• Definitions of data, information and knowledge.

Information is data that has been processed Інформація — це оброблені дані, які мають
in such a way as to be meaningful to the сенс.
person who receives it. Дані — це прості факти.
Знання — це розуміння, яке ви отримуєте з
Data are plain facts.(is the fundamental інформації через досвід.
representation of facts and observations)

Awareness or understanding of a
circumstance or fact, gained through
association or experience.

• What are differences between data, information and knowledge?

• Data formats and data interpretation.

A data format is a specific way data is organized, stored, or transmitted. It determines how
data is encoded or structured for use by computers and applications.

Text Formats: TXT (Plain Text), CSV (Comma-Separated Values), JSON (JavaScript Object
Notation), XML (eXtensible Markup Language), Markdown (.md);
Picture Formats: JPEG (.jpg, .jpeg), PNG (.png), GIF (.gif), BMP (.bmp), SVG (.svg);
Executable Program Formats: EXE (.exe), DLL (.dll), APP (.app), BIN (.bin), SH (.sh);
Video Formats: MP4 (.mp4), AVI (.avi), MKV (.mkv), MOV (.mov), WMV (.wmv);
Audio Formats: MP3 (.mp3), WAV (.wav), AAC (.aac), FLAC (.flac), OGG (.ogg).
Data interpretation is the process of Інтерпретація даних — це процес
analyzing, visualizing, and making sense of аналізу, візуалізації та осмислення даних
data to draw conclusions, identify patterns, для того, щоб зробити висновки, виявити
and support decision-making. закономірності та підтримати прийняття
рішень.

• Why computers use binary?

1) Communication is more reliable in binary

than other number systems;
2)Storing data in binary easy;
 3)It work with electrical circuits;
4) Many maths operations are easy in binary;

• ASCII code.

ASCII is a 7-bit encoding standard that ASCII — це стандарт кодування на 7 біт, що

represents 128 characters, including letters, представляє 128 символів, включаючи
digits, and symbols. It assigns numeric values букви, цифри та знаки. Він присвоює
(for example, A=65, a=97, 0=48). Extended числові значення (наприклад, A=65, a=97,
ASCII uses 8 bits for 256 characters. 0=48). Розширений ASCII використовує 8
біт для 256 символів.

• UTF-8 code.

UTF-8 (Unicode Transformation Format - 8- UTF-8 (Unicode Transformation Format - 8

bit) is a flexible way to encode characters using біт) — це гнучкий спосіб кодування
one to four bytes for each Unicode character. It символів, який використовує від одного до
is compatible with ASCII. чотирьох байтів для кожного символу
-preferred encoding for e-mail and web pages. Юнікоду.
чудовим для веб-сайтів, баз даних і
програмування.

• IEEE 754 standard.

The IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Формат IEEE 754 — це "набір представлень
Arithmetic (IEEE 754) is a technical standard числових значень і символів". Формат може
for floating-point computation. також включати спосіб кодування цього
3 basic components: the sign of mantissa; набору.
biased exponent; normalized mantissa Формат з плаваючою комою визначається: •
There is single(32 bits) precision and базою (також називається радіусом) b, яка
double(64 bits). дорівнює 2 (бінарна) або 10 (десяткова) в
IEEE 754; • точністю p; • діапазоном
експонент від emin до emax, де emin = 1 −
emax для всіх форматів IEEE 754.

