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 Preface to First Edition
With the advances in the semiconductor and communication industries, it has become
increasingly important for electrical engineers to develop a good understanding of micro-
electronics. This book addresses the need for a text that teaches microelectronics from a
modern and intuitive perspective. Guided by my industrial, research, and academic expe-
rience, I have chosen the topics, the order, and the depth and breadth so as to efficiently
impart analysis and design principles that the students will find useful as they enter the
industry or graduate school.
One salient feature of this book is its synthesis- or design-oriented approach. Rather
than pulling a circuit out of a bag and trying to analyze it, I set the stage by stating a
problem that we face in real life (e.g., how to design a cellphone charger). I then attempt
to arrive at a solution using basic principles, thus presenting both failures and successes in
the process. When we do arrive at the final solution, the student has seen the exact role of
each device as well as the logical thought sequence behind synthesizing the circuit.
Another essential component of this book is “analysis by inspection.” This “mentality”
is created in two steps. First, the behavior of elementary building blocks is formulated using
a “verbal” description of each analytical result (e.g., “looking into the emitter, we see
1/gm.”). Second, larger circuits are decomposed and “mapped” to the elementary blocks
to avoid the need for writing KVLs and KCLs. This approach both imparts a great deal of
intuition and simplifies the analysis of large circuits.
The two articles following this preface provide helpful suggestions for students and
instructors. I hope these suggestions make the task of learning or teaching microelectronics
more enjoyable.
A set of Powerpoint slides, a solutions manual, and many other teaching aids are
available for instructors.
Behzad Razavi
November 2007

vi
Acknowledgments
This book has taken four years to write and benefited from contributions of many indi-
viduals. I wish to thank the following for their input at various stages of this book’s devel-
opment: David Allstot (University of Washington), Joel Berlinghieri, Sr. (The Citadel),
Bernhard Boser (University of California, Berkeley), Charles Bray (University of Mem-
phis), Marc Cahay (University of Cincinnati), Norman Cox (University of Missouri,
Rolla), James Daley (University of Rhode Island), Tranjan Farid (University of North
Carolina at Charlotte), Paul Furth (New Mexico State University), Roman Genov (Uni-
versity of Toronto), Maysam Ghovanloo (North Carolina State University), Gennady
Gildenblat (Pennsylvania State University), Ashok Goel (Michigan Technological Univer-
sity), Michael Gouzman (SUNY, Stony Brook), Michael Green (University of California,
Irvine), Sotoudeh Hamedi-Hagh (San Jose State University), Reid Harrison (University
of Utah), Payam Heydari (University of California, Irvine), Feng Hua (Clarkson Univer-
sity), Marian Kazmierchuk (Wright State University), Roger King (University of Toledo),
Edward Kolesar (Texas Christian University), Ying-Cheng Lai (Arizona State Univer-
sity), Daniel Lau (University of Kentucky, Lexington), Stanislaw Legowski (University of
Wyoming), Philip Lopresti (University of Pennsylvania), Mani Mina (Iowa State Univer-
sity), James Morris (Portland State University), Khalil Najafi (University of Michigan),
Homer Nazeran (University of Texas, El Paso), Tamara Papalias (San Jose State Univer-
sity), Matthew Radmanesh (California State University, Northridge), Angela Rasmussen
(University of Utah), Sal R. Riggio, Jr. (Pennsylvania State University), Ali Sheikholeslami
(University of Toronto), Kalpathy B. Sundaram (University of Central Florida), Yannis
Tsividis (Columbia University), Thomas Wu (University of Central Florida), Darrin Young
(Case Western Reserve University).
I am grateful to Naresh Shanbhag (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign) for
test driving a draft of the book in a course and providing valuable feedback. The fol-
lowing UCLA students diligently prepared the solutions manual: Lawrence Au, Hamid
Hatamkhani, Alireza Mehrnia, Alireza Razzaghi, William Wai-Kwok Tang, and Ning
Wang. Ning Wang also produced the Powerpoint slides for the entire book. Eudean Sun
(University of California, Berkeley) and John Tyler (Texas A&M University) served as
accuracy checkers. I would like to thank them for their hard work.
I thank my publisher, Catherine Shultz, for her dedication and exuberance. Lucille
Buonocore, Carmen Hernandez, Dana Kellogg, Madelyn Lesure, Christopher Ruel, Ken-
neth Santor, Lauren Sapira, Daniel Sayre, Gladys Soto, and Carolyn Weisman of Wiley
and Bill Zobrist (formerly with Wiley) also deserve my gratitude. In addition, I wish to
thank Jessica Knecht and Joyce Poh for their hard work on the second edition.
My wife, Angelina, typed the entire book and kept her humor as this project dragged
on. My deepest thanks go to her.
Behzad Razavi

vii
 Suggestions for Students
You are about to embark upon a journey through the fascinating world of microelectronics.
Fortunately, microelectronics appears in so many facets of our lives that we can readily
gather enough motivation to study it. The reading, however, is not as easy as that of a novel;
we must deal with analysis and design, applying mathematical rigor as well as engineering
intuition every step of the way. This article provides some suggestions that students may
find helpful in studying microelectronics.

Rigor and Intuition Before reading this book, you have taken one or two courses on
basic circuit theory, mastering Kirchoff’s Laws and the analysis of RLC circuits. While quite
abstract and bearing no apparent connection with real life, the concepts studied in these
courses form the foundation for microelectronics—just as calculus does for engineering.
Our treatment of microelectronics also requires rigor but entails two additional com-
ponents. First, we identify many applications for the concepts that we study. Second, we
must develop intuition, i.e., a “feel” for the operation of microelectronic devices and cir-
cuits. Without an intuitive understanding, the analysis of circuits becomes increasingly
more difficult as we add more devices to perform more complex functions.

Analysis by Inspection We will expend a considerable effort toward establishing the

mentality and the skills necessary for “analysis by inspection.” That is, looking at a complex
circuit, we wish to decompose or “map” it to simpler topologies, thus formulating the
behavior with a few lines of algebra. As a simple example, suppose we have encountered
the resistive divider shown in Fig. (a) and derived its Thevenin equivalent. Now, if given
the circuit in Fig. (b), we can readily replace Vin , R1 , and R2 with a Thevenin equivalent,
thereby simplifying the calculations.

(a) R1 (b) R1

V in R2 Vout V in C1 R2 L1 Vout

Example of analysis by inspections.

40 Pages per Week While taking courses on microelectronics, you will need to read
about 40 pages of this book every week, with each page containing many new concepts,
derivations, and examples. The lectures given by the instructor create a “skeleton” of each
chapter, but it rests upon you to “connect the dots” by reading the book carefully and
understanding each paragraph before proceeding to the next.
Reading and understanding 40 pages of the book each week requires concentration
and discipline. You will face new material and detailed derivations on each page and should
set aside two- or three-hour distraction-free blocks of time (no phone calls, TV, email, etc.)
so that you can follow the evolution of the concepts while honing your analytical skills. I
also suggest that you attempt each example before reading its solution.

viii
 Suggestions for Students ix

40 Problems per Week After reading each section and going through its examples, you
are encouraged to evaluate and improve your understanding by trying the corresponding
end-of-chapter problems. The problems begin at a relatively easy level and gradually
become more challenging. Some problems may require that you return to the section and
study the subtle points more carefully.
The educational value provided by each problem depends on your persistence. The
initial glance at the problem may be discouraging. But, as you think about it from different
angles and, more importantly, re-examine the concepts in the chapter, you begin to form a
path in your mind that may lead to the solution. In fact, if you have thought about a problem
extensively and still have not solved it, you need but a brief hint from the instructor or the
teaching assistant. Also, the more you struggle with a problem, the more appealing and
memorable the answer will be.
Attending the lecture and reading the book are examples of “passive learning:” you
simply receive (and, hopefully, absorb) a stream of information provided by the instructor
and the text. While necessary, passive learning does not exercise your understanding, thus
lacking depth. You may highlight many lines of the text as important. You may even
summarize the important concepts on a separate sheet of paper (and you are encouraged
to do so). But, to master the material, you need practice (“active learning”). The problem
sets at the end of each chapter serve this purpose.

