Reference Book on

Transformer Maintenance
and Testing
A Project of the Doble Client Committee on
Transformers

Doble Engineering Company

85 Walnut Street
Watertown, Massachusetts
02272-9107 (USA)

Telephone: (617) 926-4900

Fax: (617) 926-0528
www.doble.com

PN 500-0353 72A-2011-01 Rev. B 7/04

REFERENCE BOOK ON TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE AND TESTING

NOTICE

This Reference Publication (the “Reference Book”) is solely the property of the Doble Engineering
Company (Doble®) and, along with the subject matter to which it applies, is provided for the exclusive use
of Doble Clients (the “Client”) under contractual agreement for Doble® test equipment and services.
In no event does the Doble Engineering Company assume liability for any technical or editorial errors of
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Copyright laws protect this Reference Book; all rights are reserved. No part of this Reference Book shall
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Doble® is providing the information contained herein for reference purposes only. Doble® makes no
warranty or representation that the Reference Book will meet the Client’s requirements. This Reference
Book is intended to provide a basic understanding and general application of the principles set forth
herein. Comments contained herein relating to safety represent minimum guidelines, and should never
be compromised; however, it is foreseeable that the minimum safety guidelines may be supplemented in
order to conform to Client’s company safety and compliance regulations. Client is responsible for
applying the information contained herein in strict accordance with industry as well as Client’s company
compliance and safety regulations. The techniques and procedures described herein are based on years
of experience with some tried and proven methods. However, the basic recommendations contained
herein cannot cover all test situations and there may be instances when Doble® should be consulted
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the above limitation or exclusion may not apply.

© Copyright, 2004

By DOBLE ENGINEERING COMPANY

All Rights Reserved

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Preface

This Transformer and Test Guide is a project of the Doble Client Committee on Transformers.
Its purpose is to put into the hand of the Maintenance engineer a handy reference source dealing
with established transformer maintenance and test practices. This guide was written with oil-
filled power transformers I mind; however, there are aspects that apply generally to al types of
transformers.

Each engineer who plans to make use of this Guide must first study it carefully to see how it is
bet adapted to his particular area of concern. As a minimum, this Guide will be a valuable
educational tool for the maintenance engineer with limited practical experience on power-
transformer testing and maintenance.
This is the First Edition and, as such, suggestions and comments from all Doble Clients are most
welcome.

It is not intended that the material offered in this Guide be considered as the recommendation of
either the Transformer Committee or of the Doble Engineering Company; this publication is
intended solely to provide basic information and references.

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction and Scope ................................................................................................ 1

2 Definitions...................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Transformer. ................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)........................................................ 3
2.3 Basic Switching Impulse Insulation Level (BSL)....................................................... 3
2.4 Cooling. .......................................................................................................................... 3
2.5 Dielectric Tests .............................................................................................................. 4
2.5.1 Dielectric Withstand-Voltage Tests........................................................................ 4
2.5.2 Applied Voltage Tests............................................................................................. 4
2.5.3 Induced Voltage Tests............................................................................................. 4
2.5.4 Full-Wave Lightning Impulse Test......................................................................... 5
2.5.5 Reduced Full-Wave Test......................................................................................... 5
2.5.6 Chopped-Wave Lightning Impulse Test................................................................. 5
2.5.7 Front-of-Wave Lightning Impulse Test. ................................................................. 5
2.5.8 Switching Impulse Test........................................................................................... 5
2.6 Insulation Coordination. .............................................................................................. 5
2.7 Magnetic Structures...................................................................................................... 5
2.7.1 Core Form. .............................................................................................................. 6
2.7.2 Shell-Form. ............................................................................................................. 6
2.8 Oil Preservation Methods............................................................................................. 6
2.8.1 Sealed-Tank System................................................................................................ 6
2.8.2 Gas-Oil Sealed System. .......................................................................................... 6
2.8.3 Inert Gas-Pressure System. ..................................................................................... 6
2.8.4 Conservator (Expansion Tank System). ................................................................. 6
2.8.5 Conservator/Diaphragm System. ............................................................................ 7
2.9 Tap Changers. ............................................................................................................... 7
2.9.1 Tap-Changer, for De-Energized Operation - (NLTC-No Load Tap Changer)....... 7
2.9.2 Load-Tap-Changer (LTC)....................................................................................... 7
2.10 Transformer Terms ...................................................................................................... 7
2.10.1 Insulation Power Factor. ......................................................................................... 7
2.10.2 Efficiency................................................................................................................ 7
2.10.3 Excitation Current (No-Load Current).................................................................... 8
2.10.4 No-Load (Excitation) Losses. ................................................................................. 8
2.10.5 Load Losses. ........................................................................................................... 8
2.10.6 Core Loss. ............................................................................................................... 8
2.10.7 Impedance Voltage. ................................................................................................ 8
2.10.8 Turns Ratio.............................................................................................................. 8
2.10.9 Voltage Regulation. ................................................................................................ 8
2.11 Winding Configurations............................................................................................... 9
2.11.1 Delta........................................................................................................................ 9
2.11.2 Wye. ........................................................................................................................ 9