• Computer system and its parts

A set of one or more computers, peripherals, and software. It performs data processing.
• Hardware: Physical parts of a computer, including input devices, output devices, central
processing unit, and storage devices.
• Software: Also known as programs or applications. Includes system software and
application software.
• Data: Information processed by the computer.
• User: The user commands the computer system to execute instructions.
• Individual computer system and its parts.
An individual computer system is a complete setup that includes hardware and software
components, allowing it to perform tasks like data processing, input, and output.
• Hardware for data processing
• Hardware for data input
 • Hardware for data output
• Memory
• Operating system
• Applications
• Networked computer system and its parts.
A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting and
sharing information.
• Individual CS
• Hardware for communication
• Protocols for data transfer
• The main hardware components of computer systems.
1. Computer case
2. Motherboard- is the main printed circuit board,
3. Memory- stores or saves instructions and results,
4. CPU- Central Processing Unit- all the arithmetic and logical calculation takes place
• Software for computer systems.
Software is a collection of programs and applications that instruct a computer on how to perform
specific tasks, enabling it to operate and provide functionality to users.
System software, Software for system development, Applications
• Why standards and protocols are required in computer systems?
Protocols and standards need to make sure that different devices can work together, they regulate
data exchange, formatting, endpoints.
• Programming of computer systems and the levels of programming languages.
Programming of computer systems is done at different levels. Microcode consists of basic
operations and determines which part of the CPU should perform a task. Machine language
provides direct control over hardware. Visual programming languages allow tasks to be set using
graphical elements. Transition between programming levels is done with the help of a compiler.
There are also interpreted languages that execute code without compilation.
Low-level programming languages bring human language closer to computer instructions.
Examples of low-level languages - Fortran, Cobol, Basic, etc.
High-level programming languages are closer to natural human language. Examples of high-level
programming languages - Java, Python, Prolog, C++, etc.
• Mainframe computing
1. Many consumer One Computer
2. Computer used to take up the entire room
Mainframe computers are super-fast and reliable Мейнфрейм-комп'ютер – це великий і
machines that help to process large amounts of потужний пристрій, здатний одночасно
data quickly. Users connect to it using terminals, обробляти завдання для сотень користувачів.
the device with screen and keyboard that do not
process data on their own. Mainframe computers
are used in banking and finance, remain
available 24/7.

• PC computing
1. One Consumer, One Computer
 2. General purpose Input-Output Device
3. All jobs done on a single device
PC is a microcomputer designed for use by one Мікрокомп’ютер – це тип комп’ютера, який
person at a time. PC can be used for storing and використовує мікропроцесор як свій
processing data. Such computers let us perform центральний процесор (CPU).
a range of general-purpose tasks. They include
essential components like a CPU, RAM, storage
devices (HDD or SSD), and input/output devices
(keyboard, mouse, monitor). PCs typically run
operating systems like Windows, macOS, or
Linux, and support a wide variety of software
applications, making them versatile and
adaptable to different personal and professional
tasks.
• Networking computing
A computer network is a collection of Сервер – це комп'ютер, пристрій або
interconnected devices that share resources and програма, яка допомагає керувати
information. These devices communicate via мережевими ресурсами.
wired or wireless connections to enable data
transfer, file sharing, internet access, and more.
These devices can include computers, servers,
printers, and other hardware. A server is a
computer, device, or program that helps manage
network resources.

Types: web server, application server, mail

server, file server, database server, policy server,
proxy server, virtual server, blade server.
• Internet computing
Internet computing is the system that supports Інтернет-комп'ютинг — це система, яка
all the information and processes on the Internet, підтримує всі інформаційні потоки та
giving users access to various applications. With процеси в Інтернеті, надаючи користувачам
Internet computing, users only need a standard доступ до різноманітних додатків. Для
Web browser and proper security clearance. використання Інтернет-комп'ютингу
користувачам потрібен лише стандартний
веб-браузер та належні повноваження
безпеки.

• Grid computing
Grid computer is a network of computers У грід-комп'ютингу комп'ютери працюють
working together to perform a task that would разом над завданнями, діючи як
rather be difficult for a single machine. All суперкомп'ютер. Він вирішує як великі, так і
machines work under the same protocol (like малі проблеми, надаючи гнучку
virtual supercomputer). It works with large and багатокористувацьку підтримку для обробки
small problems. складних даних.

