1

STABILIZED PAVEMENT
MATERIALS

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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
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 Problem Soils categorizes subgrade materials with low

strength, or other unfavorable properties such as:
 expansive soils
 dispersive soils
 organic soils
 saline soil or presence of saline water
 These soils require special treatment before acceptance in
pavement foundation so that they will be re-classified to fall
into one of the subgrade categories for the purpose of pavement
design.
 Soil stabilization is the alteration of the properties of an
existing soil either by blending two or more materials and
improving particle size distribution or by the use of stabilizing
additives to meet the specified engineering properties.
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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
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 Generally, the objective of soil stabilization are:

 Improve the strength (stability and bearing capacity) for
subgrade, subbase, base and low- cost road surfaces,
 Improve the volume stability – undesirable properties
such as swelling, shrinkage, high plasticity
characteristics, and difficulty in compaction, etc caused
by change in moisture,
 Improve durability – increase the resistance to erosion,
weathering or traffic
 Improve high permeability, poor workability, frost
susceptibility, etc

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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
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 The factors that should be considered in soil stabilization

include:
 Physical and chemical composition of the soil to be
stabilized,
 Availability and economical feasibility of stabilizing agents,

 Ease of application,

 Site constraints,

 climate,

 curing time, and safety.

 Such factors be taken into account in order to select the

proper type of stabilization.

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 STABILIZED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
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 Basically four techniques of soil stabilization are

commonly practiced in pavement construction.
 Mechanical stabilization
 Cement stabilization,
 Lime stabilization, and
 Bitumen stabilization
 The suitability of these methods depends on site
constraints, materials, climate, and economic feasibility.
 The stabilizing process with admixture involves the
addition of a stabilizing agent to the soil, mixing with
sufficient water to achieve the optimum moisture
compaction of the mixture, and final curing to ensure
that the strength potential is realized.
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 Mechanical Stabilization
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 Mechanical stabilization is a method by which a soil or

gravel is mixed with the original soil in order to improve
the grading and mechanical characteristics of the soil.
 It is an improvement of an available material by blending it
with one or more material in order to improve the particle
size distribution and plasticity characteristics.
 Typical materials used for mechanical stabilization include
river deposited sand, natural gravel, silty sands , sand
clays, silt clays, crushed run quarry products, volcanic
cinders and scoria, poorly graded laterites and beach
sands, etc.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
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 The principal properties affecting the stability of

compacted base or sub-base materials are internal
friction and cohesion.
 Internal friction is chiefly dependent on the
characteristics of the coarser soil particles, i.e. gravel,
sand and silt sizes.
 The cohesion, shrinkage, swelling and compressibility
are mainly associated with the quantity and nature of the
clay fraction as indicated by plastic properties.
 Preliminary mix design of mechanical stabilization is
based on particle size distribution, plastic properties and
strength tests (CBR, etc.)

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Mechanical Stabilization
Particle Size Distribution
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 A particle size distribution that results maximum dry

density, obtained with the closest packing and minimum
voids, has been shown experimentally to follow fuller’s
equation with the value of the exponent ‘n’ usually 0.45 to
0.50 for most soils.
 The theoretical maximum density of aggregates is obtained
when grain size distribution follow the Fuller maximum
density equation of the form:

Where: p = percent passing sieve size “d”

D = maximum sieve size in the material,
n = a constant which varies between 0.45 to 0.50.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
Particle Size Distribution
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 With some materials such as gravel, sand and clays,

high densities can be achieved with ‘n’ values as low as
0.33.
 When the value of the exponent ‘n’ is less than 0.33,
the fines content of the material may be excessive.
 A high fine content will result in reduced permeability,
but may lead to the development of pore pressures and
consequent instability during compaction or in service.
 Where ‘n’ is greater than 0.5, the material may be
prone to segregation and raveling and therefore more
difficult to work.
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Mechanical Stabilization
Liquid Limit and plasticity index
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 The plasticity limits generally be used as satisfactory design

criteria for mechanical stabilized materials.
 When the percentage of soil binder is low, as a rough rule,
the plasticity Modulus (PI x the percentage passing
the 425 gm sieve relative to the whole material)
should not exceed 200 for gravel to receive bituminous
surface treatment.
 In arid climates, consideration could be given to relax the
PM to about 400, provided road formations are well
drained.
 In the case of major woks it is advisable to construct trial
sections of pavement for evaluation at least two years
before embarking upon their large- scale use.
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Mechanical Stabilization
Strength Tests
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 Stabilized materials may be assessed by strength

tests suitable for this purpose at the density and
moisture conditions prevailing in the pavement
during the service life.
 One of the most commonly used strength tests is the
laboratory CBR test.