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2.11.3 Other winding configurations include the following:............................................. 9

3 Standard And Optional Factory Tests...................................................................... 11

4 Factory Tests For Repaired Transformers............................................................... 13

4.1 Standard Tests to Verify Acceptability of Repaired Transformers....................... 13
4.1.1 DC Winding Resistance Measurements................................................................ 13
4.1.2 Polarity and Phase Relation. ................................................................................. 14
4.1.3 Ratio...................................................................................................................... 14
4.1.4 Excitation Loss...................................................................................................... 14
4.1.5 Excitation Current................................................................................................. 15
4.1.6 Impedance and Load Loss. ................................................................................... 15
4.1.7 Zero-Sequence Impedance Test............................................................................ 15
4.1.8 Impulse Tests. ....................................................................................................... 15
4.1.9 Front-of-Wave Tests. ............................................................................................ 16
4.1.10 Switching Surge Tests........................................................................................... 16
4.1.11 Low-Frequency Dielectric Tests........................................................................... 16
4.1.12 Insulation Power Factor. ....................................................................................... 17
4.1.13 Insulation-Resistance Test. ................................................................................... 17
4.1.14 Partial Discharge (Corona) Test............................................................................ 17
4.1.15 Temperature Tests................................................................................................. 17
4.1.16 Short-Circuit Test.................................................................................................. 17
4.1.17 Low-Voltage Impulse (LVI) Test. ........................................................................ 18
4.1.18 Audible Sound Test............................................................................................... 18
4.1.19 Pressure Test. ........................................................................................................ 18
4.1.20 Core Ground Test.................................................................................................. 18
4.1.21 Contact Resistance Test. ....................................................................................... 18
4.1.22 Auxiliary Wiring Test. .......................................................................................... 18

5 Maintenance Tests and Analysis Of Results............................................................. 19

5.1 Safety............................................................................................................................ 19
5.1.1 Testing................................................................................................................... 19
5.1.2 Entering Transformers .......................................................................................... 19
5.2 Dielectric-Loss and Power-Factor Tests ................................................................... 20
5.2.1 Dissipation Factor-See Appendix A ..................................................................... 20
5.2.2 Winding Insulation................................................................................................ 20
5.2.3 Bushings................................................................................................................ 25
5.2.4 Oil ......................................................................................................................... 25
5.3 Single-Phase Low-Voltage Excitation-Current Test................................................ 26
5.4 Turns Ratio.................................................................................................................. 27
5.5 Winding Resistance..................................................................................................... 28
5.6 Core Grounds .............................................................................................................. 29
5.7 Fault Gases .................................................................................................................. 30
5.7.1 Total Combustible Gases in the Space Above the Oil.......................................... 30
5.7.2 Fault Gases in the Oil............................................................................................ 30
5.8 Miscellaneous............................................................................................................... 31

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5.9 Appendix A for Chapter 5.......................................................................................... 32

5.10 Appendix B for Chapter 5.......................................................................................... 33

6 Maintenance and Maintenance Test Schedule ......................................................... 35

6.1 Bulk Substation Power Transformers, Distribution-Station Power Transformers,
and Generator Step-Up Transformers...................................................................... 35
6.2 Load Tap Changer Equipment Associated with Power Transformers ................. 36

7 Transformer Drying Methods ................................................................................... 37

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 37
7.2 Hot Oil And Vacuum .................................................................................................. 37
7.3 Vacuum Alone ............................................................................................................. 38
7.4 Hot Oil Without Vacuum ........................................................................................... 38
7.5 Hot Air ......................................................................................................................... 38
7.6 In-Service Drying ........................................................................................................ 39
7.7 Vapor Phase................................................................................................................. 40
7.8 Monitoring Dryness .................................................................................................... 40

