COMPUTER NETWORK

PRATIKSHA SAWANT
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS
 CHAPTER 1. INTRO. TO COMPUTER NETWORK
- DATA COMMUNICATION
- Characteristics of data communication, components, data representation, data flow.
- COMPUTER NETWORK
- Distributed processing, Physical structure-Point to Point, Broadcast, Categories of topology (mesh, star, ring, bus, etc.).
- CATEGORIES OF NETWORK
- LAN, WAN, MAN, INTERNET etc.
- PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
- Definition of protocol, key elements, Defacto & Dejure standard, Standards organizations.
- NETWORK SOFTWARE
- Protocol Hierarchies layers, protocols, peers, interfaces, network architecture, protocol stack design issues of the layers – addressing,
error control, multiplexing and demultiplexing, routing connection-oriented and connectionless service.
- SERVICE PRIMITIVES
- Listen, connect, receive, send, disconnect. The relationships of services to protocol.
 DATA COMMUNICATION

• The word DATA refers to INFORMATION presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.
• Difference between DATA and INFORMATION?
• DATA COMMUNCATION?
• Is the exchange of the data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• The combination of Hardware and Software.
• Characteristics of Data Communication
• 1. Delivery – The system must deliver data to correct destination.(MAC Address, IP Address)
• 2. Accuracy – The system must deliver the data accurately. (Altered data is unusable. )
• 3. Timeliness – The system must deliver data in a timely manner. (Timely means delivering data without of delay. Real time
transmission.)
• 4. Jitter – Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
DATA COMMUNICATION COMPONENTS :
1. MESSAGE (Text, numbers, pictures, audio, videos.)
2. SENDER(Computer, video camera, workstation)
3. RECEIVER (Computer, video camera, workstation)
4. TRANSMISSION MEDIUM (Twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable)
5. PROTOCOL (i.e. Language barrier)
 DATA REPRESENTATION
Information can be in any forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, video.
• TEXT -
• Text is represented as a bit pattern (Sequence of bits 0’s or 1’s ).
• Diff. sets of bits patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each sets called code, and the process of representing symbols
is called coding. Now its called UNICODE ( uses 32 bits to represent symbol or char in any lang. in the world). ASCII (American Standard
Code for information Interchange) constitutes the first 127 char. In UNICODE.
• NUMBERS –
• Like Text, numbers also represents bit pattern. Not used by ASCII but numbers directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations.
• IMAGES –
• Images also represented by a bit patterns. It composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements) , where each pixel is a small dot. The
size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
• Example – Image divide into 1000 pixels or 1000 pixels. There is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but it
require/needed to store the image.
• After the dividing an image into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and value of the pattern is depends on image.
• Image is made of only black-white dots, a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel.
• There are several methods to represents color images.
• RGB (RED, GREEN, BLUE)
• YCM (YELLOW, CYAN, MAGENTA)
• AUDIO –
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or images.
• It is CONTINOUS, not DISCRETE.
• VIDEO-
• Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous entity(i.e. TV
camera), or it can be a combination of images, such as discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
• DATA FLOW IN DATA COMMUNICATION –
Communication between two devices can be
Simplex, Half -Duplex, or Dull-Duplex.

- Simplex :
The communication is unidirectional. One-way street. Only one of
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.

- Half-Duplex:
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa.

- Full-Duplex:
Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The Full-Duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel,
however, must be divided between the two directions.
 COMPUTERS NETWORKS
• Distributed Processing:
• Takes a complex computing task and divides it among a network of individual machines (or nodes) which the complete their part of the task and
send it back to the complied into one seamless output.
• DP requires: 1. A network of individual workers or nodes.
2. Each with access to the same shared storage.
3. Organized and commanded by distribution management software.
• Network Criteria: A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria (Performance, Reliability, Security).
• Performance – Can be measured in many ways , including transit time(time taken to one device to another) and response time (
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response).
• Performance depends – No. of users, transmission medium, capability of connected hardware and efficiency of software.
• Networking metrics : Throughput and Delay.
• Throughput refers to the amount of data transferred in a given time.
• Delay means the amount of time taken while sending the data.
• Reliability – Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the
network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security – Issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development and
implementing policies and procedure from recovery from breaches and data losses.
 PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
• Type of connection – A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some ways to the same link
at the same time.
• There are two possible types of connections : POINT-TO-POINT and Multipoint.
• POINT-TO-POINT – Provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the
link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• POINT-TO-POINT connections are actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends.
• Example : TELEVISION CHANNELS control by REMOTLY.
• Multipoint / Multidrop – Connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link.
• The capacity of channel is shared, either spatially/continuously . If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is continuously connection.
 CATEGORIES OF TOPOLOGIES:
MESH, STAR, BUS, RING
THE ARRANGEMENT OF NODES IN A NETWORK GENERALLY FOLLOWS SOME PATTERN OR ORGANIZATION. EACH OF
THESE PATTERNS HAVE THEIR SET OF ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES. SUCH ARRANGEMENTS ARE CALLED
COLLECTIVELY REFERRED TO AS NETWORK TOPOLOGIES.
 MESH TOPOLOGY
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to very other devices.
• The term dedicated means that the link comes traffic only between the two devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must
be connected to a every other nodes.
• Node 1 must be connected to n-1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n-1 nodes and finally node must be connected to n-1
nodes.
• We need n(n-1) physical link. However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions we can divide the
number of link by 2.
• For mesh topology we need, n(n-1)/2.
• Advantages of mesh topology
• Each connection can carry its own data load.
• This topology is robust.
• If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy and security

