h][178] The result of this trend is a philosophy of the quasi-empiricist
proof that can not be considered infallible, but has a probability attached to it.[6]

The concept of rigor in mathematics dates back to ancient Greece, where their society encouraged
logical, deductive reasoning. However, this rigorous approach would tend to discourage
exploration of new approaches, such as irrational numbers and concepts of infinity. The method of
demonstrating rigorous proof was enhanced in the sixteenth century through the use of symbolic
notation. In the 18th century, social transition led to mathematicians earning their keep through
teaching, which led to more careful thinking about the underlying concepts of mathematics. This
produced more rigorous approaches, while transitioning from geometric methods to algebraic and
then arithmetic proofs.[6]

At the end of the 19th century, it appeared that the definitions of the basic concepts of mathematics
were not accurate enough for avoiding paradoxes (non-Euclidean geometries and Weierstrass
function) and contradictions (Russell's paradox). This was solved by the inclusion of axioms with
the apodictic inference rules of mathematical theories; the re-introduction of axiomatic method
pioneered by the ancient Greeks.[6] It results that "rigor" is no more a relevant concept in
mathematics, as a proof is either correct or erroneous, and a "rigorous proof" is simply a pleonasm.
Where a special concept of rigor comes into play is in the socialized aspects of a proof, wherein it
may be demonstrably refuted by other mathematicians. After a proof has been accepted for many
years or even decades, it can then be considered as reliable.[179]

Nevertheless, the concept of "rigor" may remain useful for teaching to beginners what is a
mathematical proof.[180]

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Training and practice

Education
Mathematics has a remarkable ability to cross cultural boundaries and time periods. As a human
activity, the practice of mathematics has a social side, which includes education, careers,
recognition, popularization, and so on. In education, mathematics is a core part of the curriculum
and forms an important element of the STEM academic disciplines. Prominent careers for
professional mathematicians include math teacher or professor, statistician, actuary, financial
analyst, economist, accountant, commodity trader, or computer consultant.[181]

Archaeological evidence shows that instruction in mathematics occurred as early as the second
millennium BCE in ancient Babylonia.[182] Comparable evidence has been unearthed for scribal
mathematics training in the ancient Near East and then for the Greco-Roman world starting
around 300 BCE.[183] The oldest known mathematics textbook is the Rhind papyrus, dated from
c. 1650 BCE in Egypt.[184] Due to a scarcity of books, mathematical teachings in ancient India were
communicated using memorized oral tradition since the Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE).[185]
In Imperial China during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), a mathematics curriculum was adopted
for the civil service exam to join the state bureaucracy.[186]

Following the Dark Ages, mathematics education in Europe was provided by religious schools as
part of the Quadrivium. Formal instruction in pedagogy began with Jesuit schools in the 16th and
17th century. Most mathematical curricula remained at a basic and practical level until the
nineteenth century, when it began to flourish in France and Germany. The oldest journal
addressing instruction in mathematics was L'Enseignement Mathématique, which began
publication in 1899.[187] The Western advancements in science and technology led to the
establishment of centralized education systems in many nation-states, with mathematics as a core
component—initially for its military applications.[188] While the content of courses varies, in the
present day nearly all countries teach mathematics to students for significant amounts of time.[189]

During school, mathematical capabilities and positive expectations have a strong association with
career interest in the field. Extrinsic factors such as feedback motivation by teachers, parents, and
peer groups can influence the level of interest in mathematics.[190] Some students studying math
may develop an apprehension or fear about their performance in the subject. This is known as
math anxiety or math phobia, and is considered the most prominent of the disorders impacting
academic performance. Math anxiety can develop due to various factors such as parental and
teacher attitudes, social stereotypes, and personal traits. Help to counteract the anxiety can come
from changes in instructional approaches, by interactions with parents and teachers, and by
tailored treatments for the individual.[191]

Psychology (aesthetic, creativity and intuition)

The validity of a mathematical theorem relies only on the rigor of its proof, which could
theoretically be done automatically by a computer program. This does not mean that there is no
place for creativity in a mathematical work. On the contrary, many important mathematical results
(theorems) are solutions of problems that other mathematicians failed to solve, and the invention

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of a way for solving them may be a fundamental way of the solving process.[192][193] An extreme
example is Apery's theorem: Roger Apery provided only the ideas for a proof, and the formal proof
was given only several months later by three other mathematicians.[194]

Creativity and rigor are not the only psychological aspects of the activity of mathematicians. Some
mathematicians can see their activity as a game, more specifically as solving puzzles.[195] This
aspect of mathematical activity is emphasized in recreational mathematics.

Mathematicians can find an aesthetic value to mathematics. Like beauty, it is hard to define, it is
commonly related to elegance, which involves qualities like simplicity, symmetry, completeness,
and generality. G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that the aesthetic
considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. He also
identified other criteria such as significance, unexpectedness, and inevitability, which contribute to
mathematical aesthetics.[196] Paul Erdős expressed this sentiment more ironically by speaking of
"The Book", a supposed divine collection of the most beautiful proofs. The 1998 book Proofs from
THE BOOK, inspired by Erdős, is a collection of particularly succinct and revelatory mathematical
arguments. Some examples of particularly elegant results included are Euclid's proof that there are
infinitely many prime numbers and the fast Fourier transform for harmonic analysis.[197]

Some feel that to consider mathematics a science is to downplay its artistry and history in the
seven traditional liberal arts.[198] One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the
philosophical debate as to whether mathematical results are created (as in art) or discovered (as in
science).[131] The popularity of recreational mathematics is another sign of the pleasure many find
in solving mathematical questions.

