[Document title]

1. Explain the interaction of the 4 technical challenges.

Ans:

nteraction Among the Four Technical Challenges

The four technical challenges—Data Deluge, Cloud Technology, eScience, and Multicore/Parallel Computing—are interconnected and
influence the design and efficiency of distributed systems.

1. Data Deluge vs. Cloud Technology

• Data Deluge refers to the overwhelming growth of data generated from various sources (IoT, social media, sensors, etc.).

• Cloud Technology provides scalable storage and computing power to manage large datasets.

• Interaction:

o Cloud services (AWS, Google Cloud) offer distributed storage and processing solutions to handle massive data loads.

o Efficient data indexing, caching, and retrieval mechanisms are required to ensure fast processing.

2. Cloud Technology vs. eScience

• Cloud Technology enables remote, scalable computation and data storage.

• eScience refers to scientific research that relies on large-scale data analysis, simulations, and machine learning.

• Interaction:

o Cloud-based platforms support eScience applications by providing high-performance computing (HPC) resources.

o Scientists use cloud environments for simulations, genome sequencing, and climate modeling, leveraging AI and big
data analytics.
[Document title]

3. eScience vs. Multicore/Parallel Computing

• eScience requires high-performance computing for data analysis and simulations.

• Multicore/Parallel Computing enhances processing speed by executing multiple computations simultaneously.

• Interaction:

o Scientific research benefits from parallel computing for tasks like protein folding, AI model training, and large-scale
simulations.

o Optimizing algorithms to leverage multicore architectures is essential for maximizing performance.

4. Multicore/Parallel Computing vs. Data Deluge

• Multicore/Parallel Computing improves data processing speed by distributing tasks across multiple cores.

• Data Deluge demands high-speed computing to process vast amounts of real-time and stored data.

• Interaction:

o Parallel computing frameworks (Hadoop, Spark) help process large datasets efficiently.

o AI and machine learning workloads use GPU acceleration for faster data processing.

Conclusion

These four challenges interact dynamically, shaping the evolution of distributed systems. The rapid growth of data (Data Deluge) drives the
need for scalable infrastructure (Cloud Technology), which supports scientific research (eScience) using advanced computing techniques
(Multicore/Parallel Computing). Optimizing their interactions is crucial for handling large-scale computational tasks efficiently.

2. What is the difference between HPC and HTC? Is the technology convergence needed? Why?

Ans:

Difference Between High-Performance Computing (HPC) and High-Throughput Computing (HTC)

1. Focus:

o HPC is designed for raw speed and computational power.

o HTC focuses on handling large volumes of tasks efficiently over time.

2. Measurement:

o HPC performance is measured in FLOPS (Floating-Point Operations Per Second).

o HTC is measured by the number of tasks completed per unit time.

3. Usage:

o HPC is used in scientific simulations, engineering, weather modeling, and physics research.

o HTC is applied in internet searches, web services, enterprise applications, and data analytics.

4. Users:

o HPC is mainly used by specialized researchers, engineers, and scientists.

o HTC is widely adopted by businesses, cloud providers, and service-based applications.

5. Scalability:

o HPC relies on expensive, specialized hardware like supercomputers.

o HTC scales horizontally using cloud resources and distributed computing.

6. Energy Efficiency:

o HPC consumes high power to achieve peak performance.

o HTC optimizes cost and energy efficiency by distributing tasks over time.

Technology Convergence: Is It Needed?

Yes, technology convergence between HPC and HTC is necessary due to evolving computing paradigms:

• Web Services & Datacenters: Combining HPC power with HTC scalability is essential for AI, big data analytics, and cloud
services.

• Utility & Service Computing: Businesses need HPC for fast data processing and HTC for continuous service delivery.

• Grid & Cloud Computing: Grid computing utilizes HPC for distributed processing, while cloud computing employs HTC for
scalable applications.

• P2P Computing: HTC applications use peer-to-peer networks for data distribution and decentralized computing.

HPC in Scientific Research and HTC in Business Applications

• HPC in Science: Used for high-speed simulations in areas like climate modeling, drug discovery, and quantum computing.

• HTC in Business: Applied in financial modeling, recommendation engines, and cloud-based SaaS platforms for cost-effective
operations.