• Disadvantage of mesh topology

• This topology related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports are required.
• So installation and reconnections are difficult, because its connected to every other devices.
• Wire can be greater than available space (wall, ceilings or floor) can accommodate.
• Hardware required to connect each link can be expensive.
• Real - Time Example
• Telephone Regional in offices.
 STAR TOPOLOGY
• In this topology, each devices has a dedicated point-to-point link only to central controller, usually called hub. The device
are not directly linked to one another.
• Unlike a mesh topology a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange; If
one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected devices.
• In star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This Factor makes it easy to
install and reconfigure.
• Star Topology is used in local-area network(LANs).
• Advantages of Star Topology
• If one link fails, only that link I affected. All other links remain active.
• As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
• Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
• Real-Time Example –
• Ethernet network is made by a star topology
• The cables that are used to connect nodes include optical fiber, twisted pair cable, RJ-45 or coaxial cable. The central
device or computer is responsible for controlling and guiding all the traffic in the network.
 BUS TOPOLOGY
• A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and
the main cable.
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker as it
travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance
between those taps.
• Advantages of bus topology
• Ease of installation
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, the connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. So this way a
bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

• Disadvantage of mesh topology

• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
• A bus usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation.
• Real - Time Example
• Telephone Regional in offices.
 RING TOPOLOGY
• Ring topology, also known as Ring network, is a type of network topology where each node is exactly connected to two
other nodes, forward and backward, thus forming a single continuous path for signal transmission.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
• A Unidirectional ring topology handles data traffic in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. This data network, thus, can
also be called as a half-duplex network. A Unidirectional ring topology is thus easy to maintain compared to the bidirectional
ring topology.

• Ex: SONET network, SDH network etc.

• Advantages of Ring topology
• Ease of installation
• Fault isolation is simplified.
• Disadvantage of Ring topology
• Unidirectional traffic can be weakness of ring topology.
• A bus usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation.
• Real - Time Example
• In school and college, there is a small area. Therefore they use Ring Topology.
• Ring Topology gives high data transfer between buildings at high speed..
 CATEGORIES OF NETWORK
• The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of computers, which are a part of their
networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of devices spread across the world.
• There are categories of network are following:
• LAN
• WAN
• MAN
• INTERNET

• LAN (Local Area Network)

• LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building , or campus.
• Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used , a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in
someone’s home office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals.
• Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• LAN’s are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstation.
• The resources to be shared can include hardware (i.e. printer) , software(i.e. an application program), or data.
• LAN found in many business environment, links a workgroup of task-related computers. For example, Engineering workstations.
• In this LAN, One of the computers may be given a large capacity of a disk drive and may become a server to
client. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by the whole group.
• LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission media and
topology.
• In general, a given LAN will use inly one type of transmission medium.
• The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
• LAN had data rates in the 4 to 16 mega bites per second (Mbps) range. But now speeds are normally 100 or
1000 Mbps.
• Not only LAN connects computers, it does the work of communicating devices such as routers, hubs and
switches. It is no doubt that through LAN communication has made much more efficient. However LAN aren't
flawless. LAN has certain pros and cons.
• Advantages of LAN:
• Resources sharing - Sharing of resources such as hard disk drives, DVD drives and Printers are made easy in Local Area Network. For
an example all the resources can be connected to one single computer with a network so that whenever there is a need of resources
it can be shared with the connected computers.
• Software Sharing - Another type of sharing made easy here is the Software sharing. A single computer with the licensed software can
be shared among other users in the network. There is no need to purchase individual license for each and every computer in the
network. All can be worked under one single license.
• Centralized data - The users are located at the centralized server. Any workstation in a particular network can be used to access this
information. Moreover users can access their own set of data by logging into their respective accounts.
• Internet Sharing - LAN has the capability to share internet connection among all the LAN users. One single computer with an internet
connection shares internet with all the connected computers. This type of infrastructure can be seen in Offices and Net cafes.
• Disadvantages of LAN:
• Implementation Cost - Even though LAN saves lots of money in terms of resource sharing, the initial cost involved in setting up the
network is quite high. This is mainly due to the requirement of a special software that is needed to make a server. In addition to that
purchasing of hardware equipment's such as routers, hubs, switches and cables are required for the first time setup.
• Maintenance - LAN often faces hardware problems and system failure. Hence, it requires a special administrator to look after these
issues. The administrator needs to be well knowledgeable in the field of networking and needed at its full time job.
• Server Crashes - Central server which is present on the LAN architecture manages all the attached computers. If in case the server
encounters any faults all the connected computers are affected too. For an example if the files on the server gets corrupted, no more
data on the attached computers can be accessible.
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
• Wide Area Network (WAN) is a collection of Local Area Networks (LANs) or other networks that communicate with one another.
• A Wide Area Network provides long – distance transmission of data, image, audio and video information over large geographic areas
that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world.
• A WAN can be complex as the backbones that connect the internet or as simple as a dial-up line that connects a home computer to
the internet.
• WAN can be refer in two ways – 1. Switched WAN 2. Point – to – Point WAN.
• 1. The Switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router that connects to another LAN or WAN.
• 2. The Point – to – Point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or
a small LAN to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). This type of WAN Is often used to provide Internet Access.
• Real time example -
• X. 25 Network designed to provide connectivity between end users. A packet-switching protocol for wide area network (WAN) .
• The current X.25 standard supports synchronous, full-duplex communication at speeds up to 2 Mbps over two pairs of wires, but
most implementations are 64-Kbps connections via a standard DS0 link.
• WANs is the wireless WAN that is becoming more and more popular.
• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
• Types of WAN network –
• Packet switching –
• Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is broken into several parts, called packets, that are sent
independently, in triplicate, over whatever route is optimum for each packet, and reassembled at the destination. Each packet
contains a piece part, called the payload, and an identifying header that includes destination and reassembly information. The
packets are sent in triplicate to check for packet corruption. Every packet is verified in a process that compares and confirms that
at least two copies match. When verification fails, a request is made for the packet to be re-sent.
• ATM –
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a switching technique common in early data networks, which has been largely superseded
by IP-based technologies. ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing to encode data into small, fixed-sized cells. By
contrast, today's IP-based Ethernet technology uses variable packet sizes for data.
• TCP/IP protocol suite
• Router
• Overlay Network
• Advantages of WAN:
• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city
then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch..
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Disadvantages of LAN:
• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are combined
together that creates the security problem.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
THIS IS HOW WAN(LOCAL AREA NETWORK) LOOKS LIKE -
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
• It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
• Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.
• Real time example -
• Good example of MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to customer.
• Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed
data connection to the internet.
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city, Airline Reservation, in a college within a city, communication in the
military.
• Advantages of MAN:
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
• Disadvantages of LAN:
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
THIS IS HOW MAN(METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)
LOOKS LIKE -
• INTERNET
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in isolation; they are connected to one another.
• When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork , or internet.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
• Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens
of miles.
• Real time example -
• Good example of MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to
customer.
• Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for
high-speed data connection to the internet.
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city, Airline Reservation, in a college within a city,
communication in the military.
• The internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use.
• The internet is a structured, organized system.
• Internet connection use the services of Internet Service Providers (IPSs).
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
• Protocols :
• A protocol is one of the components of a data communication system. Without protocol communication cannot occur.
• The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and further interprets it correctly.
• When the sender sends a message it may consists of text , number, images etc. which are converted into bits and grouped into
blocks to be transmitted and after certain additional information called control information is also added to help receiver interpret
the data.
• For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain rules called protocol.
• A protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communication.
• A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and it is to be communicated (What, How, When).
• Key elements of Protocol :There are three key elements
• Syntax :
• It means the structure or format of the data and signal levels.
• It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
• Semantics :
• It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section.
• It is also tells what decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
• It includes control information for coordination and error handling.
• Timing:
• It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data.
• It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and interoperability between various
networking hardware and software components.
• Without standards we would have proprietary products creating isolated islands of uses which cannot
interconnect.
• Concept of Standards :
• Standards provide guideline to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure national and international
interconnectivity.
• Data communications standards are classified into two categories:
1. De facto Standard
• These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by convention.
• These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by widespread use.
2. De jure Standard
• It means by law or by regulation.
• These students are legislated and approved by an body that is officially recognized.
• Thus, these are the standards that have been approved by officially recognized body like ANSI, ISO, IEEE etc. These
are the standard which are important to follow if it required or needed.
• Standards Organizations:
• Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• The ISO is a multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of various
governments throughout the world.
• The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and economic activity.
2. International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU - T)
• ITU is a specialized agency of the United Nations. Its original name was the International Telegraph Union.
• It serves the field of information and communications technology.
• The ITU allocates global radio spectrums and satellite orbits.
• It also develops technical standards for interconnecting networks and other technologies in international telecommunications.
• Some of its standards work deals with economic and policy issues as well.
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Despite its name, the American National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with
the U.S. federal government.
• However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the United States and its citizens occupying primary importance.
• Internationally, ANSI officially represents the U.S. standardization activities in ISO and IEC.
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• The institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the largest professional engineering society in the world.
• International in scope, it aims to advanced theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical engineering,
electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering.
• As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and adoption of international standards for computing and
communication.
5. Electronics Industries Association (EIA)
• Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns.
• Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying efforts in addition to standards development.
• In field of information technology, the EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical connection
interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
 NETWORK SOFTWARE
• Protocol Hierarchies Layers
• Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of pieces of hardware and software. To just simplify
network design, various network are organized and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another.
• The number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and can be different from one network to another.
• The main purpose of each of layers is just to offer and provide services to higher layers that are present.
• Each and every layer has some particular task or function.
• In programming, this concept is very common.
• The networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce and minimize complexity of design of
network software.
• Step 1 − Generally the entities present on different layers are called peers who are present on different machines.