• Cloud computing

Cloud computing means storing and accessing Хмарні обчислення — це як аутсорсинг

the data and programs on remote servers that are комп'ютерних програм. Користувачі можуть
hosted on the internet instead of computer’s hard отримувати доступ до програм та додатків з
будь-якого місця, оскільки програми
driver or local server. розміщені в Інтернеті, у "хмарі". Це означає,
• IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): A third що користувачам не потрібно турбуватися
party hosts hardware, software, servers, про зберігання даних чи енергію — вони
and storage, with backup, security, and просто користуються послугами.
maintenance.
• PaaS (Platform as a Service): Users can
develop, run, and manage applications
without dealing with code, storage, or
infrastructure.
• SaaS (Software as a Service): Software
like browsers or applications is available
to users through the cloud, making it
easy to use.

• Basic Client-Server architecture

Client-server architecture – architecture of a
computer network in which many clients request
and receive service from a centralized server. A
common example is the web browser and web
server setup. The client (web browser) and
server(web server) communicate using protocols
to share information.
• Three-tier architecture
Three-tier architecture is a well-established
software application architecture that organizes
applications into three logical and physical
computing tiers: the presentation tier, or user
interface; the application tier, where data is
processed; and the data tier, where application
data is stored and managed.

• Web content management system

A Web Content Management System (WCMS) Система керування веб-контентом (WCMS)

is software designed to manage web content. It — це програмне забезпечення, призначене
provides tools for website creation, для керування веб-контентом. Воно надає
collaboration, and administration, making it інструменти для створення сайтів, співпраці
easier for users without programming skills to та адміністрування, що спрощує процес
create and manage websites. створення та керування вебсайтами для
користувачів без навичок програмування.
• The purpose of input devices

For changing settings, fixing errors, adding new

information (text, picture)
• Data input types

Programmable It refers to the process where data transfer between a computer's I/O devices
(I/O – and the CPU is controlled by program instructions.
input/output)
Using interrupts Instead of the CPU constantly checking for I/O activity (polling), the I/O device
interrupts the CPU only when it needs attention. This allows the CPU to focus
on its tasks and be more efficient.
Direct memory method that allows devices to transfer data directly to or from memory, by
access passing the CPU.
• The keyboard and its functions

A keyboard is an input device used to enter data into a computer. Types: standard, mechanical,
membrane, ergonomic, wireless, virtual.

Functions: typing, commands, navigation, shortcuts, control

• Pointing devices (manipulator) and its functions.

A device that points and controls the cursor on the screen. It is an input device. A pointer device
drags, clicks, and selects a specific portion of the screen.

1) Click
2) Drag(move specific files into another location)
3) Select
4) Scroll

Types: mouse, joystick, trackball, Touchpad, OCR, digital pen, stylus.

• Touch screen and its functions.

A touchscreen is an input device that allows users to interact directly with the display by touching
the screen.

Functions: touching, swiping, zooming, dragging, text input.

• Graphic information (image) input.

Graphic information (image) input means putting visual data, like pictures or drawings, into a
computer.

Devices: scanner, digital camera, video camera, webcam.

Functions: taking photos, drawing, editing

• Audio information input.

Audio information input means adding sound or audio to a computer, using devices like
microphones or recording tools.

Devices: microphone, sound card, voice recognition software;

Functions: recording sound, speech-to-text, sound editing, interactive voice commands;

• Brain - computer interface.

A Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) lets the brain communicate directly with a computer or device.

Types: Non-invasive – uses sensors on the scalp to detect brain activity

Invasive – uses implanted electrodes in the brain for precise signals.

• Data processing operations. Operations structure.

Data processing operations are steps to turn raw data into useful information.
Arithmetic and logic operations Maths computations
Sorting and merging Arrange in order; combine datasets into a single set
Program compilation and assembly Translating to machine code
Operations with text, graphics, sound Editing, processing, encoding
Operations with memory Reading, writing, managing data
Search operations Locating data items within a dataset
Displaying and printing Output in human format
Operation structure: input, processing, output, feedback.

• Instruction, its sets and groups.

An instruction in computing is a command given to the CPU to perform a task.

The instruction set is the complete collection of instructions that a CPU can execute.

Sets: Data handling and memory operations;Arithmetical and logical operations; Control flow
operations.(Altering the sequence of execution in a program.)