Attributes & Capabilities Supporting Convergence

1. Ubiquitous Computing: Reliable and scalable computing for both scientific and business applications.

2. Autonomic Computing: Dynamic resource allocation and automatic discovery of services for workload optimization.

3. Composable Computing: Supports Quality of Service (QoS) and Service Level Agreements (SLA) for efficient resource
management.

Conclusion

Converging HPC and HTC allows scientific applications to benefit from cloud scalability while business applications gain access to high-
performance capabilities. This hybrid approach optimizes efficiency, cost, and accessibility across different computing needs.

5. Describe 5-stage microarchitecture with diagram.

The Five Microarchitectures

1. 4-Issue Superscalar Processor:

1. Concept: This architecture attempts to exploit ILP by fetching and executing multiple instructions from a single
thread in each clock cycle (the "4-issue" indicates it can issue up to 4 instructions per cycle).

2. Diagram: The diagram shows a single thread being executed, but each row (representing a clock cycle) has multiple
instructions being processed in parallel.

3. Characteristics: It relies on hardware techniques like dynamic scheduling and branch prediction to find independent
instructions within a thread and execute them concurrently.

2.Fine-Grain Multithreaded Processor:

1. Concept: This architecture aims to hide memory latency by switching between different threads at a very fine-
grained level (e.g., every clock cycle).

2. Diagram: The diagram shows multiple threads (Thread 1, Thread 2, etc.) being interleaved at the instruction level.
Each clock cycle executes an instruction from a different thread.

3. Characteristics: It's effective for applications with high memory latencies, as it keeps the processor busy while one
thread is waiting for memory. However, it can reduce the performance of each individual thread due to frequent
context switching.

3.Coarse-Grain Multithreaded Processor:

1. Concept: Similar to fine-grain multithreading, but thread switching occurs at a coarser level (e.g., when a long
latency event like a cache miss happens).

2. Diagram: The diagram shows threads executing for a longer period before switching to another thread.

3. Characteristics: It has lower context switching overhead compared to fine-grain multithreading, but it may not be as
effective in hiding short latencies.

4.Dual-core (2-processor CMP) Processor:

1. Concept: A Chip Multiprocessor (CMP) integrates multiple processor cores onto a single chip. In this case, it's a dual-
core processor with two independent cores.

2. Diagram: The diagram shows two threads executing concurrently, one on each core.

3. Characteristics: It exploits TLP by running multiple threads in parallel. Each core can also exploit ILP independently.
It's a fundamental step towards multicore architectures.

5.Simultaneous Multithreaded (SMT) Processor:

1. Concept: SMT is a technique that allows multiple threads to issue instructions to the functional units of a single
processor core in the same clock cycle.

2. Diagram: The diagram shows instructions from different threads being issued concurrently within the same core.

3. Characteristics: It exploits both ILP and TLP within a single core. It can improve the utilization of the processor's
resources, especially when there are idle slots due to data dependencies or cache misses.

6.Explain architecture of NVIDIA CUDA GPU processor with a neat labelled diagram.

Ans:
[Document title]

NVIDIA CUDA GPU processors are designed for massively parallel computing, enabling high-performance processing for AI, scientific
simulations, and gaming. Unlike traditional CPUs, which have a few powerful cores optimized for sequential tasks, CUDA-enabled GPUs
contain thousands of smaller, efficient cores optimized for parallel execution.

Key Components and Their Functions:

1. CUDA Cores (Fundamental Processing Units)

• These are the basic execution units responsible for performing calculations.

• Each CUDA core contains:

o Dispatch Port: Fetches instructions from memory.

o Operand Collector: Gathers required data for processing.

o FP Unit (Floating-Point Unit): Handles floating-point arithmetic.

o INT Unit (Integer Unit): Handles integer operations.

o Result Queue: Stores computed results before passing them on.

2. Streaming Multiprocessors (SMs)

• CUDA cores are grouped into Streaming Multiprocessors (SMs).

• Each SM contains multiple CUDA cores along with shared resources.

• The number of SMs determines the parallel computing capability of the GPU.

• Multiple SMs operate simultaneously, processing thousands of threads in parallel.

3. Warp Scheduler and Dispatch Unit

• Warp: A group of 32 threads that execute together.

• The Warp Scheduler controls thread execution within the SM.

• The Dispatch Unit sends instructions to CUDA cores efficiently, ensuring maximum utilization of processing power.

4. Register File

• A high-speed memory unit that stores temporary variables and thread-specific data.

