SCIENCE REVIEWER q4

Microscope
 instrument that produces enlarged images of small objects, allowing the
observer an exceedingly close view of minute structures at a scale
convenient for examination and analysis.
Microscopy
 technical field of using microscopes to view samples & objects that cannot
be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution
range of the normal eye).
Microscopic
 means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
History of the Microscope
1285: Glasses Are Invented
● the earliest form of microscopy comes from the art of eyeglass making
● first pair of eyeglasses is thought to have been invented in Italy in the 13th
century.
● Germans invented the concave lens in 1451, while the Venetians debuted the
convex lens not long after.
1590s: Hans and Zacharias Janssen Make a 9X Magnifier
● they crafted a pair of small, spherical convex lenses in a tube — the precursor to
the compound microscope—which could magnify up to 9x.
● the first compound microscope
1609: Galileo Galilei Perfects the Microscope
● created an almost similar model of the compound microscope - to see distant
objects (heavenly bodies)
●He developed a set of mini telescopes with two lenses: a biconvex objective and a
bi-concave eyepiece. He later invented the occhiolino, with three biconvex lenses.
● He was able to create the telescope - “spyglass”
1625: Giovanni Faber Coins the Word “Microscope”
● German botanist coined the word from the Greek words for micron (small) and
skopein (to look at).
1665: Robert Hooke Discovered Cells
● English natural philosopher and credited with discovering the basis of all life on
earth: the cell.
● Father of Cytology
● Crafted his crude microscope, Hooke was able to observe thin slices of cork (which
are really just dead plant cells) at a microscopic level. With their tiny honeycomb-like
building blocks like little boxes, the tissues Hooke observed reminded him of monks’
chambers, so he named them “cells.”
● He published his findings in a book called Micrographia.
1670: Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Perfects the Microscope
● Dutch scientist - “Father of Microscopy”
● expertly grind and polish lenses, and developed a cutting-edge new lens that could
magnify up to 270x-300x, which allowed him to become the
● first person to view live cells under a microscope.
● he discovered bacteria that no one knew existed—including bacteria found in
saliva and rainwater—which he named “animalcules.”
Late 1800s:The Modern Microscope Is Born
● with a stage for the specimen, an ocular lens, objective lenses, and a light source.
Contributing to this new phase of science - Charles A. Spencer, who invented the first
American-made achromatic objective microscope and sold it commercially beginning
in 1838.
1926: Richard Zsigmondy Wins Nobel Prize for the Ultra Microscope
● One such example is the ultra microscope, invented by Austrian chemist Richard
Zsigmondy.
● This microscope works by aiming a high-powered light beam through a colloid of
particles, allowing us to see particles smaller than a wavelength of visible light.
1931: Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska Invent the Electron Microscope
● 1931, German electrical engineer Max Knoll and physicist Ernst Ruska invented
electron microscope. Instead of light, the electron microscope uses a focused beam
of electrons to create an image.
● The only downfall of this invention is that living specimens are destroyed by the
high resolution of the electron beam, so light microscopes are still needed to
examine living cells.
1953: Frits Zernike Wins Nobel for Phase Contrast Method
● In 1953, Dutch physicist Frits Zernike won the Nobel Prize for Physics for his
invention of the phase contrast microscope, which allows us to see colorless and
transparent materials at a microscopic level.
● This brand-new frontier of microscopy allowed scientists to view cells without
staining them (which would kill them), in order to view internal cell structure.
1986: Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer win Nobel for the Scanning
Tunneling Microscope
● physicists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer developed the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM), which is used to image surfaces at the atomic level. It uses
neither a light nor an electron beam, but instead an ultrafine tip that’s able to reveal
the molecular and atomic details of an object.
2008: the world’s most powerful transmission electron microscope
(TEM)
● In 2008, the Department of Energy installed the world’s most powerful
transmission electron microscope (TEM)—dubbed TEAM 0.5—at the National Center
for Electron Microscopy Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The ultra-bright
electron beam emitted from TEAM 0.5 will help researchers capture
threedimensional images of individual atoms
Common types of Microscope 2 Types of Microscopes
● Simple microscope - has only 1 lens – 5x
● Compound microscope - has 2 sets of lenses. It can magnify things 100 - 200 times
larger than they really are.
Compound Microscopes
● Compound Light Microscope (CLM) – use of visible light to illuminate specimens
and has multiple lenses that can magnify up to 1,000x and resolves up to 0.4 nm.
● Electron Microscope - can magnify objects up to 300,000 times. They do not use
lenses, but use beam of electrons and electromagnets for focusing, intensifying the
resolution (clarity) and to enlarge the image. Electron Microscopes
● Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) – can magnify specimens from 10,000x to
100,000x and resolves up to 2.5 nm, used to view layers and details of the
specimens. ● Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) – provides a threedimensional
view of the specimen, can magnify specimens up to 1,00x to 10,000x and resolves up
to 20 nm.
Parts and Functions of the Microscope