Homeworks and Exams Solving the problems at the end of each chapter also prepares
you for homeworks and exams. Homeworks, too, demand distraction-free periods during
which you put your knowledge to work and polish your understanding. An important
piece of advice that I can offer here is that doing homeworks with your fellow students
is a bad idea! Unlike other subject matters that benefit from discussions, arguments, and
rebuttals, learning microelectronics requires quiet concentration. (After all, you will be on
your own during the exam!) To gain more confidence in your answers, you can discuss the
results with your fellow students, the instructor, or the teaching assistants after you have
completed the homework by yourself.

Time Management Reading the text, going through the problem sets, and doing the
homeworks require a time commitment of at least 10 hours per week. Due to the fast
pace of the course, the material accumulates rapidly, making it difficult to keep up with the
lectures if you do not spend the required time from the very first week. In fact, the more you
fall behind, the less interesting and useful the lectures become, thus forcing you to simply
write down everything that the instructor says while not understanding much. With your
other courses demanding similar time commitments, you can soon become overwhelmed
if you do not manage your time carefully.
Time management consists of two steps: (1) partitioning your waking hours into solid
blocks, and (2) using each block efficiently. To improve the efficiency, you can take the
following measures: (a) work in a quiet environment to minimize distractions; (b) spread
the work on a given subject over the week, e.g., 3 hours every other day, to avoid saturation
and to allow your subconscious to process the concepts in the meantime.

Prerequisites Many of the concepts that you have learned in the circuit theory courses
prove essential to the study of microelectronics. Chapter 1 gives a brief overview to refresh
your memory. With the limited lecture time, the instructor may not cover this material in
the class, leaving it for you to read at home. You can first glance through the chapter and
see which concepts “bother” you before sitting down to concentrate.
 Suggestions for Instructors
Teaching undergraduate courses proves quite challenging—especially if the emphasis is on
thinking and deduction rather than on memorization. With today’s young minds used to
playing fast-paced video games and “clicking” on the Internet toward their destination, it
has become increasingly more difficult to encourage them to concentrate for long periods
of time and deal with abstract concepts. Drawing upon more than one decade of teaching,
this article provides suggestions that instructors of microelectronics may find helpful.

Therapy The students taking the first microelectronics course have typically completed
one or two courses on basic circuit theory. To many, that experience has not been partic-
ularly memorable. After all, the circuit theory textbook is most likely written by a person
not in the field of circuits. Similarly, the courses are most likely taught by an instructor
having little involvement in circuit design. For example, the students are rarely told that
node analysis is much more frequently used in hand calculations than mesh analysis is. Or,
they are given little intuition with respect to Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
With the foregoing issues in mind, I begin the first course with a five-minute “therapy
session.” I ask how many liked the circuit theory courses and came out with a “practi-
cal” understanding. Very few raise their hands. I then ask, “But how about your calculus
courses? How many of you came out of these courses with a “practical” understanding?”
Subsequently, I explain that circuit theory builds the foundation for microelectronics just
as calculus does for engineering. I further mention that some abstractness should also be
expected in microelectronics as we complete the foundation for more advanced topics
in circuit analysis and design. I then point out that (1) microelectronics is very heavily
based on intuitive understanding, requiring that we go beyond simply writing KVLs and
KCLs and interpret the mathematical expressions intuitively, and (2) this course offers
many applications of microelectronic devices and circuits in our daily lives. In other words,
microelectronics is not as dry as arbitrary RLC circuits consisting of 1- resistors, 1-H
inductors, and 1-F capacitors.

First Quiz Since different students enter each course with different levels of preparation,
I have found it useful to give a 10-minute quiz in the very first lecture. Pointing out that
the quiz does not count towards their grade but serves as a gauge of their understanding,
I emphasize that the objective is to test their knowledge rather than their intelligence.
After collecting the quizzes, I ask one of the teaching assistants to assign a binary grade to
each: those who would receive less than 50% are marked with a red star. At the end of the
lecture, I return the quizzes and mention that those with a red star need to work harder
and interact with the teaching assistants and myself more extensively.

The Big Picture A powerful motivational tool in teaching is the “big picture,” i.e., the
“practical” application of the concept under study. The two examples of microelectronic
systems described in Chapter 1 serve as the first step toward creating the context for the
material covered in the book. But, the big picture cannot stop here. Each new concept may
merit an application—however brief the mention of the application may be—and most of
this burden falls on the lecture rather than on the book.

x
 Suggestions for Instructors xi

The choice of the application must be carefully considered. If the description is too
long or the result too abstract, the students miss the connection between the concept and
the application. My general approach is as follows. Suppose we are to begin Chapter 2
(Basic Semiconductor Physics). I ask either “What would our world look like without
semiconductors?” or “Is there a semiconductor device in your watch? In your cellphone?
In your laptop? In your digital camera?” In the ensuing discussion, I quickly go over
examples of semiconductor devices and where they are used.
Following the big picture, I provide additional motivation by asking, “Well, but isn’t this
stuff old? Why do we need to learn these things?” I then briefly talk about the challenges
in today’s designs and the competition among manufacturers to lower both the power
consumption and the cost of portable devices.

Analysis versus Synthesis Let us consider the background of the students entering
a microelectronics course. They can write KVLs and KCLs efficiently. They have also
seen numerous “random” RLC circuits; i.e., to these students, all RLC circuits look the
same, and it is unclear how they came about. On the other hand, an essential objective
in teaching microelectronics is to develop specific circuit topologies that provide certain
characteristics. We must therefore change the students’ mentality from “Here’s a circuit
that you may never see again in your life. Analyze it!” to “We face the following problem
and we must create (synthesize) a circuit that solves the problem.” We can then begin with
the simplest topology, identify its shortcomings, and continue to modify it until we arrive
at an acceptable solution. This step-by-step synthesis approach (a) illustrates the role of
each device in the circuit, (b) establishes a “design-oriented” mentality, and (c) engages
the students’ intellect and interest.

Analysis by Inspection In their journey through microelectronics, students face increas-

ingly more complex circuits, eventually reaching a point where blindly writing KVLs and
KCLs becomes extremely inefficient and even prohibitive. In one of my first few lectures,
I show the internal circuit of a complex op amp and ask, “Can we analyze the behavior
of this circuit by simply writing node or mesh equations?” It is therefore important to
instill in them the concept of “analysis by inspection.” My approach consists of two steps.
(1) For each simple circuit, formulate the properties in an intuitive language; e.g., “the
voltage gain of a common-source stage is given by the load resistance divided by 1/gm plus
the resistance tied from the source to ground.” (2) Map complex circuits to one or more
topologies studied in step (1).
In addition to efficiency, analysis by inspection also provides great intuition. As we
cover various examples, I emphasize to the students that the results thus obtained reveal
the circuit’s dependencies much more clearly than if we simply write KVLs and KCLs
without mapping.