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 Mechanical Stabilization
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 Design of stabilized mixtures to reach satisfactory road

pavement involves:
 characterizing the individual materials,

 proportioning them to fit the selected criteria,

 making up a trial mixture to adequate investigation and

 design, good construction and control testing techniques.

 This involves careful proportioning and thorough mixing of

the constituent materials to produce a uniform
unsegregated final product which can be compacted and
finished in accordance with the specification.

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 Cement Stabilization
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 Cement is an effective stabilizing agent applicable to

a wide range of soils and situations.
 It has two important effects on soil behaviors:
 Reduces the moisture susceptibility of soils: cement binds
the particles greatly and reduces moisture induced
volume change
 Develop inter-particle bonds in granular materials:
increased tensile strength and elastic modulus.

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 Cement Stabilization
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 Soil properties progressively change with increasing

cement contents.
 For practical reasons, two categories of cement
stabilized materials have been identified.
 Cement modified materials: cement is used to reduce
plasticity, volume- change, etc, and the inter-particle bonds
are not significantly developed.
 Cement bound materials: cement is used to sufficiently
enhance modulus and tensile strength. Cement bound
materials have practical application in stiffening the
pavement.
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 Cement Stabilization
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SELECTION OF CEMENT CONTENT
 The cement content determines whether the characteristics
of the mixture are dominated by the properties of the
original soil or by the hydration products.
 As the proportion of cement in the mixture increases, so
the strength increases. Strength also increases with time.
 The choice of cement content depends on the strength
required, the durability of the mixture, and the soundness
of the aggregate.
 The minimum cement content, expressed as a percentage
of the dry weight of soil, should exceed the quantity
consumed in the initial ion exchange reactions.
 It is recommended that the percentage of cement added
should be equal to or greater than the initial consumption
of lime test (ICL), (British Standard 1924).
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 Cement Stabilization
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 A number of factors influence the quality of the

cement-soil interactions.
 The most important factors can be categorized into
four groups:
 Nature and type of soil.
 Cement content.
 Moisture content.
 Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and curing
conditions.

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 Cement Stabilization
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 Nature and type of soil.

 This include:
 clay content (max 5%), plasticity of the soil (max LL of
45), gradation, content of organic materials (max 2%),
sulphate content (max 0.25% for cohesive soils and 1 %
for non- cohesive soils), and PH content.
 Soils with high clay content and high plasticity are
difficult to mix and high additive contents are required
for an appreciable change in properties.
 Pre – treatment with lime however is good method to
allow the soil to be cement- stabilized later.
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Cement content.
 The cement required to stabilize soils effectively vary with
the nature and type of soils.
 The criteria used are the compressive strength (about 1.7
MPa) after seven days.
 The quantity required for gravely soils is generally much
less than required for silty and clayey soils.
 Generally, a soils is regarded to be suited for cement-
stabilized if the soil has a maximum grain size than 75 mm,
percents passing and retained 0.075 mm sieve is less than
35% and greater than 55% respectively, and liquid and
plastic limits less than 50 and 25 respectively.
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Cement content.
 Based on experience, the general guidelines is given in the
following table
Amount of Cement (%)
Soil type
By Weight By Volume
A-1-1 3-5 5-7
A-1-b 5-8 7-9
A-2 5-9 7 - 10
A-3 7 - 11 8 - 12
A-4 7 - 12 8 - 13
A-5 8 - 13 8 - 13
A-6 9 - 15 10 - 14
A-7 10 - 16 10 - 14
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Moisture content.
 Moisture is required for hydration of cement to take
place, to improve the workability, and facilitate the
compaction of the soil – cement mixture.
 The soil-cement mixture exhibit the same type of
moisture – density relationship as an ordinary soil.
 Thus, for a given compaction effort, there is an
optimum moisture content at which the maximum
density is obtained.
 It is, however, seen that the highest compressive
strength can be obtained with specimens compacted
slightly below the optimum for maximum density.
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and curing

