GEC 241-APPLIED MECHANICS Kinetics of particles

WEEK 5

GEC 241- APPLIED MECHANICS II- DYNAMICS

KINETICS OF PARTICLES
The work of a Force

Specifically, a force F will do work on a particle only when the particle undergoes a
displacement in the direction of the force. In the diagram below, the force F causes the particle
to move along the path s from position r to a new position r’, the displacement is then dr = r’ –
r. The magnitude of dr is ds, the length of the differential segment along the path. If the angle
between the tails of dr and F is 𝜃𝜃, then the work done by F is a scalar quantity defined by

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (1)

By definition of the dot product this equation can be written as

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2)

This result may be interpreted in one of two ways: either as the product of F and the
component of displacement ds cos 𝜃𝜃 in the direction of the force, or as the product of ds and
the component of force, Fcos 𝜃𝜃, in the direction of the displacement. Note that if 00 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 <
900 , then the force component and displacement have the same sense so that the work is
positive, whereas if 900 < 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 1800 , these vectors will have opposite sense and therefore the
work is negative. Also dU = 0, or if the force is perpendicular to displacement, since cos 900= 0,
or if the force is applied at a fixed point in which the displacement is zero.

The unit of work in SI units is the joule (J), which is the amount of work done by a one-newton
force when it moves through a distance of one meter in the direction of the force (1 J = 1 N.m).

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Work of a variable force

If the particle acted upon by the force F undergoes a finite displacement along its path from r1
to r2 or s1 to s2, the work of force F is determine by integration. Provided F and 𝜃𝜃 can be
expressed as a function of position, then
𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟2
𝑈𝑈1−2 = � 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (3)
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1

Sometimes, this relation may be obtained by using experimental data to plot a graph of Fcos𝜃𝜃
vs s. then the area under this graph bounded by s1 and s2 represents the total work.

Work of a constant force moving along a straight line

If the force Fc has a constant magnitude and acts at a constant angle 𝜃𝜃 from its straight line
path, then the component of Fc in the direction of displacement is always Fccos 𝜃𝜃. The work
done by Fc when the particle is displaced from s1 to s2 is determined in which case

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𝑠𝑠2
𝑈𝑈1−2 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠1

Or

𝑈𝑈1−2 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑠𝑠1 ) (3)

Work of a weight

Consider a particle of weight W, which moves up along the path s from position s1 to position s2.
At an intermediate point, the displacement 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝒊𝒊 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝒋𝒋 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝒌𝒌. Since W = -Wj
𝑟𝑟2
𝑈𝑈1−2 = � 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � (−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊) ∙ (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
𝑟𝑟1

𝑦𝑦2
= � −𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = −𝑊𝑊(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )
𝑦𝑦1

Or

𝑈𝑈1−2 = −𝑊𝑊∆𝑦𝑦 (4)

Thus the work is independent of the path and is equal to the magnitude of the particle’s weight
times its vertical displacement.

Work of a spring force

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If an elastic spring is elongated a distance ds, then the work done by the force that acts on the
attached particle is dU = - Fsds = -ks ds. The work is negative since Fs acts in the opposite sense
to ds. If the particle displaces from s1 to s2, the work of Fs is then
𝑠𝑠2 𝑠𝑠2
𝑈𝑈1−2 = � 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠1 𝑠𝑠1

1 1
𝑈𝑈1−2 = − � 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠22 − 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠12 � (5)
2 2

A mistake in sign can be avoided when applying this equation if one simply notes the direction
of the spring force acting on the particle and compares it with the sense of direction of
displacement of the particle- if both are in the same sense, positive work results; if they are
opposite to one another, the work is negative.