8 Synopses Of Papers On Transformers Presented At Doble Client Conferences .. 43

8.1.1 Aging Characteristics - Also Refer to Insulation Life & Loading........................ 43
8.1.2 Acoustic Intensity Meter - Also Refer to Partial Discharge ................................. 43
8.1.3 Air Bubbles ........................................................................................................... 43
8.1.4 Air Supply............................................................................................................. 43
8.1.5 Aluminum Windings............................................................................................. 44
8.1.6 Arresters – Internal ............................................................................................... 44
8.1.7 Askarel-Filled – Also Refer to Retrofilling .......................................................... 44
8.1.8 Audit Program – Also Refer to Inspection ........................................................... 45
8.1.9 Brown Boveri........................................................................................................ 45
8.1.10 Carbonization – Also Refer to Tap Changer......................................................... 45
8.1.11 Cast Coil................................................................................................................ 45
8.1.12 Combustible Gas................................................................................................... 45
8.1.13 Conservator ........................................................................................................... 49
8.1.14 Constant Oil Preservation System ........................................................................ 49
8.1.15 Cooling - Also Refer to Oil Pumps....................................................................... 50
8.1.16 Core Grounds - Also Refer to Dissolved Gas-In-Oil Analysis............................. 51
8.1.17 Corona - Also Refer to Shielding, Air Bubbles .................................................... 52
8.1.18 Current Transformers - Also Refer to Instrument Transformers .......................... 53
8.1.19 Degassing.............................................................................................................. 54
8.1.20 Design and Application......................................................................................... 54
8.1.21 Dew Point – Also Refer to Air Supply................................................................ 58
8.1.22 Dissolved Gas-in-Oil ............................................................................................ 58
8.1.23 Distribution Transformer ...................................................................................... 61
8.1.24 Doble Developments............................................................................................. 61
8.1.25 Drying - Also Refer to Maintenance..................................................................... 62
8.1.26 Dry-Type Transformers - Also Refer to Power Factor......................................... 63
8.1.27 Dry-Out ................................................................................................................. 64

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8.1.28 Exciting Current - Also Refer to Failures ............................................................. 64

8.1.29 Electrostatic Interference ...................................................................................... 65
8.1.30 EPRI Projects ........................................................................................................ 66
8.1.31 Extra High Voltage (EHV) ................................................................................... 68
8.1.32 Factory Tests......................................................................................................... 69
8.1.33 Failures.................................................................................................................. 69
8.1.34 Fault Pressure Relays............................................................................................ 80
8.1.35 Federal Pacific ...................................................................................................... 80
8.1.36 Fire Prevention...................................................................................................... 80
8.1.37 Gas Filled Transformers ....................................................................................... 80
8.1.38 Gas in Oil .............................................................................................................. 81
8.1.39 Gas in Silicone Transformers................................................................................ 83
8.1.40 General Electric .................................................................................................... 84
8.1.41 High Temperature Insulation ................................................................................ 85
8.1.42 Hitachi Transformers ............................................................................................ 85
8.1.43 Impedance Tests.................................................................................................... 87
8.1.44 Impulse Tests ........................................................................................................ 87
8.1.45 Infrared Scanning.................................................................................................. 88
8.1.46 Instrument Transformers....................................................................................... 91
8.1.47 Leak Repairs ......................................................................................................... 94
8.1.48 Life of Transformers - Also Refer to Loading...................................................... 94
8.1.49 Symposium on Utilization of Inherent Transformer Life Expectancy ................. 96
8.1.50 Symposium on Monitoring Transformer Aging ................................................... 97
8.1.51 Loading - Also Refer to Life of Transformers...................................................... 99
8.1.52 Loading Guide .................................................................................................... 100
8.1.53 Load Tap Changers ............................................................................................. 101
8.1.54 Maintenance and Repairs.................................................................................... 103
8.1.55 McGraw-Edison.................................................................................................. 106
8.1.56 Metal-in-Oil ........................................................................................................ 106
8.1.57 Mobile Substation ............................................................................................... 107
8.1.58 Moisture - See Drying, Failure, Power Factor.................................................... 107
8.1.59 Monitoring .......................................................................................................... 107
8.1.60 Neutral Reactors.................................................................................................. 109
8.1.61 North American .................................................................................................. 109
8.1.62 No Load Tap Changers - See Tap Changers....................................................... 109
8.1.63 Oil Processing - Also Refer to Drying, Dissolved Gas in Oil ............................ 109
8.1.64 Oil Pumps - Also Refer to Air Bubbles .............................................................. 110
8.1.65 Overexcitation..................................................................................................... 110
8.1.66 Partial Discharge................................................................................................. 110
8.1.67 PCBs ................................................................................................................... 111
8.1.68 Partial Discharge................................................................................................. 114
8.1.69 Potential Transformers........................................................................................ 115
8.1.70 Power Factor, Insulation Test ............................................................................. 115
8.1.71 Power-Factor Versus Temperature ..................................................................... 118

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Two-Winding Transformer Test................................................................................... 21

Figure 2. Three-Winding Transformer Test................................................................................. 21
Figure 3. Two-Winding Transformer Lumped Measurements.................................................... 22
Figure 4. Measurement of Ie in a Single-Phase Transformer....................................................... 27
Figure 5. Measurement of Ie in a Wye-Connected Transformer Winding (Routine Method)..... 27
Figure 6. Measurement of Ie in a Delta-Connected Transformer Winding (Routine Method).... 27
Figure 7. This Figure Needs a Caption ........................................................................................ 32

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Tables of Multipliers for Use in Converting Power-Transformer Power Factors at Test
Temperatures to Power Factors at 20°C ........................................................................ 24
Table 2. Guidelines for Combustible Gas Above Oil .................................................................. 30

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1 Introduction and Scope

Transformers are perceived to be relatively simple devices, in that they require less maintenance
and are generally more reliable than other types of electrical machinery. Because of this, there
may be a tendency to neglect them. However, unless judicious periodic inspections and
competent maintenance procedures are established, costly transformer damage and interruption
of service are likely to occur.