Groups: arithmetic, logic, data, control flow, system, floating point, decimal, string

• Command execution stages.

1. F: Fetch the instruction.(get instruction from memory)

2. D: Decode the instruction.(interpret instruction for identifying operation)
3. O: Fetch the operands.(get data for operation)
4. X: Execute the operation.(perform operation)
5. W: Store the result.(save results)

• Sequential execution of the command.

Sequential execution means commands run one after another in the order they are listed, with each
starting only after the previous one finishes.

• Pipeline

A pipeline is a process where a task is divided into steps. Each step works on a different part of the
task at the same time, so the whole task gets done faster.

• Von Neumann architecture.

Von Neumann architecture is a computer design where data and instructions are stored in the
same memory. It has three main parts: CPU, memory, I/O.

• Central processor unit (CPU) and its components

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the main part of a computer that performs most of the
processing.

Components: Control Unit (respond to instructions); Arithmetic Logic Unit(arith and logical
operations); registers(hold data).

• Means for improving processor performance.

Pipelining – dividing on steps, each step performs its part of the task
Multiple Cores – processor with some cores, if we have more cores we can perform more task
parallely.
Cache Memory- storing frequently using data closer to the CPU
Clock Speed – allow CPU to process more cycles per second
Out-of-Order Execution – not in order instructions received, processor tries to execute instructions
as soon as necessary data is avaliable
Superscalar Architecture – allows a processor to execute more than one instruction during a single
clock cycle
Hyper-Threading – allows a single CPU core to run two tasks (threads) at the same time

• CPU heat dissipation

As the CPU performs tasks, it consumes power, which gets converted into heat.
Heat Sinks – attaches to the processor for increase surface for heat dissipation
Fans – circulate air through heat sinks or above processor
Thermal Paste – material applied between processor and heat sink
Liquid Cooling - liquid to remove heat
Heat Pipes – sealed pipes that are full of liquid which evaporates when exposed to heat
Thermal Throttling – processor reduces clock speed
Vapor Chambers – turning heat into vapor, which moves throughout the chamber, then condensing
back into liquid

• CPU manufacturing stages.

1. Design: create a blueprint for microchip
2. Silicon Wafers: silicon purified and sliced into wafers
3. Photolithography: light is used to transfer circuit patterns onto the wafer
4. Etching: remove unwanted materials
5. Doping: add impurities for changing electrical properties of silicon
6. Deposition: add material for form the chip’s struction
7. CMP: wafer surface is smoothed for even layers
8. Metalization: metal connects components
9. Testing: checking
10. Dicing: cut into individual chips
11. Packaging: closed into protective packages

• Parameters of memory

Capacity How much memory can be stored

Access method How data retrieved(sequential, random, direct, assosiative)
Transfer Speed at which data moves between memory and other devices
Performance Efficiency and speed of memory
Physical type Hardware form of memory (semiconductor, magnetic, optic)
Other parameters Durability, power consumption, volatility and cost.
• Memory hierarchy

CPU registers Smallest and fastest memory, directly accessed by the CPU.
Cache memory High-speed memory close to the CPU. Stores frequently used data to reduce
access time.
Main memory Primary storage for programs and data being actively used.
External memory Non-volatile storage outside the system, like hard drives or USB drives.
Stores large amounts of data permanently.
From bottom – From top - amount
performance price
 • CPU registers.
Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store the most
frequently used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and the smallest
storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64 bits.
• Cache memory
Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used data
and instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory. Cache memory is
designed to minimize the time it takes to access data by providing the CPU with quick access to
frequently used data.

• Main memory
Main memory , also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory of a
computer system. It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower. Main memory
is used to store data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU. This memory is volatile.

Types of Main Memory

1) Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops and information remains valid
until power is supplied.
2) Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge on the capacitor.

• External memory

Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD) , is a non-volatile
memory unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory. It is used to store data and
instructions that are not currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the slowest access time
and is typically the least expensive type of memory in the memory hierarchy.