conditions.
 Many procedures of construction are available, but can be
categorized into mixing in plant (in a travelling plant and
stationary plant for dry mixing), and in place mixing.
 The methods are principally the same except mixing in the
first is done in mixing plants and in the later is in-place.
 Regardless of the type of machine used, the procedure of
mix- in- place construction involves initial preparation of
the subgrade, pulverization of the soil, spreading of the soil,
dry-mix the soil and the cement, adding water and wet mix,
compact and finish, and protect and cure( place a curing
membrane to keep moist).
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Pulverization, mixing, compaction, and curing

conditions.
 The influence of the degree of mixing and compaction is
self explaining.
 One should however be aware of the fact that any delay
in compaction after mixing will have a negative effect.
 As with concrete, curing is an important factor
influencing on the end result.
 The temperature should be high enough and the
stabilized material should be prevented from drying out
in order to obtain the best result.
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Since cement stabilized materials constitute in most cases

the main structural part of pavements, much attention is
given to their mechanical characteristics such as:
• Tensile and compressive strength,
• Deformation behavior, and
• Fatigue characteristics
 Tensile and compressive strengths: -
 The compressive strength based on the unconfined
compressive test increases with the cement content in the
mixture depending on the nature and types of soil.
 It has been used to determine strength of stabilized
materials, but has little application to pavement design.

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 Cement Stabilization
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 Tensile and compressive strengths: -

 CBR can be used to evaluate the strength of cement
modified materials, but not for bound materials.
 Tensile strength is important in the design of cement bound
materials.
 Density is also an important parameter which has a direct
relationship with the UCS.
 Curing temperature and curing time, compaction and
degree of pulverization are important factors which affect
the strength gained by cement stabilization.
 The method of compaction is important for clayey soils.
 High degree of pulverization achieved in a shorter period of
time leads to more intensive reaction between soils and
cement and results high strength.
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 Cement Stabilization
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 Deformation behavior: -
 It is well known that clays, sands, and gravels show different
elastic deformation behavior under repetitive loading.
 The addition of cement on these materials changes the elastic
deformation properties, but not completely.
 The parent material will have a great influence on the properties
of the soil-cement mixture.
 Cemented clayey materials also exhibit some degree of
permanent deformation under repeated loading and a certain
amount of creep under steady loads.
 Cemented sand and gravel exhibit a similar performance but
permanent deformation and creep are less than in cemented
clayey soils. The less fines are present in the soil mixture the
more the cement-treated soil behave like concrete.

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 Cement Stabilization
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 Fatigue characteristics: -
 Cement stabilized materials cracks either due to hydration and
drying shrinkage and fatigue at the result of repeated tensile
stresses (strains)
 It has been apparent that the parent soil has a great influence on
the fatigue characteristics of cement stabilized materials.
 Although there seems a great variation, there is indeed
something like a threshold strain level under which no fatigue
will occur.
 The durability test is normal used in the soil- cement mix design.
 Durability is defined as a loss in weight of a specimen after 12
freeze- thaw cycles or 12 wet- dry cycles. The material loss is
generated by brushing the samples after each cycle.
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 Lime Stabilization
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 Lime is a broad term which is used to describe calcium oxide

(CaO)- quick lime; calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2- hydrated lime,
and calcium carbonate (CaCO3)-carbonate is of no value for
stabilization.
 Commonly used products of quick lime and hydrated lime are
hydrated calcitic lime (CaO), dolomitic quick lime (CaO MgO).
 Lime can be applied as dry hydrated, quick or slurry lime.
 Lime is an effective stabilizing agent for clayey to improve both
workability and strength.
 Lime is not effective with cohesion less or low cohesion materials
without the addition of secondary (pozzolanic- fine materials
which react with lime to form cementations compounds)
additives.
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 Lime Stabilization
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 The cementitous products resulting from cement and lime