Principle of work and energy

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force F and moving along a path which is either
rectilinear or curved. Expressing Newton’s second law in terms of the tangential components of
the force and of the acceleration, we write
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝑣𝑣 is the speed of the particle. Recalling that

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, we obtain
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (6)
Integrating from A1 where s=s1and v=v1, to A2, where s = s2 and v = v2, we write
𝑠𝑠2 𝑣𝑣2
1 1
� 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣12 (7)
𝑠𝑠1 𝑣𝑣1 2 2
The left-hand member of the above equation represents the work of the force F exerted on the
particle during the displacement from A1 to A2 as indicated, the work is a scalar quantity. The

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1
expression 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 is also a scalar quantity; it is defined as the kinetic energy of the particle and is
2
denoted by T. We write
1
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
2

Substituting into (7), we have

𝑈𝑈1−2 = 𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 (8𝑎𝑎)
which expresses that, when a particle moves from A1 to A2 under the action of a force F, the
work of the force F is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle. This is known as the
principle of work and energy. Rearranging the terms, we write
𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑈𝑈1−2 = 𝑇𝑇2 (8𝑏𝑏)

Thus, the kinetic energy of the particle at A2 can be obtained by adding to its kinetic energy at
A1 the work done during the displacement from A1 to A2 by the force F exerted on the particle.
Like Newton’s second law from which it is derived, the principle of work and energy applies
only with respect to a newtonian frame of reference. The speed v used to determine the kinetic
energy T should therefore be measured with respect to a newtonian frame of reference.
Since both work and kinetic energy are scalar quantities, their sum can be computed as an
ordinary algebraic sum, the work U1-2 being considered as positive or negative according to the
direction of F. when several forces act on the particle, the expression U1-2 represents the total
work of the forces acting on the particle; it is obtained by adding algebraically the work of the
various forces.
As noted above, the kinetic energy of a particle is a scalar quantity. It further appears from the
1
definition 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 that regardless of the direction of motion of the particle the kinetic energy
2
is always positive. Considering the particular case when v1 = 0 and v2 = v, and substituting T1 = 0
and T2 = T into eq. (8b), we observe that the work done by the forces acting on the particle is
equal to T. Thus, the kinetic energy of a particle moving with a speed v represents the work
which must be done to bring the particle from rest to the speed v. Substituting
T1 = T and T2 = 0 into eq.(8b), we also note that when a particle moving with a speed v is
brought to rest, the work done by the forces acting on the particle is 2T. Assuming that no
energy is dissipated into heat, we conclude that the work done by the forces exerted by the
particle on the bodies which cause it to come to rest is equal to T. Thus, the kinetic energy of a
particle also represents the capacity to do work associated with the speed of the particle.
The kinetic energy is measured in the same units as work, i.e., in joules if SI units are used and
in ft/lb if U.S. customary units are used.

Example
1. The 40kg boy in the figure below slides down the smooth water slide. If he starts from
rest at A, determine his speed when he reaches B and the normal reaction the slide
exerts on the boy at this position.

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Solution
Using the principle of work and energy,
𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴 + 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴−𝐵𝐵 = 𝑇𝑇𝐵𝐵
1
0 + (40(9.81)𝑁𝑁)7.5𝑚𝑚) = (40𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2
2
𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 = 12.13 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
When the boy is at B, the normal reaction NB can be obtained by applying the equation of
motion along the n-axis. Here the radius of curvature of the path is

Power and Efficiency

Power is defines as the time rate at which work is done. In the selection of a motor or engine ,
power is much more important criterion than is the actual amount of work to be performed.
The higher the power of an engine, the faster it completes required task.
The power generated by a machine or engine that performs an amount of work dU within the
time interval dt is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃 = (9)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If the work dU is expressed as dU = F.dr, then
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃 = = = 𝐹𝐹.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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Or
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹. 𝑣𝑣 (10)
The basic unit of power is Watt. Sometime horsepower can be used.
Note that 1 hp = 746 W.
Efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the output of useful power produced by the
machine to the input of power supplied to the machine. Hence,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜀𝜀 = (11)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
If energy supplied to the machine occurs during the same time interval at which it is drawn,
then the efficiency may also be expressed in terms of the ratio.
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜀𝜀 =
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Since machines consist of series of moving parts, frictional forces will always be developed
within the machine and as a result, extra energy or power is needed to overcome these forces.
Consequently, power output will be less than power input and o the efficiency f a machine is
always less than 1.
Example:
2. The man in the figure pushes on the 50kg crate with a force of F=150 N. determine the
power supplied by the man when t = 4s. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
floor and the crate is 𝜇𝜇𝑘𝑘 = 0.2. Initially the crate is at rest.