“What If?’’ Adventures An interesting method of reinforcing a circuit’s properties is

to ask a question like, “What if we tie this device between nodes C and D rather than
between nodes A and B?” In fact, students themselves often raise similar questions. My
answer to them is “Don’t be afraid! The circuit doesn’t bite if you change it like this. So go
ahead and analyze it in its new form.”
For simple circuits, the students can be encouraged to consider several possible mod-
ifications and determine the resulting behavior. Consequently, the students feel much
more comfortable with the original topology and understand why it is the only acceptable
solution (if that is the case).
xii Suggestions for Instructors

Numeric versus Symbolic Calculations In the design of examples, homeworks, and

exams, the instructor must decide between numeric and symbolic calculations. The students
may, of course, prefer the former type as it simply requires finding the corresponding
equation and plugging in the numbers.
What is the value in numeric calculations? In my opinion, they may serve one of
two purposes: (1) make the students comfortable with the results recently obtained, or
(2) give the students a feel for the typical values encountered in practice. As such, numeric
calculations play a limited role in teaching and reinforcing concepts.
Symbolic calculations, on the other hand, can offer insight into the behavior of the
circuit by revealing dependencies, trends, and limits. Also, the results thus obtained can be
utilized in more complex examples.

Blackboard versus Powerpoint This book comes with a complete set of Powerpoint
slides. However, I suggest that the instructors carefully consider the pros and cons of
blackboard and Powerpoint presentations.
I can offer the following observations. (1) Many students fall asleep (at least mentally)
in the classroom if they are not writing. (2) Many others feel they are missing something
if they are not writing. (3) For most people, the act of writing something on paper helps
“carve” it in their mind. (4) The use of slides leads to a fast pace (“if we are not writing,
we should move on!”), leaving little time for the students to digest the concepts. For these
reasons, even if the students have a hardcopy of the slides, this type of presentation proves
quite ineffective.
To improve the situation, one can leave blank spaces in each slide and fill them with
critical and interesting results in real time. I have tried this method using transparencies
and, more recently, tablet laptops. The approach works well for graduate courses but leaves
undergraduate students bored or bewildered.
My conclusion is that the good old blackboard is still the best medium for teaching
undergraduate microelectronics. The instructor may nonetheless utilize a hardcopy of the
Powerpoint slides as his/her own guide for the flow of the lecture.

Discrete versus Integrated How much emphasis should a microelectronics course

place on discrete circuits and integrated circuits? To most of us, the term “microelectron-
ics” remains synonymous with “integrated circuits,” and, in fact, some university curricula
have gradually reduced the discrete design flavor of the course to nearly zero. However,
only a small fraction of the students taking such courses eventually become active in IC
products, while many go into board-level design.
My approach in this book is to begin with general concepts that apply to both paradigms
and gradually concentrate on integrated circuits. I also believe that even board-level de-
signers must have a basic understanding of the integrated circuits that they use.

Bipolar Transistor versus MOSFET At present, some controversy surrounds the in-
clusion of bipolar transistors and circuits in undergraduate microelectronics. With the
MOSFET dominating the semiconductor market, it appears that bipolar devices are of lit-
tle value. While this view may apply to graduate courses to some extent, it should be borne
in mind that (1) as mentioned above, many undergraduate students go into board-level
and discrete design and are likely to encounter bipolar devices, and (2) the contrasts and
similarities between bipolar and MOS devices prove extremely useful in understanding
the properties of each.
The order in which the two species are presented is also debatable. (Extensive sur-
veys conducted by Wiley indicate a 50-50 split between instructors on this matter.) Some
 Suggestions for Instructors xiii

Bipolar First

Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
MOS MOS
Devices Amplifiers
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7)

CMOS First MOS CMOS

Devices Amplifiers
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 17)

Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Circuits
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)

Course sequences for covering bipolar technology first or CMOS technology first.

instructors begin with MOS devices to ensure enough time is spent on their coverage. On
the other hand, the natural flow of the course calls for bipolar devices as an extension of
pn junctions. In fact, if diodes are immediately followed by MOS devices, the students see
little relevance between the two. (The pn junctions in MOSFETs do not come into the
picture until the device capacitances are introduced.)
My approach in this book is to first cover bipolar devices and circuits while building
the foundation such that the MOS counterparts are subsequently taught with greater ease.
As explained below, the material can comfortably be taught even in one quarter with no
sacrifice of details of either device type.
Nonetheless, the book is organized so as to allow covering CMOS circuits first if the
instructor so wishes. The sequence of chapters for each case is shown below. Chapter 16 is
written with the assumption that the students have not seen any amplifier design principles
so that the instructor can seamlessly go from MOS device phyics to MOS amplifier design
without having covered bipolar amplifiers.

Course Syllabi This book can be used in a two-quarter or two-semester sequence.

Depending on the instructor’s preference, the courses can follow various combinations
of the chapters. Figure illustrates some possibilities.
I have followed Syllabus I for the quarter system at UCLA for a number of years.1
Syllabus II sacrifices op amp circuits for an introductory treatment of digital CMOS
circuits.
In a semester system, Syllabus I extends the first course to current mirrors and cascode
stages and the second course to output stages and analog filters. Syllabus II, on the other
hand, includes digital circuits in the first course, moving current mirrors and cascodes to
the second course and sacrificing the chapter on output stages.
Figure shows the approximate length of time spent on the chapters as practiced at
UCLA. In a semester system, the allotted times are more flexible.

1
We offer a separate undergraduate course on digital circuit design, which the students can take only
after our first microelectronics course.
xiv Suggestions for Instructors

Quarter System, Syllabus I

First Quarter:
Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar
Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
MOS CMOS Op Amp as
Devices Amplifiers Black Box
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 8)

Second Quarter:
Current Mirrors Differential Frequency Feedback and
and Cascodes Pairs Response Stability
(Chapter 9) (Chapter 10) (Chapter 11) (Chapter 12)

Quarter System, Syllabus II

First Quarter:
Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar
Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
MOS CMOS Digital CMOS
Devices Amplifiers Circuits
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 16)

Second Quarter:
Current Mirrors Differential Frequency Feedback and
and Cascodes Pairs Response Stability
(Chapter 9) (Chapter 10) (Chapter 11) (Chapter 12)

Semester System, Syllabus I

First Semester:
Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar
Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
MOS CMOS Op Amp as Current Mirrors
Devices Amplifiers Black Box and Cascodes
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 8) (Chapter 9)
Second Semester:
Differential Frequency Feedback and Analog
Pairs Response Stability Oscillators Filters
(Chapter 10) (Chapter 11) (Chapter 12) (Chapter 13) (Chapter 15)

Semester System, Syllabus II

First Semester:
Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar
Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
MOS CMOS Op Amp as Digital CMOS
Devices Amplifiers Black Box Circuits
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 8) (Chapter 16)

Second Semester:
Current Mirrors Differential Frequency Feedback and
and Cascodes Pairs Response Stability Oscillators
(Chapter 9) (Chapter 10) (Chapter 11) (Chapter 12) (Chapter 13)

Different course structures for quarter and semester systems.