• Each thread gets its own private registers, reducing the need for frequent memory access.

5. LD/ST Units (Load/Store Units)

• Handle memory access operations by loading data from global memory and storing results back to memory.

• These units help in minimizing memory latency and optimizing data movement.

6. SFUs (Special Function Units)

• Perform specialized mathematical operations such as:

o Trigonometric functions (sin, cos)

o Exponential functions (exp, log)

• Improve efficiency by offloading complex calculations from standard CUDA cores.

7. Shared Memory / L1 Cache

• On-chip memory shared among all threads within an SM.

• Acts as a fast data store for frequently accessed variables.

• Reduces the need to access slower global memory, improving overall performance.

8. Uniform Cache

• Stores frequently accessed data shared across all SMs.

• Helps reduce redundant memory fetches, improving efficiency.

9. Instruction Cache

• Stores program instructions fetched from memory.

• Prevents redundant fetching of commonly used instructions, optimizing execution speed.

10. Interconnect Network

• High-speed internal connections that link the various components of the GPU.

• Ensures fast data transfer between CUDA cores, memory units, and caches.

• Crucial for maintaining efficient parallel execution.

7. What is a Virtual Machine and VMM? Explain primitive operations in Virtual Machines (with a diagram for each).

Ans:

A Virtual Machine (VM) is a software-based emulation of a physical computer. It runs an operating system and applications just like a
physical machine but is hosted on a physical machine (the host).

Each VM has its own virtual CPU, memory, storage, and network resources.

Multiple VMs can run simultaneously on a single physical machine.

VMs provide isolation, flexibility, and scalability, making them essential for cloud computing and enterprise IT infrastructure.

A Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM), also known as a hypervisor, is software that creates, manages, and runs virtual machines.

It allocates and controls access to hardware resources for each VM.

Ensures isolation between VMs to prevent interference.

Supports creating, suspending, provisioning, and migrating VMs dynamically.

Primitive Operations in Virtual Machines

(a) Multiplexing

• Definition: The ability to run multiple VMs on a single physical machine.

• The VMM efficiently shares CPU, memory, storage, and network resources across all VMs.

• Example: A cloud server running Windows, Linux, and macOS VMs on the same hardware.

(b) Suspension

• Definition: Saves the current state of a running VM to storage, allowing it to be resumed later from the exact same point.

• Used for power-saving, maintenance, and disaster recovery.

• Example: A VM running a database server is suspended to save power during non-peak hours.

(c) Provisioning

• Definition: The process of creating a new VM or restoring a suspended VM to an active state.

• The VMM allocates CPU, memory, and disk resources to the VM dynamically.

• Example: Cloud providers like AWS and Azure automatically provision VMs when users request new instances.

(d) Live Migration

• Definition: Moving a running VM from one physical host to another without stopping its operation.

• The VM’s memory, disk, and network state are transferred seamlessly to a new machine.

• Used for load balancing, failover support, and hardware maintenance.

• Example: A banking application VM is migrated to a new server without downtime during maintenance.

8. Explain typical cluster architecture with a diagram and also explain computational grid.

Ans:
[Document title]

The diagram represents a cluster of servers interconnected by a high-bandwidth SAN (Storage Area Network), LAN (Local Area Network),
or NAS (Network-Attached Storage).

Key Points:

• The cluster consists of multiple servers (S₀, S₁, S₂, ... Sₙ) that work together.

• These servers are connected via high-speed networks like Ethernet, Myrinet, or InfiniBand.

• Shared resources, such as I/O devices and disk arrays, are used to enhance efficiency.

• A gateway connects the cluster to the Internet, making it accessible externally.

• The cluster functions as a single unit when connected to the Internet.

Computational grid or data grid, which provides computing utility, data, information services through resource sharing and cooperation
among participating organizations.

Key Components:

1. Grid Infrastructure

1. The upper section represents a grid network consisting of:

1. Expensive equipment (such as satellites, scientific instruments).

2. Multiple servers interconnected through an IP broadband network.

3. Databases storing vast amounts of data.

2. Internet Connectivity

1. The grid is connected to the internet, enabling access to resources.

3. End-User Devices
[Document title]

1. Various devices (e.g., cameras, computers, laptops, televisions, and mobile devices) connect to the grid via the
internet, utilizing its computational and storage resources.

Purpose of a Computational Grid:

• High-Performance Computing: Allows organizations to share expensive computing resources.