Solution
To determine the power developed by the man, the velocity of the 150N force must be
obtained first. Applying the equation of motion,

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Principle of impulse and momentum

Consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force F. Using he Newton’s second law, the force
can be expressed as
𝑑𝑑
𝐹𝐹 = (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where mv is the linear momentum of the particle. Multiplying both sides by dt and integrating
from a time t1 to a time t2, we have
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑑𝑑 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑡𝑡 2
� 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1
𝑡𝑡 1
or, transposing the last term,

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𝑡𝑡 2
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + � 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (12)
𝑡𝑡 1
The integral is a vector known as the linear impulse, or simply the impulse of the force F during
the interval of time considered.
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼1−2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (13)
When several forces act on a particle, the impulse of each of the forces must be considered. We
have

𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + � 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼1−2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (14)

If no external force is exerted on the particles or more generally, if the sum of the external
forces is zero, the second term in the above equation vanishes and reduces to

� 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (15)

which expresses that the total momentum of the particles is considered.

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Example 3

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Example 4

Impulsive motion
A force acting on a particle during a very short time interval that is large enough to produce a
definite change in momentum is called an impulsive force and the resulting motion is called an
impulsive motion. For example, when a baseball is struck, the contact between bat and ball

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takes place during a very short time interval ∆t. But the average value of the force F exerted by
the bat on the ball is very large, and the resulting impulse F ∆t is large enough to change the
sense of motion of the ball.
When impulsive forces act on a particle, this equation holds
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + � 𝐹𝐹∆𝑡𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (16)

Any force which is not an impulsive force may be neglected, since the corresponding impulse F
∆t is very small. Non-impulsive forces include the weight of the body, the force exerted by a
spring, or any other force which is known to be small compared with an impulsive force.
Unknown reactions may or may not be impulsive; their impulses should therefore be included
as long as they have not been proved negligible. The impulse of the weight of the baseball
considered above, for example, may be neglected. If the motion of the bat is analyzed, the
impulse of the weight of the bat can also be neglected. The impulses of the reactions of the
player’s hands on the bat, however, should be included; these impulses will not be negligible if
the ball is incorrectly hit.
We note that the method of impulse and momentum is particularly effective in the analysis of
the impulsive motion of a particle, since it involves only the initial and final velocities of the
particle and the impulses of the forces exerted on the particle. The direct application of
Newton’s second law, on the other hand, would require the determination of the forces as
functions of the time and the integration of the equations of motion over the time interval ∆t.
In the case of the impulsive motion of several particles, it reduces to
� 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + � 𝐹𝐹∆𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (17)
where the second term involves only impulsive, external forces. If all the external forces acting
on the various particles are non-impulsive, the second term in Eq. (13.36) vanishes and this
equation reduces to Eq. (13.34). We write
� 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 (18)
which expresses that the total momentum of the particles is conserved. This situation occurs,
for example, when two particles which are moving freely collide with one another. We should
note, however, that while the total momentum of the particles is conserved, their total energy
is generally not conserved.

Example 5:
An automobile weighing 4000lb is driven down a 50 incline at a speed of 60mi/h when the
brakes are applied, causing a constant total braking force (applied by the road on the tires) of
1500lb. Determine the time required for the automobile to come to a stop.