Proper transformer maintenance, subsequent to installation, consists largely of keeping all parts
clean and protected from corrosion, routine checking of all indicating and auxiliary devices,
checking to ensure that the transformer is free of leaks (gas and oil), periodically testing the
insulation integrity of all components and regularly calibrating all protective devices.

The frequency of the checks, tests and calibrations will vary depending upon the type, size, age,
design requirements and operating conditions of each transformer. A maintenance schedule
based on these conditions should be established. Once the schedule is established it should be
adhered to. A record system should be established to show the history, repairs, modifications and
spare parts availability for each unit.

This guide is intended to set forth ideas to assist in preparing and performing a comprehensive
maintenance program for power transformers that are in service, in storage, or in need of repair.
It cannot include all details nor provide for all contingencies that may arise. Nevertheless, all
parameters peculiar to the individual transformers should be accounted for in the maintenance
program.

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2 Definitions

2.1 Transformer.
A static electric device consisting of a winding, or two or more coupled windings, with or
without, a magnetic core, for introducing mutual coupling between electric circuits. The primary
purpose of a power transformer is to change the voltage level of a block of power being
transmitted or distributed.

2.2 Basic Lightning Impulse Insulation Level (BIL).

A specific insulation level expressed in kilovolts of the crest value of a standard lightning
impulse. A standard lightning impulse rises to crest value in 1.2 microseconds and drops to one-
half the crest value in 50 microseconds (counting from the origin). It is expressed as 1.2/50 µs.

2.3 Basic Switching Impulse Insulation Level (BSL).

A specific insulation level expressed in kilovolts of the crest value of a standard switching
impulse. The standard switching impulse is expressed as 250/2500 µs.

2.4 Cooling.

The efficiency and load handling capability of transformers are related to the manner by which
they are cooled. The following are the common basic cooling terminologies in current use for
oil- filled power transformers:

Class OA: oil-immersed self-cooled (A transformer having its core and coils immersed in oil
the cooling being effected by the natural circulation of air over the cooling surface.)

Class FA: oil-immersed with forced-air cooler (This is an extension of the Class OA system
with the addition of fans which blow across the cooling surface or radiator tubes.)

Class FOA: oil-immersed forced-oil-cooled with forced-air cooler (A transformer having its
core and coils immersed in oil and cooled by the forced circulation of this oil through

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external oil-to-air heat- exchanger equipment utilizing forced circulation of air over its
cooling surface.)

Class OW: oil-immersed water-cooled (A transformer having its core and coils immersed in
oil, the cooling being effected by the natural circulation of oil over the water-cooled
surface.)

Class FOW: oil-immersed forced-oil-cooled with forced-water cooler (A transformer having

its core and coils immersed in oil and cooled by the forced circulation of this oil through
external oil-equipment utilizing forced circulation of water over its cooling surface.)

Of the above, Class FA does not occur by itself but is always in combination with Class OA and
sometimes others as well. Thus, transformers may be equipped with one (except for Class FA),
two, or three combinations of the basic cooling schemes. For example:
OA
FOA
OA/FA
OA/FA/FA (contains two stages of fans) OA/FA/FOA
OA/FOA/FOA (contains two stages of fans and pumps)

2.5 Dielectric Tests

(See also TRANSFORMER TERMS). The following are insulation tests which are commonly applied
to power transformers at the factory:

2.5.1 Dielectric Withstand-Voltage Tests.

Tests made to determine the ability of the insulating materials and spacings to withstand
specified overvoltages for a specified time without flashover or puncture. Note: The purpose of
this test is to determine the adequacy against breakdown of insulating materials and spacings
under normal or transient conditions.

2.5.2 Applied Voltage Tests.

Dielectric tests in which the test voltages are low frequency alternating voltages from an external
source applied between conducting parts and ground without exciting the core of the transformer
being tested.

2.5.3 Induced Voltage Tests.

Induced voltage tests are dielectric tests on transformer windings in which the appropriate test
voltages are developed in the windings by magnetic induction. Note: Power for induced voltage
tests is usually supplied at higher-than-raged frequency to avoid core saturation and excessive
excitation current.