• Step 2 − There is no data transferred directly from layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine.

• Step 3 − Each layer passes data and control information to the layer below it, until the lowest layer is reached.

• Step 4 − Below layer 1 there is a "physical medium" through which the actual communication occurs.

• Step 5 − The virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid line.

• Step 6 − Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an "interface", the interface defines which operations and
services that the lower layer offers to the upper layer through it.

• Step 7 − A list of protocols used by system one protocol per layer is called a "protocol stack".
• A massage M is produced by an application process running in layer 5.and given to layer 4 for transmission.
• Layer 4 puts a " header " in front of massage M to identify the massage and passes the result to layer 3.
• In many networks, there is no limit to the size of massage in layer 4-protocol, but there is nearly always a limit imposed by
layer 3 protocol.
• Hence, layer 3 must break up the incoming message into small units (packets) prepending layer 3 header to each packet.
• In this example the message M is split into two parts, M1, and M2.
• Layer 3 decides which of outgoing lines to use and passes the packet to layer 2.
• Layer 2 adds a header and trailer to each packet and gives the result to layer 1 for physical transmission.
• At the receiving machine, the message moves up word from layer to layer with the header being stripped off as it progresses
till the message m arrives at application layer 5.
 PROTOCOL STACK DESIGN ISSUES OF THE LAYERS

• Addressing- At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of computers. So, a naming or
addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each message.
• Error Control- Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So, the layers need to agree
upon common error detection and error correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are transferred.
• Flow Control- If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is received by the receiver, there are
chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.
• Statistical Multiplexing- It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being transferred from the source to the
destination. So, the data channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.
• Routing- There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an optimal path among all possible
paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing algorithms that are used in network systems.
• Connection-oriented - Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets must be transmitted over a single route.
• To use a connection-oriented service, first we establishes a connection, use it and then release it. In connection-oriented services, the data packets are
delivered to the receiver in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender.
• Connectionless service - The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is done individually. No added setup is required.
• Packet are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding subnet as “datagram subnets”. When the message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times the size
of the packet, then the network layer divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to router via. a few protocol. Each data packet has destination
address and is routed independently irrespective of the packets.
Primitives of Connection-Oriented Service :

Primitive Meaning

When server is ready to accept request of incoming connection, it

Listen simply put this primitive into action. Listen primitive simply waiting for
incoming connection request.

This primitive is used to connect the server simply by creating or

Connect
establishing connection with waiting peer.

Accept This primitive simply accepts incoming connection from the peer.

These primitive afterwards block the server. Receive primitive simply

Receive
waits for incoming message.

This primitive is put into action by the client to transmit its request that
Send is followed by putting receive primitive into action to get the reply.
Send primitive simply sends or transfer the message to the peer.

This primitive is simply used to terminate or end the connection after

Disconnect
which no one will be able to send any of the message.
• Primitive of Connection-Oriented Service:
• Listen : When server is ready to accept request of incoming connection, it simply put this primitive into action. Listen
primitive simply waiting for incoming connection request.
• Connect : This primitive is used to connect the server simply by creating or establishing connection with waiting
peer.
• Accept : This primitive simply accepts incoming connection from the peer.
• Receive : These primitive afterwards block the server. Receive primitive simply waits for incoming message.
• Send : This primitive is put into action by client to transmit its request that is followed by putting receive primitive
into action to get the reply. Send primitive simply sends or transfer the message to the peer.
• Disconnect : This primitive is simply used to terminate or end the connection after which on one will be able to send
any of the message.
• The Relationships of services to protocol:
• What is service?
• These are the operations that a layer can provide to the layer above it in the OSI Reference Model.
• It defines the operation and states a layer is ready to perform but it does not specify anything about the implementation of these operations.

• What is Protocol?
• These are set of rules that govern the format and meaning of frames, messages or packets that are exchanged between the server and client.