• Data Sharing: Large databases are made accessible to multiple users.

• Collaboration: Different institutions can collaborate by sharing computational power and data.

9. Explain overlay network, and the structure of P2P system by mapping a physical IP network to an overlay network built with
Virtual Links (with diagram).

Ans:

Overlay Network

An overlay network is a virtual network built on top of an existing physical network (such as the Internet). It consists of logical connections
(also called virtual links) between nodes that may not be directly connected in the physical network.

Overlay networks are used in various applications, such as:

• Peer-to-Peer (P2P) networks (BitTorrent, Kademlia, Gnutella)

• Content Delivery Networks (CDN)

• Blockchain Networks

• VPNs and Cloud Networking

Mapping a Physical IP Network to an Overlay Network

1. Physical IP Network (Underlying Network):

o Composed of routers, switches, and hosts connected via actual physical links.

o Uses IP routing to determine the shortest path between nodes.

2. Overlay Network (Built on Top of IP Network):

o Logical topology formed over the physical network.

o Nodes communicate using virtual links (logical connections) instead of direct physical connections.

o Routing is performed at the application layer, independent of the underlying IP routing.

Structure of a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) System

A P2P system is a decentralized network where nodes (peers) act both as clients and servers, sharing resources directly.

Mapping a P2P System to an Overlay Network

• Each peer (node) in a P2P system corresponds to a node in the overlay network.

• Instead of relying on central servers, peers establish virtual links with other peers to form a logical network.

• The overlay network topology can be structured (DHT-based) or unstructured (random connections).

Types of Overlay Networks in P2P Systems

1. Structured Overlay (DHT-based)

o Uses Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) for efficient lookups (e.g., Chord, Kademlia).

o Nodes have predefined neighbors and use hashing to locate data efficiently.

2. Unstructured Overlay

o Peers connect randomly, forming a loose topology (e.g., Gnutella, Freenet).

o Searching involves flooding or random walks.

10. Explain service model and deployment model of cloud computing.

Ans: Cloud Computing: Service Model and Deployment Model

Cloud computing provides computing resources over the internet. It is categorized into service models (how services are delivered)
and deployment models (how the cloud is hosted).

1. Cloud Service Models (SPI Model)

The three main cloud service models are:

a) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

• Provides virtualized computing resources over the internet.

• Users get access to virtual machines, storage, and networking without managing physical hardware.

• Example: AWS EC2, Google Compute Engine, Microsoft Azure VMs

Use Case: Hosting virtual machines, running development environments, backup, and disaster recovery.

b) Platform as a Service (PaaS)

• Provides a platform with development tools, database management, and middleware.

• Developers focus on application development without worrying about underlying infrastructure.

• Example: Google App Engine, AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Microsoft Azure App Services

Use Case: Web app development, API management, machine learning, and data analytics.
[Document title]

c) Software as a Service (SaaS)

• Provides fully managed applications that users can access via a web browser.

• Users don’t manage infrastructure, middleware, or application updates.

• Example: Google Drive, Dropbox, Gmail, Microsoft Office 365

Use Case: Email services, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), document management.

2. Cloud Deployment Models

Deployment models define how cloud services are hosted and accessed:

a) Public Cloud

• Services are hosted by third-party providers and shared among multiple organizations.

• Cost-effective, scalable, but offers less control over security.

• Example: AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud

Use Case: Startups, web applications, SaaS solutions.

b) Private Cloud

• Cloud resources are dedicated to a single organization.

• Offers better security, compliance, and customization but is expensive.

• Example: VMware Private Cloud, OpenStack, Oracle Cloud Private

Use Case: Banks, government agencies, healthcare organizations.

c) Hybrid Cloud

• Combines public and private clouds to optimize cost and security.

• Critical workloads run on a private cloud, while less-sensitive tasks run on a public cloud.

• Example: AWS Hybrid Cloud, Microsoft Azure Hybrid, Google Anthos

Use Case: Businesses needing flexibility, backup solutions, and large-scale applications.

d) Community Cloud

• Shared among organizations with similar interests (e.g., government, healthcare).

• Provides better security and compliance than the public cloud.

• Example: Government Cloud, Healthcare Cloud

Use Case: Universities, research institutions, government agencies.

Conclusion

• Service models (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS) define how cloud services are delivered.

