LECTURE 3 WORD-BUILDING (WORD-FORMATION)

Various Types and Ways of Forming Words.

Productive Ways of Word-building:
Affixation.
Word-composition.
Classifications of compounds.

Various Types and Ways of Forming Words

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. English word-formation is the
system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from material available in
the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. The main distinction is made
between two basic types of word-formation:
word-derivation and word-composition.
The principal ways of forming words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion. Words
consisting of a root and an affix or several affixes are called derived words and this process of
word- formation is known as affixation, e.g. establishment (from establish), faceless (from face),
attractive (from attract).
Conversion is the process of making new words by changing one category of parts of speech from
words of another, e.g. a hand – to hand, to make – a maker.
Word-composition is the formation of a new word by combining two or more stems which can
occur in the language as free forms, e.g. bank-manager, troublemaker, highway, market-leader.
There are five main or productive ways of word-building in Modern English: Affixation, Word-
Composition, Conversion, Shortening or (Abbreviation), Blending.
There are also secondary or non-productive ways of word- building: Sound interchange, Stress
interchange, Reduplication, Sound Imitation, Back -formation.
The scheme of word-building is presented on the diagram.
Diagram 1.

WORD–FORMATION

Word-Derivation Word-Composition
 Affixation
 Conversion

Productive Ways Non-Productive Ways

1. Affixation. 1. Sound Interchange.

 Prefixation 2. Stress Interchange.
 Suffixation 3. Reduplication.
2. Word-Composition. 4. Sound Imitation.
3. Conversion. 5. Back-Formation.
4. Shortening or Abbreviation.
5. Blending.

Productive Ways of Word-building

Affixation

Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It
consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation
and prefixation.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.
The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another one,
the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech (e.g. educate is a
verb, education is a noun and music is a noun, musician is also a noun, musical is an adjective).
There are different classifications of suffixes:
 1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech fall into several
groups:
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom),
-ism (ageism),
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able (breathable), -less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious);
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize), -fy (satisfy);
d) adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (eastward);
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).
2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into
groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student);
b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English);
c) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom, kingdom), -ry (peasantry), -ship (readership, membership), -ati
(literati);
d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ette (kitchenette), -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), - ling (goseling);
e) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability);
f) feminine suffixes, e.g. -ess, -in, -ine (actress, heroin, feminine).
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of
stems are subdivided into:
a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -or (communicator), -ing (suffering), – able (flyable), -
ment (involvement), -ation (computerization);
b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster
(pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish);
c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness
(clannishness).

4. Origin of suffixes. From the point of view of their etymology suffixes can be subdivided into
two main classes: native and borrowed suffixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly (worker, careful, sleepless, lonely).
b) Romanic, such as: -tion, -ent, -able, -eer (relation, absent, comfortable, career).
c) Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize. (specialist, socialism, criticize).
d) French, such as: -ance, -ence, -ment, -ess, -ous (arrogance, experiment, actress, curious).
5. Productivity of derivational suffixes. It means the ability of being used to form new, occasional
or potential words. They can be the following groups:
a) productive, such as : -er, -ize, -ly, -ness (teacher, realize, ugly, coldness).
c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length), -hood (childhood).

Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English prefixes
are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which
they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in
notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in
functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as morphemes: over-
(overhead, overcome) and as separate words: over (over the table, over the door).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of
speech. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
Semantic classification. Semantically prefixes can be divided into monosemantic i.e. the prefix has
only one meaning, e.g. ex-boxer, ex- boyfriend and polysemantic i.e. the prefix -dis has several meanings:
(not) in (disadvantage); reversal or absence of an action or state in words (diseconomy, disaffirm);
removal in the word (to disbranch).
According to their denotational meaning prefixes fall into:
a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as: in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree), dis-
(disconnect), mis- (misname), il- (illegal);
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation,
rewrite) etc.;
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter- (interplanetary), hyper-
(hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre- election), over- (overdrugging).
 Origin of prefixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- (undressed, overcome, underwear);
b) Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re- (inhumane, decentralize, exchange, reappear);
c) Greek, such as: hyper- (hyperactive, hypertension) etc.
As you see from tables: 1 and 2 all affixes from the point of view of their etymology are
subdivided into two main classes: native and borrowed affixes.
Native affixes came from Old English period and have the special category of morphemes which
can be of different kinds.