stabilization are with comparable behavior and follow fairly
similar evaluation, and construction considerations.
 The significant difference in the nature and rate of
cementations reactions, however, is a basis for the choice
between cement and lime.
 Basically four different factors are involved in the soil-lime
reaction which are: action exchange, flocculation, pozzolanic
reaction, and carbonation.
 Cat ion exchange is an immediate reaction and unlike
pozzolanic reaction, reaction, it is not significantly dependent
on temperature in which cations such as sodium and
hydrogen are replaced by calcium ions for which the clay
mineral has a greater affinity.
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 Lime Stabilization
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 It has been shown that the thickness of the water layer around
the clay particles decrease substantially as the result of cation
exchanges.
 This condition the turn promotes the development of
flocculent structures. This means that plasticity, shrinkage
and swelling and other normal clay – water interactions are
distinctly inhibited.
 The effect of lime on clay minerals of high cation exchange
capacity, such as montmorillonite clays, is therefore more
apparent than it is on clay of low cation exchange capacity
such as koalinite clays.
 Chemically equivalent amounts of quick lime and hydrated
lime have the same effect on plasticity.
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 Lime Stabilization
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 However, quick lime has an additional drying effect since, the

chemical reaction between the lime and the water in the soli
removes free water from the sol and the heat produced by the
reaction assists in drying.
 The change in plasticity is accompanied an immediate change
in the strength of the soil as measured by the CBR.
 The effect of lime on the CBR value increases with time as the
pozzolanic reactions take effect.
 Siliceous and aluminous materials in the soil react with lime
to produce a gel of calcium silicates and aluminates.
 This gel cements the soil particles together in a manner that is
similar to that of hydrated cement.

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 Lime Stabilization
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 Minerals in the soil that react with lime to produce a cementing

compound are known as pozzolans, it takes, it takes considerably
more time than required for hydration of Portland cement.
causing continuing strength improvements with time.
 The cementing action also depends on climatic conditions and a
thorough compaction of the mixture. High curing temperatures
have a positive effect on the pozzlanic reactions.
 Temperatures lower than 13 and 160C retard the reaction; from
this point of view it is obvious that lime stabilization is especially
popular in tropical countries.
 Carbonation occurs when the hydrated lime reacts with the CO2
from air. Carbonates (CaCO3) add some strength but the
reaction “eats” the lime and will affect pozzilanic reactions.
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 Lime Stabilization
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 Other factors that influence the soil- lime reaction are:

 The presence of excessive quantities of organic carbon retards
the lime –soil reaction,
 Moderately weathered and unweathered soils with high pH
display good reactivity,
 Poorly drained soils exhibit a higher degree of lime-reactivity
than better drained soils,
 All calcareous soils react satisfactorily with lime and
 A minimum amount of clay approximately 15% is required to
insure an adequate source of silica and/ or alumina for the
lime- soil pozzolanic reaction.

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 Lime Stabilization
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 The strength of lime stabilized materials is dependent on the amount of

lime, the curing time, curing temperature and compaction.
 In addition, the quality of water, type of stabilizing lime, and uniformity
of are important factors.
 Mix design procedures for lime stabilization are the determination of
the maximum amount of lime that can be taken by the soil before free
lime occurs (the lime content above which further increases do not
produce significant additional strength) or the lime requirement to
attain a specific strength levels.
 Characteristics related design procedures are related to the conditions
for which they have been developed.
 When lime is used for subgrade improvements, the design lime content
may be designated as the lime content above which no further
appreciable reduction in PI occurs or minimum lime content is
increased 0.5 to 1.0% to offset the effect of field variability.

HIGHWAY II - Stabilized Pavement Materials

 Bituminous Stabilization
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 Bituminous materials are used as stabilizers to retard or completely