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2.5.4 Full-Wave Lightning Impulse Test.

Application of the “standard lightning impulse” wave ... described as a 1.2150 µs impulse.

2.5.5 Reduced Full-Wave Test.

A wave similar in shape and duration to that involved in a “full-wave lightning impulse test,” but
reduced in magnitude.

2.5.6 Chopped-Wave Lightning Impulse Test.

A voltage impulse that is terminated intentionally by sparkover of a gap, which occurs
subsequent to the maximum crest of the impulse wave voltage, with a specified minimum crest
voltage, and a specified minimum time to flashover. This test simulates a condition, for example,
whereby an insulator string flashes over (after the lightning wave crest is reached) relatively near
the transformer terminals.

2.5.7 Front-of-Wave Lightning Impulse Test.

A voltage impulse, with a specified rate-of-rise, that is terminated intentionally by sparkover of a
gap which occurs on the rising front of the voltage wave with a specified time to sparkover, and
a specified minimum crest voltage. This test simulates what might happen if a lightning stroke
hits either direct or very close to the transformer terminals.

2.5.8 Switching Impulse Test

Application of the “standard switching impulse”...described as a 250/2500 µs impulse.

2.6 Insulation Coordination.

The process of correlating the insulation strengths of electrical equipment with expected
overvoltages and with the characteristics of surge protective devices.

2.7 Magnetic Structures.

There are two basic types of transformer magnetic structure, or “form;” these are referred to as
Care-Form and Shell-Form.

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2.7.1 Core Form.

A transformer in which those parts of the magnetic circuit surrounded by the windings has the
form of legs with two common yokes.

2.7.2 Shell-Form.
A transformer in which the laminations constituting the iron core surround the windings and
usually enclose the greater part of them.

2.8 Oil Preservation Methods.

Power transformers operate at relatively high temperatures. Under conditions of high

temperature and, in the presence of catalytic materials such as iron and copper, the oil would
deteriorate rapidly if exposed to oxygen. Accordingly, great effort is made to prevent oxygen
(air) from coming in direct contact with hot oil. There are several types of oil preservation
systems that are in common use today:

2.8.1 Sealed-Tank System.

A method of oil preservation in which the interior of the tank is sealed from the atmosphere and
in which the gas plus the oil volume remains constant over the temperature range.

2.8.2 Gas-Oil Sealed System.

A system in which the interior of the tank is sealed from the atmosphere, over the temperature
range specified, by means of an auxiliary tank or tanks to form a gas-oil seal operating on the
manometer principle.

2.8.3 Inert Gas-Pressure System.

A system in which the interior of the tank is sealed from the atmosphere, over the temperature
range specified, by means of a positive pressure of inert gas maintained from a separate inert gas
source and reducing valve system.

2.8.4 Conservator (Expansion Tank System).

A system in which the oil in the main tank is seated from the atmosphere, over the temperature
range specified, by means of an auxiliary tank partly filled with oil and connected to the
completely filled main tank.

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2.8.5 Conservator/Diaphragm System.

A system in which the oil in the main tank is completely sealed from the outside atmosphere, and
is connected to an elastic diaphragm tank contained inside a tank mounted at the top of the
transformer. As oil expands and contracts within a specified temperature range the system
remains completely sealed with an approximately constant pressure.

2.9 Tap Changers.

Transformers may be equipped with tap changers to provide the optimum regulation and desired
output voltage. There are two basic types of tap changer:

2.9.1 Tap-Changer, for De-Energized Operation - (NLTC-No Load Tap Changer).

A selector switch device used to change transformer taps with the transformer de-energized.

2.9.2 Load-Tap-Changer (LTC).

A selector switch device, which may include current interrupting contactors, used to change
transformer taps with the transformer energized and carrying full load.

2.10 Transformer Terms

(See also DIELECTRIC TESTS). The following additional tests are commonly applied to
transformers.

2.10.1 Insulation Power Factor.

The ratio of the power dissipated in the insulation to the total voltamperes. It is also equal to the
cosine of the phase angle between the applied voltage and the resulting total current. This test is
made on the insulation between each winding and ground, and between windings.

2.10.2 Efficiency.
The ratio of the useful power output to the total power input.

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2.10.3 Excitation Current (No-Load Current).

The current which flows in any winding used to excite the transformer when all other windings
are open-circuited. It is usually expressed in percent of the rated current of the winding in which
it is measured.

2.10.4 No-Load (Excitation) Losses.

Those losses, which are incident to the excitation of the transformer. No-load (excitation) lasses
include core loss, dielectric loss, conductor loss in the winding due to exciting current, and
conductor loss due to circulating current in parallel windings. These losses change with the
excitation voltage.