 Suggestions for Instructors xv

Quarter System, Syllabus I

First Quarter:
1.5 Weeks 1.5 Weeks 1 Week 2 Weeks

Introduction to Physics of Diode Models Bipolar Bipolar

Microelectronics Semiconductors and Circuits Transistors Amplifiers
(Chapter 1) (Chapter 2) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 4) (Chapter 5)
1 Week 2 Weeks 1 Week

MOS CMOS Op Amp as

Devices Amplifiers Black Box
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 8)

Second Quarter:
2 Weeks 3 Weeks 2 Weeks 3 Weeks

Current Mirrors Differential Frequency Feedback and

and Cascodes Pairs Response Stability
(Chapter 9) (Chapter 10) (Chapter 11) (Chapter 12)

Timetable for the two courses.

Coverage of Chapters The material in each chapter can be decomposed into three
categories: (1) essential concepts that the instructor should cover in the lecture, (2) essential
skills that the students must develop but cannot be covered in the lecture due to the limited
time, and (3) topics that prove useful but may be skipped according to the instructor’s
preference.2 Summarized below are overviews of the chapters showing which topics should
be covered in the classroom.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Microelectronics The objective of this chapter is to pro-

vide the “big picture” and make the students comfortable with analog and digital signals.
I spend about 30 to 45 minutes on Sections 1.1 and 1.2, leaving the remainder of the chapter
(Basic Concepts) for the teaching assistants to cover in a special evening session in the
first week.

Chapter 2: Basic Semiconductor Physics Providing the basics of semiconductor de-

vice physics, this chapter deliberately proceeds at a slow pace, examining concepts from
different angles and allowing the students to digest the material as they read on. A terse
language would shorten the chapter but require that the students reread the material
multiple times in their attempt to decipher the prose.
It is important to note, however, that the instructor’s pace in the classroom need not
be as slow as that of the chapter. The students are expected to read the details and the
examples on their own so as to strengthen their grasp of the material. The principal point
in this chapter is that we must study the physics of devices so as to construct circuit models
for them. In a quarter system, I cover the following concepts in the lecture: electrons
and holes; doping; drift and diffusion; pn junction in equilibrium and under forward and
reverse bias.

Chapter 3: Diode Models and Circuits This chapter serves four purposes: (1) make the
students comfortable with the pn junction as a nonlinear device; (2) introduce the concept
of linearizing a nonlinear model to simplify the analysis; (3) cover basic circuits with which
any electrical engineer must be familiar, e.g., rectifiers and limiters; and (4) develop the

2
Such topics are identified in the book by a footnote.
xvi Suggestions for Instructors

skills necessary to analyze heavily-nonlinear circuits, e.g., where it is difficult to predict

which diode turns on at what input voltage. Of these, the first three are essential and
should be covered in the lecture, whereas the last depends on the instructor’s preference.
(I cover it in my lectures.) In the interest of time, I skip a number of sections in a quarter
system, e.g., voltage doublers and level shifters.

Chapter 4: Physics of Bipolar Transistors Beginning with the use of a voltage-

controlled current source in an amplifier, this chapter introduces the bipolar transistor
as an extension of pn junctions and derives its small-signal model. As with Chapter 2, the
pace is relatively slow, but the lectures need not be. I cover structure and operation of
the bipolar transistor, a very simplified derivation of the exponential characteristic, and
transistor models, mentioning only briefly that saturation is undesirable. Since the T-model
of limited use in analysis and carries little intuition (especially for MOS devices), I have
excluded it in this book.

Chapter 5: Bipolar Amplifiers This is the longest chapter in the book, building the
foundation necessary for all subsequent work in electronics. Following a bottom-up ap-
proach, this chapter establishes critical concepts such as input and output impedances,
biasing, and small-signal analysis.
While writing the book, I contemplated decomposing Chapter 5 into two chapters,
one on the above concepts and another on bipolar amplifier topologies, so that the lat-
ter could be skipped by instructors who prefer to continue with MOS circuits instead.
However, teaching the general concepts does require the use of transistors, making such
a decomposition difficult.
Chapter 5 proceeds slowly, reinforcing, step-by-step, the concept of synthesis and ex-
ploring circuit topologies with the aid of “What if?” examples. As with Chapters 2 and
4, the instructor can move at a faster pace and leave much of the text for the students to
read on their own. In a quarter system, I cover all of the chapter, frequently emphasizing
the concepts illustrated in Figure 5.7 (the impedance seen looking into the base, emit-
ter, or collector). With about two (perhaps two and half) weeks allotted to this chapter,
the lectures must be precisely designed to ensure the main concepts are imparted in the
classroom.

Chapter 6: Physics of MOS Devices This chapter parallels Chapter 4, introducing the
MOSFET as a voltage-controlled current source and deriving its characteristics. Given
the limited time that we generally face in covering topics, I have included only a brief
discussion of the body effect and velocity saturation and neglected these phenomena for
the remainder of the book. I cover all of this chapter in our first course.

Chapter 7: CMOS Amplifiers Drawing extensively upon the foundation established in

Chapter 5, this chapter deals with MOS amplifiers but at a faster pace. I cover all of this
chapter in our first course.

Chapter 8: Operational Amplifier as a Black Box Dealing with op-amp-based cir-

cuits, this chapter is written such that it can be taught in almost any order with respect to
other chapters. My own preference is to cover this chapter after amplifier topologies have
been studied, so that the students have some bare understanding of the internal circuitry of
op amps and its gain limitations. Teaching this chapter near the end of the first course also
places op amps closer to differential amplifiers (Chapter 10), thus allowing the students to
appreciate the relevance of each. I cover all of this chapter in our first course.
 Suggestions for Instructors xvii

Chapter 9: Cascodes and Current Mirrors This chapter serves as an important step
toward integrated circuit design. The study of cascodes and current mirrors here also
provides the necessary background for constructing differential pairs with active loads
or cascodes in Chapter 10. From this chapter on, bipolar and MOS circuits are covered
together and various similarities and contrasts between them are pointed out. In our second
microelectronics course, I cover all of the topics in this chapter in approximately two
weeks.

Chapter 10: Differential Amplifiers This chapter deals with large-signal and small-
signal behavior of differential amplifiers. The students may wonder why we did not study
the large-signal behavior of various amplifiers in Chapters 5 and 7; so I explain that the
differential pair is a versatile circuit and is utilized in both regimes. I cover all of this chapter
in our second course.

Chapter 11: Frequency Response Beginning with a review of basic concepts such
as Bode’s rules, this chapter introduces the high-frequency model of transistors and ana-
lyzes the frequency response of basic amplifiers. I cover all of this chapter in our second
course.

Chapter 12: Feedback and Stability Most instructors agree the students find feed-
back to be the most difficult topic in undergraduate microelectronics. For this reason,
I have made great effort to create a step-by-step procedure for analyzing feedback cir-
cuits, especially where input and output loading effects must be taken into account. As with
Chapters 2 and 5, this chapter proceeds at a deliberately slow pace, allowing the students to
become comfortable with each concept and appreciate the points taught by each example.
I cover all of this chapter in our second course.

Chapter 13: Oscillators This new chapter deals with both discrete and integrated oscil-
lators. These circuits are both important in real-life applications and helpful in enhancing
the feedback concepts taught previously. This chapter can be comfortably covered in a
semester system.