Cultural impact

Artistic expression
Notes that sound well together to a Western ear are sounds whose fundamental frequencies of
vibration are in simple ratios. For example, an octave doubles the frequency and a perfect fifth
multiplies it by .[199][200]

Humans, as well as some other animals, find symmetric

patterns to be more beautiful.[201] Mathematically, the
symmetries of an object form a group known as the symmetry
group.[202] For example, the group underlying mirror
symmetry is the cyclic group of two elements, . A
Rorschach test is a figure invariant by this symmetry, [203] as
are butterfly and animal bodies more generally (at least on the
surface).[204] Waves on the sea surface possess translation
symmetry: moving one's viewpoint by the distance between
wave crests does not change one's view of the sea.[205] Fractals
possess self-similarity.[206][207]
Fractal with a scaling symmetry and
a central symmetry

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Popularization
Popular mathematics is the act of presenting mathematics without technical terms.[208] Presenting
mathematics may be hard since the general public suffers from mathematical anxiety and
mathematical objects are highly abstract.[209] However, popular mathematics writing can
overcome this by using applications or cultural links.[210] Despite this, mathematics is rarely the
topic of popularization in printed or televised media.

Awards and prize problems

The most prestigious award in mathematics is the Fields
Medal,[211][212] established in 1936 and awarded every four
years (except around World War II) to up to four
individuals.[213][214] It is considered the mathematical
equivalent of the Nobel Prize.[214]

Other prestigious mathematics awards include:[215]

The Abel Prize, instituted in 2002[216] and first awarded in

2003[217]
The Chern Medal for lifetime achievement, introduced in
2009[218] and first awarded in 2010[219] The front side of the Fields Medal
with an illustration of the Greek
The AMS Leroy P. Steele Prize, awarded since 1970[220] polymath Archimedes
The Wolf Prize in Mathematics, also for lifetime
achievement,[221] instituted in 1978[222]
A famous list of 23 open problems, called "Hilbert's problems", was compiled in 1900 by German
mathematician David Hilbert.[223] This list has achieved great celebrity among
mathematicians,[224] and at least thirteen of the problems (depending how some are interpreted)
have been solved.[223]

A new list of seven important problems, titled the "Millennium Prize Problems", was published in
2000. Only one of them, the Riemann hypothesis, duplicates one of Hilbert's problems. A solution
to any of these problems carries a 1 million dollar reward.[225] To date, only one of these problems,
the Poincaré conjecture, has been solved by the Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman.[226]

See also

Mathematics portal

Law (mathematics)
List of mathematical jargon
Lists of mathematicians
Lists of mathematics topics
Mathematical constant
Mathematical sciences
Mathematics and art
Mathematics education
Philosophy of mathematics
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Relationship between mathematics and physics

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

Notes
a. Here, algebra is taken in its modern sense, which is, roughly speaking, the art of manipulating
formulas.
b. This includes conic sections, which are intersections of circular cylinders and planes.
c. However, some advanced methods of analysis are sometimes used; for example, methods of
complex analysis applied to generating series.
d. For example, logic belongs to philosophy since Aristotle. Circa the end of the 19th century, the
foundational crisis of mathematics implied developments of logic that are specific to
mathematics. This allowed eventually the proof of theorems such as Gödel's theorems. Since
then, mathematical logic is commonly considered as an area of mathematics.
e. This does not mean to make explicit all inference rules that are used. On the contrary, this is
generally impossible, without computers and proof assistants. Even with this modern
technology, it may take years of human work for writing down a completely detailed proof.
f. This does not mean that empirical evidence and intuition are not needed for choosing the
theorems to be proved and to prove them.
g. This is the length of the original paper that does not contain the proofs of some previously
published auxiliary results. The book devoted to the complete proof has more than 1,000
pages.
h. For considering as reliable a large computation occurring in a proof, one generally requires two
computations using independent software

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Further reading
Benson, Donald C. (1999). The Moment of Proof: Mathematical Epiphanies (https://archive.org/
details/momentofproofmat00bens/page/n5/mode/2up). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-513919-8.
Davis, Philip J.; Hersh, Reuben (1999). The Mathematical Experience (Reprint ed.). Boston;
New York: Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-395-92968-1. Available online (https://archive.org/detail
s/mathematicalexpe0000davi/page/n5/mode/2up) (registration required).
Courant, Richard; Robbins, Herbert (1996). What Is Mathematics?: An Elementary Approach to
Ideas and Methods (https://archive.org/details/whatismathematic0000cour/page/n5/mode/2up)
(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510519-3.
Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers (https://archive.org/details/math
ematicsfromb1997gull/page/n5/mode/2up). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04002-
9.
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Kluwer Academic
Publishers. – A translated and expanded version of a Soviet mathematics encyclopedia, in ten
volumes. Also in paperback and on CD-ROM, and online (https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/
Special:AllPages). Archived (https://archive.today/20121220135247/http://www.encyclopediaof
math.org/) December 20, 2012, at archive.today.
Hodgkin, Luke Howard (2005). A History of Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to Modernity.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-152383-0.
Jourdain, Philip E. B. (2003). "The Nature of Mathematics". In James R. Newman (ed.). The
World of Mathematics. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-43268-7.
Pappas, Theoni (1986). The Joy Of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/joyofmathematics0
000papp_t0z1/page/n3/mode/2up). San Carlos, California: Wide World Publishing. ISBN 978-
0-933174-65-8.
Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von (1965) [1856]. Gauss zum Gedächtniss. Sändig
Reprint Verlag H. R. Wohlwend. ISBN 978-3-253-01702-5.

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