2.10.5 Load Losses.

Those losses which are incident to the carrying of a specified load. Load losses include I2R loss
in the windings due to load and eddy currents, - stray loss due to leakage fluxes in the windings,
core clamps, and other parts, and the loss due to circulating currents (if any) in parallel windings,
or in parallel winding strands.

2.10.6 Core Loss.

The power dissipated in a magnetic core subjected to a time-varying magnetizing force. Core
loss includes hysteresis and eddy-current losses of the core.

2.10.7 Impedance Voltage.

The voltage required to circulate rated current through one or two specified windings of a
transformer when the other winding is short-circuited, with the windings connected as for rated
voltage operation. Note: It is usually expressed in per unit, or percent, of the rated voltage of the
winding in which the voltage is measured.

2.10.8 Turns Ratio.

The ratio of the number of turns in a higher voltage winding to that in a lower voltage winding.

2.10.9 Voltage Regulation.

The change in output (secondary) voltage that occurs when the load (at a specified power factor)
is reduced from rated value to zero, with the primary impressed terminal voltage maintained
constant.

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2.11 Winding Configurations.

Three-phase transformers (or, three single-phase transformers) are most often connected either
Delta, or Wye.

2.11.1 Delta.
The three windings are connected in series to form a closed loop. Figure 6 of this Guide shows a
Delta-winding configuration.

2.11.2 Wye.
One end of each of the three windings is connected to a common point, called the neutral. Figure 5
of this Guide shows a Wye-winding configuration.

2.11.3 Other winding configurations include the following:

Open-Delta
Interconnected Delta (uses six windings, two per phase)
Extended Delta
Zigzag
Hoeppner
T-Connected

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3 Standard And Optional Factory Tests

The following is a listing of the tests referred to in Table 14 of ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1980,

“American National Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power,
and Regulating Transformers”. Further details of most of the tests listed in C57.12.00 may be
found in C57.12.90-1980, “American National Standard, Test Code for Liquid-Immersed
Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers and Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of
Distribution and Power Transformers”. For specific details on some of the techniques for making
high-voltage tests on power transformers, refer to IEEE Standard 4-1978, “IEEE Standard
Techniques for High-Voltage Testing”.

Winding Resistance Measurements*

Polarity and Phase-Relation Tests*
Ratio Tests*
No-Load Losses and Excitation Current*
Impedance Voltage and Load Losses*
Zero-Phase-Sequence Impedance Voltage*
Dielectric Tests
Impulse Tests –(see Notes 1 and 2)
Reduced Full-Wave
Front-of-Wave
Chopped-Wave
Full-Wave
Switching-Impulse Voltage Tests –(see Note 1)
Low-Frequency Tests
Applied-Voltage*
Induced-Voltage*
Insulation Power-Factor Test
Insulation Resistance Tests
Radio-Influence Voltage Tests
Temperature Rise (see Note 3)
Ambient Temperature Measurement
Liquid Rise Measurement
Average Winding Temperature Rise Measurement
Other Temperature Measurements

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Short-Circuit Tests (see Note 4)

Audible Sound Tests
Mechanical Tests
Lifting and Moving Devices
Pressure
Leak*
Calculated Data
Reference Temperature
Total Loss
Efficiency
Regulation
Core Ground Test (see Note 5)
*Listed as “Routine” factory test in Table 14, Page 30, of ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1980

NOTES

1. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90-1980, Impulse and Switching-Impulse Voltage tests,

when specified, shall precede the Low-Frequency tests.
2. When Impulse (including Front-of-Wave) tests are specified, they shall be done in the
following sequence: one Reduced Full-Wave, two Front-of Waves, two Chopped-Waves, and
one Full-Wave; this is in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90-1980.
3. In accordance with ANSI/TEEE C57.12.00-1980, Temperature Rise test may be omitted if test
data is available on a thermally duplicate or essentially duplicate unit. Also, there has been
some discussion of the desirability of performing gas-in-oil analysis before and after the
Temperature Rise test (i.e., the “heat run”).
4. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90-1980, the Short-Circuit test as described therein is
intended primarily for application to new transformers for the purpose of design verification.
The analysis of the results of the Short-Circuit test may involve one or more of the following:
a. Visual Inspection of core and coils
b. Dielectric Tests
c. Current and Voltage changes
d. Leakage Impedance changes
e. Excitation-Current changes
f. Low-Voltage Impulse (LVI) changes
5. The “Core Ground Test” is not listed in the aforementioned ANSI/IEEE Standards; however,
it is a frequent requirement of users that the transformer core ground be checked at the
factory.

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4 Factory Tests For Repaired Transformers

This section reviews some of the various factory tests made on new transformers to aid the user
in appraising and specifying the test requirements for repaired transformers.