Chapter 14: Output Stages and Power Amplifiers This chapter studies circuits that
deliver higher power levels than those considered in previous chapters. Topologies such
as push-pull stages and their limitations are analyzed. This chapter can be covered in a
semester system.

Chapter 15: Analog Filters This chapter provides a basic understanding of passive and
active filters, preparing the student for more advanced texts on the subject. This chapter
can also be comfortably covered in a semester system.

Chapter 16: Digital CMOS Circuits This chapter is written for microelectronics
courses that include an introduction to digital circuits as a preparation for subsequent
courses on the subject. Given the time constraints in quarter and semester systems, I have
excluded TTL and ECL circuits here.

Chapter 17: CMOS Amplifiers This chapter is written for courses that cover CMOS
circuits before bipolar circuits. As explained earlier, this chapter follows MOS device
physics and, in essence, is similar to Chapter 5 but deals with MOS counterparts.
xviii Suggestions for Instructors

Problem Sets In addition to numerous examples, each chapter offers a relatively large
problem set at the end. For each concept covered in the chapter, I begin with simple,
confidence-building problems and gradually raise the level of difficulty. Except for the
device physics chapters, all chapters also provide a set of design problems that encourage
students to work “in reverse” and select the bias and/or component values to satisfy certain
requirements.

SPICE Some basic circuit theory courses may provide exposure to SPICE, but it is in the
first microelectronics course that the students can appreciate the importance of simulation
tools. Appendix A of this book introduces SPICE and teaches circuit simulation with the
aid of numerous examples. The objective is to master only a subset of SPICE commands
that allow simulation of most circuits at this level. Due to the limited lecture time, I ask
the teaching assistants to cover SPICE in a special evening session around the middle of
the quarter—just before I begin to assign SPICE problems.
Most chapters contain SPICE problems, but I prefer to introduce SPICE only in the
second half of the first course (toward the end of Chapter 5). This is for two reasons:
(1) the students must first develop their basic understanding and analytical skills, i.e., the
homeworks must exercise the fundamental concepts; and (2) the students appreciate the
utility of SPICE much better if the circuit contains a relatively large number of devices
(e.g., 5-10).

Homeworks and Exams In a quarter system, I assign four homeworks before the
midterm and four after. Mostly based on the problem sets in the book, the homeworks
contain moderate to difficult problems, thereby requiring that the students first go over
the easier problems in the book on their own.
The exam questions are typically “twisted” versions of the problems in the book. To
encourage the students to solve all of the problems at the end of each chapter, I tell them
that one of the problems in the book is given in the exam verbatim. The exams are open-
book, but I suggest to the students to summarize the important equations on one sheet of
paper.

Happy Teaching!
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION TO 3.1.2 Ideal Diode 61
MICROELECTRONICS 1 3.1.3 Application Examples 65
1.1 Electronics versus 3.2 pn Junction as a Diode 70
Microelectronics 1 3.3 Additional Examples 72
1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 2 3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal
1.2.1 Cellular Telephone 2 Operation 77
1.2.2 Digital Camera 5 3.5 Applications of Diodes 86
1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital 7 3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave
1.3 Basic Concepts 8 Rectifiers 86
1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 8 3.5.2 Voltage Regulation 99
1.3.2 Analog Circuits 10 3.5.3 Limiting Circuits 101
1.3.3 Digital Circuits 11 3.5.4 Voltage Doublers 105
1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems 12 3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and
1.4 Chapter Summary 20 Switches 110
3.6 Chapter Summary 112
Problems 113
2 BASIC PHYSICS OF
SEMICONDUCTORS 21 SPICE Problems 120
2.1 Semiconductor Materials and
Their Properties 22 4 PHYSICS OF BIPOLAR
2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids 22 TRANSISTORS 122
2.1.2 Modification of Carrier 4.1 General Considerations 122
Densities 25 4.2 Structure of Bipolar
2.1.3 Transport of Carriers 28 Transistor 124
2.2 pn Junction 35 4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor
2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium 36 in Active Mode 125
2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse 4.3.1 Collector Current 128
Bias 41 4.3.2 Base and Emitter
2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Currents 131
Bias 45 4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models and
2.2.4 I/V Characteristics 48 Characteristics 133
2.3 Reverse Breakdown 53 4.4.1 Large-Signal Model 133
2.3.1 Zener Breakdown 54 4.4.2 I/V Characteristics 135
2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown 54 4.4.3 Concept of
2.4 Chapter Summary 54 Transconductance 137
Problems 55 4.4.4 Small-Signal Model 139
SPICE Problems 58 4.4.5 Early Effect 144
4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor
3 DIODE MODELS AND in Saturation Mode 150
CIRCUITS 59 4.6 The PNP Transistor 153
3.1 Ideal Diode 59 4.6.1 Structure and
3.1.1 Initial Thoughts 59 Operation 154

xix
xx Contents

4.6.2 Large-Signal Model 154 6.2.6 Other Second-Order

4.6.3 Small-Signal Model 157 Effects 292
4.7 Chapter Summary 160 6.3 MOS Device Models 293
Problems 161 6.3.1 Large-Signal Model 293
SPICE Problems 168 6.3.2 Small-Signal Model 295
6.4 PMOS Transistor 296
5 BIPOLAR AMPLIFIERS 170 6.5 CMOS Technology 298
6.6 Comparison of Bipolar and MOS
5.1 General Considerations 170 Devices 299
5.1.1 Input and Output 6.7 Chapter Summary 299
Impedances 171
Problems 300
5.1.2 Biasing 175
SPICE Problems 307
5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal
Analysis 175
5.2 Operating Point Analysis and 7 CMOS AMPLIFIERS 309
Design 177 7.1 General Considerations 309
5.2.1 Simple Biasing 178 7.1.1 MOS Amplifier
5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing 181 Topologies 309
5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter 7.1.2 Biasing 309
Degeneration 184 7.1.3 Realization of Current
5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage 188 Sources 313
5.2.5 Biasing of PNP 7.2 Common-Source Stage 314
Transistors 191 7.2.1 CS Core 314
5.3 Bipolar Amplifier 7.2.2 CS Stage with Current-Source
Topologies 195 Load 317
5.3.1 Common-Emitter 7.2.3 CS Stage with Diode-
Topology 196 Connected Load 318
5.3.2 Common-Base Topology 223 7.2.4 CS Stage with
5.3.3 Emitter Follower 239 Degeneration 320
5.4 Summary and Additional 7.2.5 CS Core with Biasing 323
Examples 247 7.3 Common-Gate Stage 325
5.5 Chapter Summary 253 7.3.1 CG Stage with Biasing 330
Problems 253 7.4 Source Follower 331
SPICE Problems 268 7.4.1 Source Follower Core 332
7.4.2 Source Follower with
6 PHYSICS OF MOS Biasing 334
TRANSISTORS 270 7.5 Summary and Additional
Examples 336
6.1 Structure of MOSFET 270
7.6 Chapter Summary 340
6.2 Operation of MOSFET 273
Problems 340
6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 273
SPICE Problems 352
6.2.2 Derivation of I-V
Characteristics 279
6.2.3 Channel-Length 8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Modulation 288 AS A BLACK BOX 354
6.2.4 MOS Transconductance 290 8.1 General Considerations 355
6.2.5 Velocity Saturation 292 8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits 357
 Contents xxi