• Magnetic disks (Hard disk drive)

A magnetic Disk is a type of secondary memory that is a flat disc covered with a magnetic
coating to hold information. It is used to store various programs and files. Magnetic disks are less
expensive than RAM and can store large amounts of data, but the data access rate is slower than
main memory because of secondary memory. Data can be modified or can be deleted easily in the
magnetic disk memory. It also allows random access to data.
• Flash memory

Flash memory is a type of storage that keeps data even when the power is turned off. It uses special
transistors called floating gates to store electrical charges, which represent the data.

Two types: 1) NAND flash - Commonly used for storage in devices

2) NOR flash is usually used to store code in small devices or electronics

• Information output to all human senses.

Visual Monitors, smartphones, VR headsets

Auditory Speakers, headphones
Touch Smartphone vibration, gaming controllers
smell Scented ads, VR scent devices
Taste Taste in VR(electrical stimulations through tongue)
 • Monitor and its types.
Monitor is an electronic device for displaying visual information from computers.

CRT – Cathode Ray Tube These monitors produce images through manipulation of
electronic beams.
LCD – Liquid Crystal Display They have higher resolution, consume less energy and take up
less space.
OLED – Organic Light-Emitting It uses organic materials to convert electronic current to light.
Diode
• LCD monitors.
An LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) – is flat panel display, uses liquid crystals and a backlight to
create images.

Liquid crystals are between two layers of polarized material

Backlight passes through first polarizer

When transistor is OFF liquid crystals rotate light and pass through second polarizer
When transistor is ON light is blocked by liquid crystals

Color filters are used to add color to the image

• OLED monitors

OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diodes) is a display technology where organic materials emit light
when electricity is applied.

Each pixel produce its own elimination without having a separate backlight.

• The main types of printers.

Currently, two types of printers are mostly used: inkjet, laser

• Inkjet printers

Inkjet printers work by spraying tiny drops of ink onto paper or plastic. The printer uses nozzles to
shoot out the ink.

Types:

Thermal inkjet A tiny heating element inside the printer heats the ink, making it bubble up.
The pressure from the bubble pushes a drop of ink out of the nozzle onto the
paper.
Piezoelectric inkjet The printer has a special material that changes shape when electricity is
applied. This creates pressure, pushing the ink out of the nozzle onto the
paper.
 • Laser printers.
A laser printer is a special type of printer developed to produce high-quality text and graphics.
❖ Sending Data: The computer sends the digital data to the printer.
❖ Cleaning: The printer cleans the drum to remove any leftover toner.
❖ Conditioning: The drum and paper are given an electrical charge.
❖ Exposing: A laser beam scans the drum, creating an invisible image.
❖ Developing: Toner (powder) sticks to the parts of the drum that the laser has scanned.
❖ Transferring: The toner is transferred from the drum to the paper using electrical charges.
❖ Fusing: Heat and pressure fuse the toner to the paper, with extra toner being recycled.
• 3D printers.

3D printing, or additive manufacturing, is process of creating three-dimensional objects by adding

material layer by layer from digital file.
a) Digital Design: using CAS software(Blender) to create objects digitally; 3D scanning

b) Slicing: slicing software cuts 3D model into hundreds of horizontal layers and create instructions for
printer;

c) Printing: 1) FDM(fused deposition modeling) -> melts plastic filament

2) SLA(Stereolithography) -> use liquid resin

3)SLS(Selective laser sintering)

d) Post-Processing:cleaning, surface finishing

• Audio information output.

Is the process of converting digital signals into sound

1) Digital representation: sound is converted into digital signal using ADC

2) Conversion back: DAC converts back into analog signal
3) Analog is sent to headphones/loudspeakers. These devices components that vibrate when
receive signal. Vibrations produce sound waves.
• Connection media for computer network.
Connection Media for Computer Network refers to the physical or wireless pathways used to
transfer data between network devices.
Wired Media:
a) Twisted Pair Cable: Consists of pairs of wires twisted together(local area networks)
b) Coaxial Cable: A single copper conductor at the center, surrounded by insulation, a metallic
shield, and an outer insulating layer(cable internet, cable television)
c) Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light signals to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers
Wireless Media:
Terrestrial Radio Waves
a) Wi-Fi:
b) Bluetooth: Used for short-range communication
c) Cellular Networks: Used for mobile data communication over long distances

Communications sattelites

The satellite receives signals from Earth, amplifies them, and retransmits them back to Earth.
Infrared
Infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission medium that sends signals using infrared light
waves.