Numerous standards, guides and articles governing the factory tests made on new transformers
have been published by various recognized agencies in the power transformer industry. None of
these uniquely define the test requirements for repaired transformers. This is quite
understandable considering the complex variety of failure modes, design characteristics and
operating conditions that exist for individual transformers. In addition, repaired transformers
generally incorporate some of the unimpaired components of the original unit, and as such may
not meet the performance characteristics required by the current Standards.
• When a transformer fails, the user is confronted with the option of:

• Repair-in-kind, wherein the vulnerability for a repeat failure is unchanged.

• Repair in accordance with updated materials and design philosophy, wherein one or more of the
original performance guarantees may have to be waived.

• Scrap the unit and replace it with a new or used one.

If either of the first two options is selected, the user must then decide which tests are to be made
to verify the acceptability of the repaired transformer.

4.1 Standard Tests to Verify Acceptability of Repaired

Transformers

ANSI/IEEE C.7.12.90, “Test Code for Liquid-immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers and Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power Transformers,” is
the most generally recognized test standard for power transformers. The following tests are
primarily listed as defined therein.

4.1.1 DC Winding Resistance Measurements

The purpose of resistance measurements is for:

• The calculation of conductor I2R loss.

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• The calculation of winding temperatures at the end of a heat run.

• The verification that measured values is consistent with design calculations.

• The disposition and identification of the circuitry.

Measured values usually test within 114 of one percent of design calculations. Deviations greater
than this should be investigated to make sure there are no poorly brazed, crimped or bolted
connections.

4.1.2 Polarity and Phase Relation.

The purpose of these tests is to prove that the windings have been properly connected and are
consistent with nameplate markings. There is no tolerance for error, the windings are either
correctly connected or not.

4.1.3 Ratio.
The purpose of this test is to prove the correctness of the turns ratio of the transformer.
Generally, the turn’s ratio shall be correct to within 1/2 of one percent of nameplate markings
(refer to ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00, “American National Standard, General Requirements for
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers”).

4.1.4 Excitation Loss.

The purpose of this test is to prove that the core loss at rated voltage, frequency and wave shape
meets the guaranteed value. Often this will test somewhat lower-than-guaranteed to allow for a
greater-than-calculated value of load loss and yet meet the guaranteed value of total loss.

The core loss for a repaired unit will generally increase over the original tested value. This
increase depends upon the amount of core steel that must be handled, the extent of repair or
replacement of the laminations, and in the case of older units the aging characteristics of the
steel. Any replaced steel must be compatible with the reused steel.

Increases up to 5 percent can normally be expected for removing and restocking the iron in an
undamaged, grain oriented, cold rolled, silicon steel core. Increases of 50 percent or more may
be experienced on older hot rolled ordinary steel cores that require extensive repair to the
laminations of legs and yokes.

Increased core loss should be evaluated and justified to assure that the thermal limits are not
exceeded and that the increase is due to a uniform distribution of the losses rather than the result
of isolated localized heating within the core.

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4.1.5 Excitation Current.

The purpose of this test is to prove the unit meets the guaranteed value. This test is made at the
same time as the excitation loss-test. Its value is a function of the steel characteristics and
construction, and of the residual magnetism of the complete core assembly if it has not been
demagnetized.

On repaired transformers the value of excitation current will generally increase along with but
not necessarily proportional to the increase in core loss. Joint construction and clamping methods
severely affect the magnitude of the excitation current. Changes in the hysteresis and eddy
current characteristics due to handling the steel also affect the excitation current.

The Doble Client Group has accumulated experience showing the value of a single-phase low-
voltage (2 to 10 kV) excitation-current test. Some utilities specify that this test be performed at
the factory on new and repaired transformers. (Note: Due to the nonlinear I-V characteristic of
iron-core transformers, the excitation current at rated voltage cannot be extrapolated to predict
the value which will be obtained at some reduced voltage.)

4.1.6 Impedance and Load Loss.

The purpose of this test is to prove the unit meets the guaranteed values. The impedance is a
measure of the resistive components of the I2R and stray losses plus the reactive component due
to leakage flux linkages of the windings. The load loss in which includes the I2R of the
conductors and the stray losses associated with the leakage flux is generally not guaranteed as
such. Its limiting value is established by the difference between the guaranteed total loss and the
guaranteed core loss.

On repaired transformers the load loss will depend upon the extent of repair or redesign required.
The impedance should be within the limits established for new transformers.

4.1.7 Zero-Sequence Impedance Test.

The purpose of this test is to determine the values of the various elements in the equivalent zero-
sequence network representation of the transformer. These values for three-phase core type
transformers are very difficult to determine analytically. Testing is the only way of accurately
determining their values.