1. Ocular lens/eyepiece- the lens of the microscope that you look through
2. coarse adjustment knob- the large knob on the microscope that you turn to bring
the object into near focus
3. fine adjustment knob- the small knob on the microscope that brings the image to
sharpen the focus of the image
4. Arm- the part of the microscope supporting the body tube
5. body tube- the part that holds the eyepiece and the objective lenses.
6. Revolving nosepiece- the part at the bottom of the body tube that holds the
objective lenses and allows them to be turned
7. High power objective lens (HPO)- the lens that magnifies the object the greatest
amount. (usually 40x)
8. Low power (scanner) objective lens (LPO)- the lens that magnifies the object the
least amount (usually used to find the object; magnifies only 3x or 4x)
9. 9. Oil immersion objectives (OIO)- Middle power objective lens; the lens that
usually magnifies more than the scanner lens, less than the high power lens (usually
10x to 20x)
10. Stage- the flat part below the objectives lens where the slide is placed
11. Stage clips- the part that holds the slide in place so it doesn’t move
12. Diaphragm- the part that controls the amount of light entering the field of view
13. light source- the lamp (or mirror) under the stage that sends light through the
object being viewed.
14. Base- the bottom part that supports the rest of the microscope
Field of View
 Field of view is the area (circle) that you see when looking through the eyepiece
Comparing Powers of Magnification
 We can see better details with higher the powers of magnification, but we
cannot see as much of the image.
 To calculate the power of magnification, multiply the power of the ocular lens
by the power of the objective.
Calculating Magnification
1. Find the power of the lens. It is found on the side of the lens. Magnification power
of a lens is always identified by the label of x (10x, 1000x)
2. Multiply the power of the eyepiece by the power of the objective lens.

Appearance of the Specimen

● Objects appear upside-down & backward
● Movement appears to be in opposite direction than actual movement
Recording Observations
● Draw specimen large enough to fill “field of view” circle
● Draw as many details as possible
● Drawing should be neat
● Label specimen
● Label power of magnification
● Name & date on paper
1. Use dropper to place a drop of water on the center of a clean slide.
2. Use tweezers to lay specimen on the drop of water.
3. Gently touch the cover slip to the edge of the drop of water to cover the specimen
& the water.
Caring for the Microscope
1. Do not let any liquids to come in contact with the microscope.
2. Always store the microscope inside a box after use.
3. Return the objective lens onto low power after use.
4. Carry the microscope by the arm. 5. Use a soft clean tissue to wipe the lense