• Possible computer network sizes.

A Local Area Network (LAN). cover distances up to 2 km and can support many devices. They
are mostly use wired connections

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). It connects computers in the same or different cities and is
used for high-speed internet. They use devices like modems and cables for data transmission.

A Wide Area Network (WAN) They can experience more noise, errors, and delays. Devices like
optic wires, microwaves, and satellites are used to transmit data over a WAN. covers a large area,
often over 50 km.

• Computer network topology.

Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network.

a) Bus Topology: connected to a single central cable

b) Star Topology: connected to central hub
c) Ring Topology: connected in a circular fashion(one direction)
d) Mesh Topology: every device is connected to every other device.
e) Tree Topology: a hybrid of star and bus
f) Hybrid Topology: combines two or more topologies
• Basic computer network devices.

Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate
and interact with each other.

Network interface card (NIC) a device that connects a computer to a network

Repeaters and hubs Receive a network signal, clean it from noise, regenerate it and
retransmit at a higher power level.
Switch a device that connects multiple devices and forwards error-free
data to the correct port
Routers Device that connects multiple networks and directs data packets
based on IP addresses.
Firewall a device that controls data flow between your network and internet

• OSI(Open system interconnection) model

Model is a set of rules that explains how different computer systems communicate over a network.

a) Physical Layer: Transmits raw data over cables or wireless.(hubs, repeaters, modem)
b) Data Link Layer: Ensures error-free data transfer between devices on the same network.
c) Network Layer: Routes data between different networks.
d) Transport Layer: Manages end-to-end communication.
e) Session Layer: Manages communication sessions between devices.
f) Presentation Layer: convert data formats.
g) Application Layer: Provides services to software applications.
 • The purpose of the operating system

An OS is software that manages computer hardware and provides services for programs.

Resource Allocation - the OS allocates system resources to different processes and users.

Process Management: The OS manages and controls processes, ensuring their proper execution and
coordination.

Hardware Management: The OS manages hardware components

User Management: The OS manages user accounts, authentication, and access control.

File Management: The OS provides a file system that organizes and manages files.

• Popular operating systems.

a) Windows: Widely used OS for personal computers and laptops.

b) macOS: Apple's OS for Mac computers, known for its design and security.
c) Linux: Open-source OS, popular for servers and developers.
d) Android: Mobile OS by Google, used in smartphones and tablets.
e) iOS: Apple's mobile OS for iPhones and iPads.
f) Chrome OS: Lightweight OS by Google for Chromebooks.
g) Unix: Powerful, used in servers and enterprise systems.
• OS types
a) One user – one task
b) One user – multitask
c) Supercomputer
d) Mobile device
e) Distributed system - OS that manages a group of separate computers that work together to
appear as one system to the user
f) Embedded system - OS designed for specific, dedicated hardware, like cars, washing
machines, or medical devices
g) Real time system - OS designed to process data and provide results within a strict time
constraint, often used in critical systems like medical devices

• The main functions of the OS

a) Application Execution and Control: The OS loads and runs applications, ensuring they
execute correctly.
b) Application Programming Interface (API): Provides a set of tools and protocols that allow
applications to interact with the OS and hardware.
c) User Interface (Text/Graphics): Provides the means for users to interact with the system.
d) File Management System: Organizes, stores, and allows users to access files.
e) Data Input and Output Management: Manages the input and output devices
f) Process Management: Controls and coordinates running programs
g) Main Memory Management: Allocates and manages the system's RAM
h) Resource Management: Ensures efficient use of all system resources
i) External Memory Management: Manages external storage devices
j) Network Access Management: Manages network connections and ensures proper
communication between systems
k) Security System Management: Protects the system and data from unauthorized access
l) Administration Functions: Involves system maintenance tasks