8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 357 10.3 MOS Differential Pair 458

8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier 359 10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 459
8.2.3 Integrator and 10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis 463
Differentiator 362 10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis 467
8.2.4 Voltage Adder 369 10.4 Cascode Differential
8.3 Nonlinear Functions 370 Amplifiers 471
8.3.1 Precision Rectifier 370 10.5 Common-Mode Rejection 475
8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier 371 10.6 Differential Pair with Active
8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier 372 Load 479
8.4 Op Amp Nonidealities 373 10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 480
8.4.1 DC Offsets 373 10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis 482
8.4.2 Input Bias Current 376 10.7 Chapter Summary 487
8.4.3 Speed Limitations 379 Problems 488
8.4.4 Finite Input and Output SPICE Problems 500
Impedances 384
8.5 Design Examples 385
8.6 Chapter Summary 387 11 FREQUENCY
Problems 388 RESPONSE 502
SPICE Problems 394 11.1 Fundamental Concepts 502
11.1.1 General Considerations 502
11.1.2 Relationship Between
9 CASCODE STAGES AND Transfer Function and
CURRENT MIRRORS 395 Frequency Response 505
9.1 Cascode Stage 395 11.1.3 Bode’s Rules 508
9.1.1 Cascode as a Current 11.1.4 Association of Poles with
Source 395 Nodes 509
9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier 402 11.1.5 Miller’s Theorem 511
9.2 Current Mirrors 411 11.1.6 General Frequency
9.2.1 Initial Thoughts 411 Response 514
9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror 412 11.2 High-Frequency Models of
9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror 421 Transistors 517
9.3 Chapter Summary 424 11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of
Problems 425 Bipolar Transistor 517
SPICE Problems 435 11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of
MOSFET 519
11.2.3 Transit Frequency 520
10 DIFFERENTIAL 11.3 Analysis Procedure 522
AMPLIFIERS 437 11.4 Frequency Response of CE and
10.1 General Considerations 437 CS Stages 523
10.1.1 Initial Thoughts 437 11.4.1 Low-Frequency
10.1.2 Differential Signals 439 Response 523
10.1.3 Differential Pair 442 11.4.2 High-Frequency
10.2 Bipolar Differential Pair 442 Response 524
10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 442 11.4.3 Use of Miller’s Theorem 524
10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis 448 11.4.4 Direct Analysis 527
10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis 453 11.4.5 Input Impedance 530
xxii Contents

11.5 Frequency Response of CB and 12.6.2 Voltage-Current

CG Stages 532 Feedback 589
11.5.1 Low-Frequency 12.6.3 Current-Voltage
Response 532 Feedback 592
11.5.2 High-Frequency 12.6.4 Current-Current
Response 532 Feedback 597
11.6 Frequency Response of 12.7 Effect of Nonideal I/O
Followers 535 Impedances 600
11.6.1 Input and Output 12.7.1 Inclusion of I/O
Impedances 538 Effects 601
11.7 Frequency Response of 12.8 Stability in Feedback
Cascode Stage 541 Systems 613
11.7.1 Input and Output 12.8.1 Review of Bode’s
Impedances 545 Rules 614
11.8 Frequency Response of 12.8.2 Problem of
Differential Pairs 546 Instability 615
11.8.1 Common-Mode Frequency 12.8.3 Stability Condition 618
Response 548 12.8.4 Phase Margin 621
11.9 Additional Examples 549 12.8.5 Frequency
11.10 Chapter Summary 553 Compensation 623
Problems 554 12.8.6 Miller
SPICE Problems 562 Compensation 626
12.9 Chapter Summary 627
12 FEEDBACK 563 Problems 628
SPICE Problems 639
12.1 General Considerations 563
12.1.1 Loop Gain 566
12.2 Properties of Negative 13 OSCILLATORS 641
Feedback 568 13.1 General Considerations 641
12.2.1 Gain Desensitization 568 13.2 Ring Oscillators 644
12.2.2 Bandwidth Extension 569 13.3 LC Oscillators 648
12.2.3 Modification of I/O 13.3.1 Parallel LC Tanks 648
Impedances 571 13.3.2 Cross-Coupled
12.2.4 Linearity Improvement Oscillator 652
575 13.3.3 Colpitts Oscillator 654
12.3 Types of Amplifiers 576 13.4 Phase Shift Oscillator 657
12.3.1 Simple Amplifier 13.5 Wien-Bridge Oscillator 660
Models 576 13.6 Crystal Oscillators 661
12.3.2 Examples of Amplifier 13.6.1 Crystal Model 661
Types 577 13.6.2 Negative-Resistance
12.4 Sense and Return Circuit 663
Techniques 579 13.6.3 Crystal Oscillator
12.5 Polarity of Feedback 582 Implementation 664
12.6 Feedback Topologies 584 13.7 Chapter Summary 667
12.6.1 Voltage-Voltage Problems 667
Feedback 585 SPICE Problems 672
 Contents xxiii

14 OUTPUT STAGES AND 15.4 Active Filters 729

POWER AMPLIFIERS 673 15.4.1 Sallen and Key Filter 729
14.1 General Considerations 673 15.4.2 Integrator-Based
14.2 Emitter Follower as Power Biquads 735
Amplifier 674 15.4.3 Biquads Using Simulated
14.3 Push-Pull Stage 677 Inductors 738
14.4 Improved Push-Pull Stage 680 15.5 Approximation of Filter
14.4.1 Reduction of Crossover Response 743
Distortion 680 15.5.1 Butterworth Response 744
14.4.2 Addition of CE Stage 684 15.5.2 Chebyshev Response 748
14.5 Large-Signal 15.6 Chapter Summary 753
Considerations 687 Problems 754
14.5.1 Biasing Issues 687 SPICE Problems 758
14.5.2 Omission of PNP Power
Transistor 688 16 DIGITAL CMOS
14.5.3 High-Fidelity Design 691 CIRCUITS 760
14.6 Short-Circuit Protection 692 16.1 General Considerations 760
14.7 Heat Dissipation 692 16.1.1 Static Characterization of
14.7.1 Emitter Follower Power Gates 761
Rating 693 16.1.2 Dynamic Characterization
14.7.2 Push-Pull Stage Power of Gates 768
Rating 694 16.1.3 Power-Speed Trade-Off
14.7.3 Thermal Runaway 696 771
14.8 Efficiency 697 16.2 CMOS Inverter 773
14.8.1 Efficiency of Emitter 16.2.1 Initial Thoughts 773
Follower 697 16.2.2 Voltage Transfer
14.8.2 Efficiency of Push-Pull Characteristic 775
Stage 698 16.2.3 Dynamic
14.9 Power Amplifier Classes 699 Characteristics 781
14.10 Chapter Summary 700 16.2.4 Power Dissipation 786
Problems 701 16.3 CMOS NOR and NAND
SPICE Problems 705 Gates 790
16.3.1 NOR Gate 790
15 ANALOG FILTERS 707 16.3.2 NAND Gate 793
15.1 General Considerations 707 16.4 Chapter Summary 794
15.1.1 Filter Characteristics 708 Problems 795
15.1.2 Classification of SPICE Problems 800
Filters 709
15.1.3 Filter Transfer 17 CMOS AMPLIFIERS 801
Function 712 17.1 General Considerations 801
15.1.4 Problem of Sensitivity 716 17.1.1 Input and Output
15.2 First-Order Filters 717 Impedances 802
15.3 Second-Order Filters 720 17.1.2 Biasing 806
15.3.1 Special Cases 720 17.1.3 DC and Small-Signal
15.3.2 RLC Realizations 724 Analysis 807
 Another Random Document on
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Maori Religion
and Mythology
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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Title: Maori Religion and Mythology

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAORI RELIGION

AND MYTHOLOGY ***
 MAORI RELIGION
AND
MYTHOLOGY.