Solution
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + � 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼1−2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2
𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 + (𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊50 )𝑡𝑡 − 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 0
(4000⁄32.2)(88) + (4000𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠50 )𝑡𝑡 − 1500𝑡𝑡 = 0
𝑡𝑡 = 9.49 𝑠𝑠

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Impact
Impact occurs when two bodies collide with each other during a very short period of time,
causing relatively large (impulsive) forces to be exerted between the bodies. The striking of a
hammer on a nail, or golf club on a ball etc are examples of impact loading.
In general, there are two types of impact which are central impact and oblique impact.
Central impact occurs when the direction of motion of mass centers of the two colliding
particles is along a line passing through the mass centers of the particles. This line is called the
line of impact, which is perpendicular to the plane of contact. When the motion of one or both
of the particles make an angle with the line of impact, the impact is said to be oblique impact.

To illustrate the method for analyzing the mechanics of imppact, consider the case involving the
central impact of the two particles A and B shown in the central impact figure above.
The particles have the initial momenta in which provided (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )1 > (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 )1 collision will eventually
occur. During the collision, the particles must be thought of as deformable or non rigid. The
particles will undergo a period of deformation such that they exert an equal but opposite
deformation impulse ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 on each other. Only at the instant of maximum deformation will
both particles move with a common velocity v, since their relativemotion is zero.
Afterward a period of restitution occurs, in which case the particles will either return to their
original shape or remain permanently deformed. The equal but opposite restitution impulse
∫ 𝑹𝑹𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 pushes the particles apart from one another. In reality, the physical properties of any
two bodies are such that the deformation impulse will always be greater than that of
restitution, i.e. ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 > ∫ 𝑹𝑹𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅. Just after separation, the particles will have the final momenta
where (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 )2 > (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )2 .

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In most problems, the initial velocities of the particles will be known and it will be necessary to
determine their final velocities. In this regard, the momentum for the system of particles is
conserved since during the internal impulses of deformation and restitution cancel. Hence, we
have
+
�→� 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )1 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 )1 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )2 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 )2 (19)

In order to obtain a second equation necessary to solve for (𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 )2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 )2 , the principle of
impulse and momentum must be applied to each particle. For instance, during the deformation
phase for particle A, we have

(20)
For the restitution phase,

(21)
The ratio of the restitution impulse to the deformation impulse is called the coefficient of
restitution, e. from the above equations, this value for particle A is

(22)
Similarly, we can establish e by considering particle B. this yields

(23)
Eliminating the unknown v from the two equations, the coefficient of restitution can be
expressed in terms of the particles’ initial and final velocities as

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(24)
Coefficient of restitution
It states that e is equal to the ratio of the relative velocity of particles’ separation just after
impact to the relative velocity of the particles’ approach just before impact.
Experiments have proved that e varies appreciably with impact velocity as well as with the size
and shape of the colliding bodies. In general e has a value between zero and one.
When e=1, this is called elastic impact. This means that if the collision between two particles is
perfectly elastic, the deformation impulse is equal and opposite to the restitution impulse.
Although in reality, this can never be achieved.
When e=0, the impact is said to be inelastic or plastic. In this case, there is no restitution
impulse so that after collision both particles couple or stick together and move with a common
velocity.
Note that if the impact is perfectly elastic, no energy is lost in the collision whereas if the
collision is plastic, the energy lost during collision is maximum.

DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 26/03/15

GEC 241-APPLIED MECHANICS Kinetics of particles

Example 6

DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 26/03/15

GEC 241-APPLIED MECHANICS Kinetics of particles

Practice Questions
1. Differentiate between central impact and oblique impact.
2. Differentiate between elastic and plastic impact.
3. Explain the term “restitution” as related impact.
4. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the 150lb crate and the ground is 𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠 = 0.2,
determine the speed of the crate when t= 4 s. the crate starts from rest and is towed by
the 100lb force.

5. Determine the coefficient of restitution e between ball A and ball B. the velocities of A
and B before and after the collision are shown

DEPT. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 26/03/15