• OS kernel
A kernel is the core part of an operating system. It acts as a bridge between software applications
and the hardware of a computer.
Types of Kernel
1) Monolithic: all operating system services operate in kernel space(Unix, Linux)
2) Micro Kernel: has virtual memory and thread scheduling(Mach, L4)
3) Hybrid Kernel: combination of both monolithic kernel and microkernel(Windows NT)
4) Exo Kernel: follows end-to-end principle. It allocates physical resources to
applications.(Nemesis, ExOs)

• Application types
Application Software is a type of computer program that performs specific functions. These
functions, performed by application software, can be personal, business as well as educational.
a) Information Worker Software: help users manage and process information
b) Content access: allows users to access and view content on the web
c) Entertainment: designed for entertainment (Spotify)
d) Educational: learning and teaching (Duolingo)
e) Enterprise Infrastructure: used in business environments
f) Simulation: create simulations of real-world
g) Media Development: creating and editing media
h) Product Engineering: designing and developing products, especially in engineering fields

• Software Licenses
A software license is a legal agreement that controls how software can be used or shared.
It’s a contract between the software creator (or current provider) and the user or
organization. Every software comes with a license key or product key, which is used to
confirm and identify the version of the software. There are two main types of software
licenses: free and open-source, and proprietary.

• Free and open-source license

A free and open-source license allows anyone to use, modify, and share the software freely. The
source code is available to the public, so people can study it, improve it, and distribute it.
There are two main types of free and open-source licenses:
1. Permissive Licenses: These allow users to modify the software with very few restrictions,
giving them more freedom in how they use and distribute the software.
2. Copyleft: This ensures that any modified versions of the software are also made available
under the same open-source license, keeping the software free for everyone.

• Proprietary license.

A proprietary license applies to software where the publisher or creator keeps the intellectual
property rights, usually the copyright of the source code, and sometimes patent rights.
Key points of a proprietary license:
1. End-User License Agreement (EULA): Users must agree to this legal contract before they
can use the software.
2. Restrictions: The software cannot be modified or shared with others without permission
from the publisher.

• Examples of licenses
Microsoft: 1) Original Equipment Manufacturer(preinstalled on a new computer)
3) Full Packaged Product(sold in a box and includes everything you need to install)
4) Volume Licensing(allows businesses or organizations to purchase multiple copies)
5) Academic License(can be purchased through retail or volume licensing channels)
Autodesk: 1) User license(personal and small enterprises)
2) Network(medium and large enterprises)
3) Academic
4) Demo (trial versions)
Beer License: software released under a very permissive license. The idea behind beerware is that
the software is so freely available that the user can do almost anything with it — including
modifying, distributing, or using the source code without many restrictions.

• Definition of AI
Artificial intelligence is the theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks that
normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-
making, and translation between languages.

• Goals of AI
1) Reasoning and problem-solving
2) Knowledge representation
3) Learning (Unsupervised, supervised)
4) Natural Language Processing (read, understand and process human language)
5) Perception (use sensors)
6) Social intelligence (recognize human emotions)
7) General intelligence (solve a wide variety of problems)

• Types of AI
Narrow AI, also called weak AI or artificial narrow intelligence (ANI) AI that is used to solve a
specific problem. Almost all AI applications we have today are narrow AI:

General AI, also called strong AI or artificial general intelligence (AGI) AI that is for solving
general problems. It is more like a human being, which is able to learn, think, invent, and solve
more complicated problems.

Super AI, also called superintelligence AI after the singularity point.

• Relation between AI, Machine learning, Deep learning

ML - a subset of artificial intelligence (AI), focuses on building systems that learn through data
with a goal to automate and speed time to decision and accelerate time to value.
DL - is a subcategory of machine learning, provides AI with the ability to mimic a human brain’s
neural network.

▪ AI is the overall field.

▪ ML is a subset of AI focused on learning from data.
▪ DL is a subset of ML that uses deep neural networks for more complex tasks.