WILLIAM ATKIN, GENERAL PRINTER,

HIGH STREET, AUCKLAND, N.Z.
 Maori Religion
and

Mythology.

ILLUSTRATED BY TRANSLATIONS OF TRADITIONS,

KARAKIA, &c.

TO WHICH ARE ADDED

NOTES ON MAORI TENURE OF LAND.

BY
EDWARD SHORTLAND, M.A., M.R.C.P.,
LATE NATIVE SECRETARY, NEW ZEALAND,
AUTHOR OF
“TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS.”

LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1882.
All rights reserved.
 TO THE MEMORY
OF
SIR WILLIAM MARTIN

THESE PAGES ARE DEDICATED,

THE AFFECTIONATE TRIBUTE

OF
A FRIENDSHIP OF MANY YEARS.
[pg VII]
 PREFACE.

The Maori MSS. of which translations are now published were

collected by the author many years ago. The persons through whom
the MSS. were obtained are now, with one exception, no longer
living. They were all of them men of good birth, and competent
authorities. One who could write sent me, from time to time, in MS.
such information as he himself possessed, or he could obtain from
the tohunga, or wise men of his family. Chapters iii. and iv. contain
selections from information derived from this source.
The others not being sufficiently skilled in writing, it was
necessary to take down their information from dictation. In doing
this I particularly instructed my informant to tell his tale as if he
were relating it to his own people, and to use the same words that
he would use if he were recounting similar tales to them when
assembled in a sacred house. This they are, or perhaps I should
rather say were, in the habit of doing at times of great weather
disturbance accompanied with storm of wind and rain, believing an
effect to be thereby produced quieting the spirits of the sky.
As the dictation went on I was careful never to ask any
question, or otherwise interrupt the thread of the [pg VIII] being
guided by the sound in writing any new and strange words. When
some time had thus passed, I stopt him at some suitable part of his
tale: then read over to him what I had written, and made the
necessary corrections—taking notes also of the meanings of words
which were new to me. Chapters v. and vi. are with some omissions
translations of a Maori MS. written in this way.
Chapter ii. contains a tradition as to Maori Cosmogony more
particular in some details than I have ever met with elsewhere. My
informant had been educated to become a tohunga; but had
afterwards become a professing Christian. The narrative took place
at night unknown to any of his people, and under promise that I
would not read what I wrote to any of his people. When after some
years I re-visited New Zealand, I learnt that he had died soon after I
left, and that his death was attributed to the anger of the Atua of his
family due to his having, as they expressed it, trampled on the tapu
by making noa or public things sacred—he having himself confessed
what he no doubt believed to be the cause of his illness.
In Appendix will be found a list of Maori words expressing
relationship. It will be observed that where we employ definite
words for ‘father’ and ‘brother’ the Maori use words having a more
comprehensive meaning, [pg IX] like our word ‘cousin’: hence when
either of the words matua, &c., are used, to ascertain the actual
degree of relationship some additional explanatory words must be
added, as would be necessary when we use the general term cousin.
A short vocabulary of Maori words unavoidably introduced in the
following pages, which require explanation not to be found in any
published dictionary, are also printed in the Appendix,—as well as a
few selected karakia in the original Maori, with reference to pages
where their translations appear, as a matter of interest to some
persons.
Auckland, January, 1882.
[pg!XI]

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Chap. i.—Primitive Religion and Mythology. Aryans [pg

and Polynesians 1]_

[pg
Chap. ii.—Maori Cosmogony and Mythology 10]_

[pg
Chap. iii.—Religious Rites of the Maori 25]_

[pg
Chap. iv. „ „ „ 38]_

[pg
Chap. v.—The Maori Chief of Olden Time 51]_

[pg
Chap. vi.—Claiming and Naming Land 68]_

[pg
Chap. vii.—The Maori Land Tenure 88]_

—————
 APPENDIX.

[pg
Terms of Maori Relationship 106]_

Explanation of some Maori words occurring in [pg

following pages 107]_

[pg
Karakia Maori 109]_
[pg!XII]

ERRATA

p. [pg for “Pendora” read “Pandora.”

8]_

p. [pg „ “Herekeke” „ “Harakeke.”

21]_

p. [pg „ “Whananga” „ “Wananga.”

11]_

p. [pg „ „ „ „
24]_

p. [pg „ “manumea” „ “Manumea.”

28]_

p. [pg „ “and” „ “land.”

90]_

p. [pg „ “conquerers” „ “conquerors.”

96]_

[pg 1]
PRIMITIVE RELIGION AND
MYTHOLOGY.
 CHAPTER I.

ARYANS AND POLYNESIANS.

Νόμιζε σαυτῷ τοὺς γονεῖς εἶναι Θεούς.

The religious feeling may be traced to the natural veneration of the

child for the parent, joined to an innate belief in the immortality of
the soul. What we know of the primitive religion of Aryans and
Polynesians points to this source. They both venerated the spirits of
deceased ancestors, believing that these spirits took an interest in
their living descendants: moreover, they feared them, and were
careful to observe the precepts handed down by tradition, as having
been delivered by them while alive.
The souls of men deified by death were by the Latins called
“Lares” or “Mânes,” by the Greeks “Demons” or “Heroes.” Their
tombs were the temples of these divinities, and bore the inscription
“Dîs manibus,” “Θεοῖς χθονίοις;” and before the tomb was an altar
for sacrifice. The term used by the Greeks and Romans to signify the
worship of the dead is significant. The former used the word [pg 2]
“πατριάζειν,” the latter “parentare,” showing that the prayers were
addressed to forefathers. “I prevail over my enemies,” says the
Brahmin, “by the incantations which my ancestors and my father
have handed down to me.”1
Similar to this was the common belief of the Maori of Polynesia,
and still exists. A Maori of New Zealand writes thus: “The origin of
knowledge of our native customs was from Tiki (the progenitor of
the human race). Tiki taught laws to regulate work, slaying, man-
eating: from him men first learnt to observe laws for this thing, and
for that thing, the rites to be used for the dead, the invocation for
the new-born child, for battle in the field, for the assault of fortified
places, and other invocations very numerous. Tiki was the first
instructor, and from him descended his instructions to our
forefathers, and have abided to the present time. For this reason
they have power. Thus says the song:—

E tama, tapu-nui, tapu-whakaharahara,

He mauri wehewehe na o tupuna,
Na Tiki, na Rangi, na Papa.

O child, very sacred—very, very sacred,

Shrine set apart by your ancestors,
By Tiki, by Rangi, by Papa.”