Table 1
Native English Affixes

-er teacher, driver, painter, worker

-ness loveliness, ugliness, coldness
-ing meaning, singing, understanding
Noun-forming suffixes -dom wisdom, freedom, kingdom
-hood manhood, motherhood, neighbourhood
-ship mastership, workmanship, leadership
-th health, length, truth
-let booklet, coverlet, islet
-ful joyful, sinful, skilful, wonderful
-less sleepless, senseless, harmless
Adjective-forming -y tidy, merry, cozy
suffixes -ish childish, stylish, snobbish
-en silken, golden, wooden
-some handsome, tiresome, burdensome
-like dreamlike, ladylike, cowlike

Verb-forming suffixes -en redden, sadden, widen, darken

Adverb- forming -ly hardly, rarely, simply

suffixes -wise clockwise, otherwise, likewise
befool, befog
Prefixes be- misuse, misname
mis- unselfish, uncomfortable
un- overdo, overact, overcome
over-

Borrowed affixes came to the English language from different foreign languages and can be
classified according to their source.

Table 2
Borrowed Affixes
Suffixes
-able/-ible advisable, divisible, curable
Latin -ant/-ent attendant, student, assistant
-ate/-ute doctorate, appreciate, contribute
Prefixes
extra- extraterritorial, extracurricular
pre- pre-school, pre-race
ultra- ultra-high, ultra-intelligent
dis- disable, disagree, dismiss
Suffixes
-ist artist, realist
Greek -ism materialism, darwinism
Prefixes
anti- anti-pollution
sym-/syn- symmetrical, synthesis
 Suffixes
-age wreckage, peerage, marriage
-ance/-ence perseverance, coherence
French -ard wizard, drunkard
-ee employee, absentee
-ess princess, authoress
-ous curious, serious, dangerous
-ment development, appointment
Prefixes
en-/em- enlist, enable, embed

The word-forming activity of affixes may change in the course of time. This process raises the
question of productivity of derivational affixes it means the ability of being used to form new,
occasional or potential words. Productive affixes are used to form new words in the period in question.

Table 3
Productive Affixes

Noun-forming suffixes -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -ance (manager,

fighting, sweetness, materialism, impressionist,
acquaintance)

Adjective- forming suffixes -able, -ic, -ish, -ed, -less, -y ( tolerable, electronic,
girlish, learned, jobless, tweedy)

Verb- forming suffixes -ize/ise, -ate, -ify (realize, congratulate, falsify)

Adverb- forming suffixes -ly (equally)

Prefixes un-, re-, dis- (unhappy, rewrite, dislike)

Non-Productive Affixes are not able to form new words in the period in question. Non-
Productive Affixes are recognized as separate morphemes and possess clear semantic characteristics. In
some cases, the lexical meaning of a non-productive affix fades off so that only its part of speech
meaning remains, e.g. the adjective-forming suffix –some (lonesome, loathsome).

Table 4

Non-Productive Affixes

Noun-forming -th, – hood, -ship (length, childhood, scholarship)

suffixes

Adjective- forming -ful, -ly, -some, -en, -ous (peaceful, sickly, tiresome,
suffixes golden, courageous)

Verb- forming -en (strengthen)

suffixes

Prefixes ab- (abnormal), bi- (biannual)

When we analyze such words as: adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word
(verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form
new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases
we can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words.
Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as: contain, retain, detain and
 conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be
understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are
called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones.
There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after- in
the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as
compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.
Seminar Questions:
Consider your answers to the following.
1. What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary?
2. What are the principal productive ways of word-building in English?
3. Affixation.
4. Classification of suffixes.
5. Origin of affixes .
6. Classification of prefixes.
7. The question of productivity of affixes.

Seminar Tasks:
1. Analyze the following derived words, point out suffixes and prefixes and classify them from
different points of view:
non-violent, nourishment, to encourage, inwardly, to accompany, to de-restrict, dispensable,
clannishness, to overreach, foundation, childishness, transgressor, reappearance, historic, resistance,
wisdom, concentration, self-employed, brinkmanship, inaction, allusion, self- criticism, to computerize,
slimming, impatient.

A self-study work. Use special dictionaries and find twenty words with the native and borrowed affixes,
give the full analysis.