stop moisture absorption by coating soil or aggregate grains in the soil-
aggregate mixture.
 Bituminous stabilization is used with non- cohesive granular materials-
where the bitumen adds cohesive strength; and with cohesive materials
–where the bitumen “waterproofs” the soil thus reducing loss of
strength with increase in moisture content.
 Both effects take place partly from the formation of bituminous film
around the soil particles which bonds them together and prevents the
absorption of water, and partly from simple blocking of the pores,
preventing water from entering the soil mass.
 Because more care is necessary in bituminous stabilization to achieve
satisfactory mixing, its use has not been as widespread as cement and
lime stabilization.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
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 Bituminous materials: -
 The bituminous materials that are used for stabilization works are mostly
penetration grade bitumen and cutback bitumen and bitumen emulsion.
 The characteristics of cutbacks depended on the particle size distribution of
the soil, the temperature of application, and the type of mix plant.
 The more viscous binders are normally used for soils having only a small
proportion of material passing the 0.075mm sieve and for plant mixes,
while the lighter binders are used for mix –in place methods and with soils
containing a larger proportion of fines.
 Emulsions are generally suitable for soil stabilization in climate where
rapid drying conditions occur, since this is equivalent to adding water to
the soil as well as bituminous binder.
 In the tropics, where the temperature is high the use of emulsions may be
an advantage since it helps to provide part of the optimum moisture
content for compaction, thereby reducing the amount of water necessary
for this purpose.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
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 Soils requirements: -
 Bituminous materials are used for the stabilization of both cohesive and
non-cohesive granular soils.
 Soils which can readily pulverized by construction equipment are
satisfactory for bituminous stabilization.
 Cohesive soils usually have satisfactory bearing capacity at low
moisture content. The purpose of using bitumen as a stabilizer in such
soils is to waterproof them as a means to maintain them at low
moisture contents and high bearing capacities.
 In the non-cohesive granular materials, bitumen serves as a bonding or
cementing agent between particles.
 Depending on the particle size distribution and physical properties of
the available soil materials and the function of the stabilizing bitumen,
there are four types of soil-bitumen mixtures in highway engineering.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
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 Soil-bitumen: this is a mixture of cohesive soil and bitumen for

waterproofing purposes. The maximum grain size should preferably not
greater than one-third of the compacted layer. The bitumen requirements
commonly range from 4-7% of the dry weight of the soil.
 Sand bitumen: sands such as beach, river, pit, or existing roadway sand
may be stabilized with bitumen if they are substantially free from vegetable
matter, lumps or balls of clay or adherent films of clay. Sometimes it may
require admixture of filler material to meet mechanical stability
requirements. The required amount of bitumen content ranges from 4-
10%, the optimum should be determined by compaction, strength, and
water resistance testing and should not exceed the pore space of the
compacted mineral mix.
 Waterproofed granular stabilization: This is a system in which a soil
material possessing good gradation of constituent particles from coarse to
fine, and having high potential density is waterproofed by uniform
distribution of small amount (1-2%) of bitumen.
 Oiled earth: This is a soil surface, consisting of silt-clay material made
water and abrasion resistant by slow or medium curing bitumen cutbacks
or emulsions.

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 Bituminous Stabilization
38

 Table Characteristics of soils empirically found suitable for bitumen

stabilization.
Sieve size Percent passing
Soil-bitumen Water proofed granular
Sand-bitumen stabilization
A B C
1.5inch 100
1inch 80-100 100
075inch 65-85 80-100 100
No. 4 >50 40-65 50-75 80-100
100
No. 10 35-100 25-50 40-60 60-80
No. 40 15-30 20-35 30-50
No.100 10-20 13-23 20-35
No.200 10-50 8-12 10-16 13-30
<12,<25
Plasticity characteristics
LL <40
PI <18 <10;<1 <10;<15 <10;<152
5
Field moisture <201
Linear shrinkage <51

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 Bituminous Stabilization
39

 The mechanism of stabilization with bituminous materials

consists of adding cohesive strength and reducing the
percolation of water,
 No chemical interaction is taking place.
 Waterproofing occur by coating the surface of particles
aggregated lumps of particles or by blocking the pores of the soil
mass, and a strength comes from the presence of a continuous
film of bitumen giving cohesion.
 There are two opposing effects – the thinner the film of bitumen
the stronger the material; however, thick film or filled pores are
the most effective in preventing ingress of water.
 Too much bitumen, however, causes loss of strength by
lubricating the particles and preventing interlock.
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 Bituminous Stabilization
40

 The mix design procedure for bituminous treatments of soils

may be considered under four headings;
 mix design for stability in non-cohesive or cohesive materials;
 mix design for sand-bitumen mixes, and
 mix design for oiled earth roads.
 For the first three types of mix, a series of tests should be made
with varying bitumen contents and grades using hot bitumen,
cutback and emulsion, and the appropriate mix is selected giving
due weight to the need for stability or water resistance as
required.
 Compaction, compressive, and water absorption test are
normally used to select the optimum amount of bitumen content.
 May difficulties in construction and poor pavement performance
may be attributed to a lack of appreciation of this additive effect.
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 41

THANK YOU

HIGHWAY II - Stabilized Pavement Materials