The researches of philologists tend to show that all known languages

are derived from one original parent source. The parent language
from which the Aryan and Polynesian languages are derived must
have been spoken at a very remote time; for no two forms of [pg 3]
language are now more diverse than these two are. In the
Polynesian there is but the slightest trace of inflexion of words which
is a general character of Aryan languages. The Polynesian language
seems to have retained a very primitive form, remaining fixed and
stationary; and this is confirmed by the fact that the forms of
Polynesian language, whether spoken in the Sandwich Islands or in
New Zealand, though their remoteness from each other indicates a
very early separation, differ to so small a degree that they may be
regarded as only different dialects of the same language. The Maori
language is essentially conservative, containing no principle in its
structure facilitating change. The component parts or roots of words
are always apparent.
When we consider the great remoteness of time at which it is
possible that a connection between Aryans and Polynesians could
have existed, we are carried back to the contemplation of a very
primitive condition of the human race. In the Polynesian family we
can still discover traces of this primitive condition. We can also
observe a similarity between the more antient form of religious belief
and mythological tradition of the Aryans and that still existing among
Polynesians; for which reason we think it allowable to apply to the
interpretation of old Aryan myths the principle we discover to guide
us as to the signification of Polynesian Mythology.
It was a favourite opinion with Christian apologists, Eusebius
and others, that the Pagan deities represented deified men. Others
consider them to signify [pg 4] the powers of external nature
personified. For others they are, in many cases, impersonations of
human passions and propensities reflected back from the mind of
man. A fourth mode of interpretation would treat them as copies
distorted and depraved of a primitive system of religion given by God
to man.2
 The writer does not give any opinion as to which of these
theories he would give a preference. If, however, we look at the
mythology of Greek and Latin Aryans from the Maori point of view
the explanation of their myths is simple.
This mythology personified and deified the Powers of Nature,
and represented them as the ancestors of all mankind; so these
personified Powers of Nature were worshipped as deified ancestors.
There is no authority for any other supposition. With regard to the
two latter theories above referred to it may be remarked that fiction
is always liable to be interpreted in a manner conformable to the
ideas prevailing at any particular time, so that there would be a
natural tendency, in modern times, to apply meanings never
originally thought of to the interpretation of mythology. Man in early
days, ignorant of the causes of natural phenomena, yet having a
mind curious to inquire and trace observed effects to some cause,
formulated his conceptions on imaginary grounds, which, although
now manifestly false and absurd, yet were probably sufficiently
credible in the infancy of knowledge.
There is a notable mental condition of the [pg 5] Polynesian to
which we desire to direct attention. The Maori has a very limited
notion of the abstract. All his ideas take naturally a concrete form.
This inaptitude to conceive any abstract notions was, it is believed,
the early mental condition of man. Hence the Powers of Nature were
regarded by him as concrete objects, and were consequently
designated as persons. And this opinion is confirmed by the fact that
the researches of comparative philologists give proof that all words
are, in their origin or roots, expressive of visible and sensuous
phenomena,3 and consequently that all abstract words are derivable
from such roots. The absence, too, of all abstract and metaphysical
ideas from Homer has been noticed by Mr Gladstone as very
remarkable.
I have seen it stated in print that the New Zealander has no
sentiment of gratitude; in proof of which it was mentioned that he
has no word in his language to express gratitude. This is true; but
the reason is that gratitude is an abstract word, and that Maori is
deficient in abstract terms. It is an error to infer that he is ignorant
of the sentiment of gratitude, or that he is unable to express that
sentiment in appropriate and intelligible words.

ARYAN MYTHOLOGY.

The Aryans do not appear to have had any tradition of a Creation.

They seem to have conceived of the Powers of Nature very much in
the same way as the [pg 6] Maori did,—namely, that the mysterious
power of Generation was the operative cause of all things.
Hesiod in his Theogony relates that the first parent of all was
Chaos.
From Chaos sprang Gaia (=Earth), Tartarus, Eros (=Love),
Erebus, a dark son, Night, a dark daughter, and lastly, Day.
From Gaia alone sprung Ouranos (=Heaven), Hills, Groves, and
Thalassa (=Sea).
From Heaven and Earth sprung Okeanos (=Ocean), Japetus,
Kronos (=Saturn), Titans.
Hesiod also relates how Heaven confined his children in the dark
caverns of Earth, and how Kronos avenged himself.
 In the “Works and Days” Hesiod gives an account of the
formation of the first human female out of Earth, from the union of
whom, with Epimetheus, son of the Titan Japetus, sprung the
human race.
So far Hesiod’s account may be derived from Aryan myths. The
latter and greater part, however, of Hesiod’s Theogony cannot be
accepted as a purely Aryan tradition; for colonists from Egypt and
Phœnicia had settled in Greece, at an early period, and had brought
with them alien mythical fables which were adopted in a modified
form, in addition to the antient family religion of worship of
ancestors.
Herodotus asserts that Homer and Hesiod made the Theogony
of the Greeks; and to a certain extent this may be true, for the bard
was then invested with a kind of sacredness, and what he sung was
held to be the [pg 7] effect of an inspiration. When he invoked the
Muses his invocation was not a mere formal set of words introduced
for the sake of ornament, but an act of homage due to the Divinities
addressed, whose aid he solicited.4
The traditions prevalent in Bœotia would naturally be strongly
imbued with fables of foreign origin; and Hesiod, who was a
Bœotian by birth, by collecting these local traditions and presenting
them to the public in an attractive form, no doubt contributed, as
well as Homer, to establish a national form of religion, made up of
old Aryan tradition and what had been imported by Phœnician and
Egyptian colonists.
Thus Zeus and the other Olympian deities formed the centre of
a national religious system; but at the same time the old Aryan
religion of worship of ancestors maintained a paramount influence,
and every tribe and every family had its separate form of worship of
its own ancestors. The prayer of the son of Achilles, when in the act
of sacrificing Polyxena to the manes of his father, is a striking
instance of the prevalent belief that the deified spirits of ancestors
had power to influence the destinies of the living.
“O son of Peleus, my father, receive from me this libation,
appeasing, alluring, the dead. Come now, that you may drink the
black pure blood of a virgin, which we give to thee—both I and the
army. And be kindly disposed to us, and grant us to loose the sterns
[pg 8] of our ships, and the cables fastening to the shore, and all to
reach home favoured with a prosperous return from Ilium.”5
Euripides would not have put these words into the mouth of the
son of Achilles had they not been in accord with the sympathies of
an Athenian audience.
Comparing the Greek mythological traditions, such as they have
come down to us, with those of the Maori, some striking
resemblance is to be observed. First, there is the fact that both treat
the elements of nature, and abstract notions as persons capable of
propagating from each other by generation. In both Light springs
out of Darkness. The sons of Heaven and Earth in both accounts
conspire against their father for the same reason—that their father
had confined them in darkness. And lastly the first human female, in
both, is said to have been formed out of earth. The first woman, in
the Maori Mythology, drags down her offspring to Po (=Night),
meaning to death. And the first woman of the Greek Mythology,
Pandora, introduces all kinds of afflictions as an heritage for hers.
It is also to be noticed that just as Zeus and the Olympian Gods
were national deities for Greeks, so their old mythical deities—Po,
Rangi, Papa, Tiki, &c., were invoked alike by the whole Maori race,
especially in the ceremonies required to free a person from the
sacred restrictions comprised under the term tapu. They were the
Maori national Gods, for they were their common ancestors. But at
the same time [pg 9] every Maori tribe and family invoked
independently each its own tribal and family ancestors, just as was
the practice of the Greeks and Latins.
[pg 10]
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