• Deployment models (Public, Private, Hybrid, Community) define how cloud infrastructure is hosted and used.

• Businesses choose a combination based on their needs for cost, scalability, security, and compliance.

11. Explain 4 operational layers of distributed computing systems.

Ans:

Four Operational Layers of Distributed Computing Systems

Distributed computing systems consist of multiple layers that work together to optimize performance, energy efficiency, and
resource utilization. The four key layers are:

1. Application Layer

• Focuses on designing energy-aware applications that balance energy consumption with performance.

• Developers must optimize instruction count and minimize storage transactions to reduce energy use.

• Ensures that applications leverage distributed resources efficiently.

Key Factors:

• Instruction count affects CPU energy consumption.

• Storage transactions impact disk energy usage.

• Energy-efficient algorithms improve system sustainability.

2. Middleware Layer

• Acts as an interface between applications and system resources.

• Manages energy-efficient scheduling and task management in distributed systems.

• Implements load balancing and task offloading to optimize power usage.

Key Techniques:

• Energy-aware scheduling: Allocates tasks to minimize power consumption.

• Load balancing: Distributes tasks efficiently to avoid overloading specific nodes.

• Task offloading: Transfers tasks to less power-intensive resources.

3. Resource Layer

• Manages hardware resources like CPUs, memory, and storage.

• Implements power management techniques to optimize energy use.

Key Power Management Techniques:

• Dynamic Power Management (DPM): Switches hardware components between idle and lower-power states when not in use.

• Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS): Adjusts processor voltage and frequency based on workload demands to save
power.

• Energy-efficient operating system scheduling: Ensures optimal CPU usage without unnecessary power wastage.

4. Network Layer

• Ensures energy-efficient network communication, routing, and data transfer.

• Optimizes network protocols to reduce energy consumption.

Key Network Optimization Techniques:

• Energy-efficient routing algorithms: Minimize data transmission power.

• Adaptive power management in network devices: Reduces power consumption in routers and switches.

• Data compression and caching: Reduces the amount of data transmitted over the network.

12. Explain 3 parallel and distributed programming models.

Ans:
[Document title]

Three Parallel and Distributed Programming Models

Parallel and distributed programming models are designed to execute computations across multiple processors or machines. These models
improve performance, scalability, and efficiency in handling large-scale computations.

1. Message Passing Interface (MPI)

• A standardized and portable message-passing system designed for parallel computing.

• Provides libraries for C, C++, and FORTRAN to facilitate inter-process communication.

• Used in clusters, supercomputers, and grid computing environments.

• Processes communicate by passing messages, rather than sharing memory.

• Supports both synchronous and asynchronous communication for efficient task coordination.

• Offers fault tolerance mechanisms for handling node failures.

• Alternative: Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) – another message-passing model used in heterogeneous computing
environments.

Use Cases:

• Scientific simulations (e.g., weather forecasting, molecular dynamics).

• High-performance computing (HPC) applications.

• Large-scale data processing in research labs and enterprises.

2. MapReduce

• A programming model developed by Google for parallel data processing across large clusters.

• Processes massive datasets by dividing tasks into two key functions:

o Map: Extracts and transforms input data into intermediate key-value pairs.

o Reduce: Merges and aggregates the key-value pairs to generate the final output.

• Efficiently processes terabytes of data across thousands of machines in parallel.

• Ensures fault tolerance through replication and task re-execution.

• Used extensively in Big Data Analytics, Machine Learning, and Web Indexing.

Use Cases:

• Log analysis and processing in large-scale web applications.

• Large-scale text processing (e.g., indexing for search engines).

• Distributed machine learning workloads.

3. Hadoop (Open-Source MapReduce Framework)

• Developed by Yahoo!, Hadoop is an open-source implementation of MapReduce.

• Enables massive data processing across distributed storage systems.

• Built on the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), which ensures fault tolerance and data replication.

• Provides high parallelism, scalability, and reliability for processing unstructured data.

• Used in data lakes, enterprise analytics, and cloud-based data platforms.

• Compatible with other Big Data frameworks like Apache Spark, Hive, and HBase.

• Supports batch processing, streaming analytics, and real-time processing when combined with tools like Apache Flink and
Kafka.

Use Cases:

• Data warehousing and ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) processes.

• Fraud detection and predictive analytics in financial services.

• Large-scale recommendation systems (e.g., e-commerce platforms).