CELLS
Levels of Organization
What is a Cell?
 Cellula- latin word
 Sihay- Silid ng Buhay
 BASIC fundamental unit of ALL living organisms
 FOUNDATION of life
 Key to Biology
 contains the MACHINERIES needed to maintain Life
 basic physiological (functions) and morphological (structures) unit of life
Why study cells?
 Cells → Tissues → Organs → Bodies
◆ bodies are made up of cells
◆ cells do all the work of life!
The Work of Life
What jobs do cells have to do for an organism to live…
 Breathe (gas exchange)
 Eat (take in & digest food)
 Make energy (ATP)
 Build molecules (Macromolecules)
 Remove wastes
 Control internal conditions (homeostasis)
 Respond to external environment
  Build more cells (GRRD)
The Jobs of Cells
 Make energy
 need energy for all activities
 need to clean up waste produced while making energy
 Make proteins
 proteins do all the work in a cell, so we need lots of them
 Make more cells
 for growth
 to replace damaged or disceased cells
Cytologist
 Robert Brown – discovered the presence of nucleus within the cells.
 Félix Dujardin – discovered the sarcode, a life substance containing gelatinous
fluid.
 Johannes Purkinje - coined the term protoplasm, living material within the cell
(nucleus, cytoplasm, and other organelles).
 Rudolf Albert von Kölliker – coined the term cytoplasm (semisolid-semiliquid
substance inside the cell) from protoplasm.
Cell Theory States that:
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
 Matthias Schleiden
 Theodor Schwann
 The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all organisms.
 All cells come only from preexisting cells
 Rudolph Virchow
Key roles and function of a cells
1. The energy of organisms is formed in the cell. (ATP)
2. Organism can be made of one or more cells. (Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic)
3. DNA replication and division. (Cell Division)
4. An organism carrying certain chemical composition of cells is the same with the
species where it belongs. (Exclusivity)
5. The activities in an organism are dependent on the activities done by the cells.
(Function)
What is a cell?
A cell is the basic unit of life, from which larger structures such as tissue and organs
are made.
 Unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, consist of just a single cell.
 Multicellular organisms consists of many cells – humans are made from an
estimated 50 trillion cells
How big is a cell?
 Most plant and animal cells are between 0.025 µm and 60 µm in size – around
half the diameter of a human hair – and too small to see without a microscope.
 largest cell in the human body is the female egg cell, (ovum) at around 1,000 µm
in diameter.
 smallest human cell is the sperm cell – the head is around 5 µm long.
Specialized cells
 Most plants and animals are multicellular. The human body is made up of around
200 different types of cell, all working together.
All cells with a nucleus contain the same genes, but different cells activate different
genes so they only produce the proteins they need. However, all cells have certain
common features and structures called organelles.
Prokaryotic Cells
Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
 Structurally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells (which have a nucleus).
 Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic domains:
 Bacteria
 Archaea
 Live in extreme habitats
 Domains are structurally similar but biochemically different
The Structure of Bacteria
Extremely small - 1–1.5 μm wide and 2–6 μm long Occur in three basic shapes:
 Spherical coccus,
 Rod-shaped bacillus,
 Spiral spirillum (if rigid) or spirochete (if flexible).
Cell Envelope includes:
 Plasma membrane - lipid bilayer with imbedded and peripheral protein ◦
Form internal pouches (mesosomes)
 Cell wall - maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by
peptidoglycan
 Glycocalyx - layer of polysaccharides on the outside of the cell wall
 Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule)
The Structure of Bacteria Cytoplasm & Appendages Cytoplasm
 Semifluid solution
 Bounded by plasma membrane
 Contains water, inorganic and organic molecules, and enzymes.
 Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA molecule.
 Plasmids are small accessory (extra chromosomal) rings of DNA Appendages
 Flagella – Provide motility
 Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout from the cell surface
 Sex pili – rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA from cell to cell
Eukaryotic Cells
Domain Eukarya includes:
 Protists
 Fungi
 Plants
 Animals
Cells contain:
 Membrane-bound nucleus that houses DNA ◦Specialized organelles ◦Plasma
membrane
 Much larger than prokaryotic cells
 Some cells (e.g., plant cells) have a cell wall 24 25
Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles
Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized
 They contain small structures called organelles
 Perform specific functions
 Isolates reactions from others
Two classes of organelles:
 Endomembrane system:
 Organelles that communicate with one another
 Via membrane channels
 Via small vesicles
Energy related organelles
 Mitochondria & chloroplasts
 Basically independent & self-sufficient
Organelles
 Organelles do the work of cells
 Each structure has a job to do
 Keeps the cell alive; keeps you alive
Cells need power
 Making energy
 to fuel daily life & growth, the cell must…
 take in food & digest it
 take in oxygen (O2 )
 make ATP
 remove waste
 organelles that do this work
 cell membrane
 lysosomes
 vacuoles & vesicles
 mitochondria ATP
Cell Membrane
 cell boundary
 controls movement of materials in & out
 recognizes signals
Cytoplasm
 jelly-like material holding organelles in place
Vacuole & Vesicles
 transport inside cells storage
Lysosome
 food digestion garbage disposal & recycling
Mitochondria
 make ATP energy from sugar + O2
Plants make energy two ways
• Mitochondria make energy from sugar + O2
▪cellular respiration ▪sugar + O2→ ATP ▪Chloroplasts
◆ make energy + sugar from sunlight
▪photosynthesis
▪sunlight + CO2 → ATP & sugar
◆ATP = active energy
◆sugar = stored energy
■ build leaves & roots & fruit out of the sugars
Plastids
• double-membraned organelle found in plant cells some protozoans, and
bacteria.
Cell Wall
• provides rigidity, shape, support and protection
• surrounds the cell membrane acts like a filter due to its semi-permeability
• found only in plant cell
Plant Cell walls have 3 LAYERS
middle lamella
-outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues
them together
primary cell wall
-generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is
growing.
-made up of CELLULOSE
secondary cell wall
-a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall
-contains LIGNIN, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall
Cells need workers = proteins!
▪Making proteins
◆ to run daily life & growth, the cell must…
▪read genes (DNA)
▪build proteins
◆structural proteins (muscle fibers, hair, skin, claws)
◆enzymes (speed up chemical reactions)
◆signals (hormones) & receptors
◆ organelles that do this work…
▪nucleus
▪ribosomes
▪endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
▪Golgi apparatus
nucleus
 protects DNA
 controls cell
ribosomes
 builds proteins
ER
 helps finish proteins makes membranes
Golgi apparatus
 finishes, packages & ships proteins
centrioles
 cell division
How do animal cells specialize?
 In animals, the first type of cells in the developing embryo are stem cells. These
are unspecialized cells that go on to form all the different cell types in the adult