On repaired transformers, the values should remain essentially unchanged unless considerable
redesign of the winding or core configuration is required. In this case it is advisable to repeat the
zero- sequence measurements.

4.1.8 Impulse Tests.

The purpose of these tests is to prove the suitability of the design regarding distributed voltage
gradients associated with high-frequency disturbances. When specified, the individual line
terminals of a transformer are subjected to voltage impulses of specified amplitude, duration and

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shape. They consist of a reduced wave, two chopped waves and a full wave. Oscillograms of
voltage and neutral current are taken during the application of each impulse. These oscillograms
are compared with one another and any nonexplainable discrepancy between the reduced and full
wave oscillograms or between the two chopped waves indicate failure.

On repaired transformers when the redesign is such that the voltage distribution is changed
significantly or if the cause of failure was the result of impulse breakdown, it is advisable to have
the repaired unit impulse tested.

4.1.9 Front-of-Wave Tests.

The purpose of this test is to prove the design adequacy. This test is also analogous to the
impulse tests. The transient applied is a ramp function of short duration and thereby produces
higher stresses in the line end insulation structures. When specified, the application of two front-
of-wave impulses will precede the chopped wave application during impulse tests.

Some specifications impose higher rates-of-rise for front-of-wave tests than ANSI or NEMA
Standards. They also set limiting values of changes in core loss and excitation currents following
the application of the impulse tests.

4.1.10 Switching Surge Tests.

The purpose of this test is to prove the design adequacy. It consists of applying a transient
voltage of proper magnitude and duration into the winding under test. It is analogous to the
impulse tests previously reviewed except that the amplitude and shape of the transient applied is
characteristic of switching surge transients experienced in service.

4.1.11 Low-Frequency Dielectric Tests.

These tests are performed to prove the adequacy of the design. They consist of applied and
induced potential tests. The applied potential test stresses the major components of insulation.
That is, the individual windings and all connected components are elevated in potential with
respect to all other components in the transformer. The induced potential test stresses
interwinding insulation structures, as well as portions of the major insulation, to a value
proportional to the low frequency stress that the unit will be subjected to during normal
operation.

The magnitude of voltage for these tests depends upon the BIL ratings of the individual line
terminals of the winding being tested. The induced tests also have minimum limits established
for phase-to- phase tests of windings that are based on the voltage class rather than the BIL
assigned.

On repaired transformers that are not completely rewound the test values are usually limited to
85% of full test voltage or 150% of operating voltage, whichever is lower. On completely
rewound transformers the full test value should be applied.

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4.1.12 Insulation Power Factor.

The purpose of this test is to verify the state of dryness and to determine a figure of merit for the
insulation used in a transformer. It is a measure of the ratio of the power dissipated in the
insulation to the effective voltamperes applied during the test. Recent trends are to guarantee that
the power factor of the individual windings to ground and between windings will not exceed
0.5%. The values obtained at the time of the original tests are used as benchmarks to determine
the amount of insulation deterioration on subsequent tests. (Note: In some references the term
“dissipation factor” is used; however, the relationship between “power factor” and “dissipation
factor” is very close with regards to insulation testing, and is explained in Appendix A of Section
V: MAINTENANCE TESTS AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS.)

4.1.13 Insulation-Resistance Test.

The purpose of this test is to verify that the state of dryness of the insulation on various windings
and the core are of acceptable values. The results of these tests are used as benchmarks for
subsequent tests made in the field.

4.1.14 Partial Discharge (Corona) Test.

The purpose of this test is to confirm that there are no harmful effects due to corona discharge
within the windings, the no-load ratio adjusters, or the lower bushing terminals. This test is
generally made during the induced-voltage test. Current practice is to restrict the value of corona
to 500 microvolts or less.

4.1.15 Temperature Tests.

The purpose of this test is to prove that the design meets guaranteed values. This test is not
required on every unit. Essentially duplicate units need not be tested. However, there are some
who perform gas-in-oil measurements in conjunction with the heat run; this could pick up the
existence of a poor connection or a flux heating problem.

On a repaired unit, depending upon the amount of redesign required, the thermal characteristics
should be evaluated by test or calculation to determine if any change in rating is indicated. If the
thermal characteristics of a repaired unit are to be evaluated by actual test, then it may be
necessary that the radiators be included when the transformer is shipped to the repair facility.

4.1.16 Short-Circuit Test.

The purpose of this test is to prove design adequacy. Because of the power requirements
necessary for this test, it is rarely performed at the manufacturing facility. It is usually performed
at a test laboratory or in the field. Field tests will generally not have the required complement of
equipment to conduct the tests properly or verify the results. These tests are performed on a
typically designed unit of a given kVA and voltage. Successful results are used to support the
premise that similar designs will also withstand short-circuit forces.

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4.1.17 Low-Voltage Impulse (LVI) Test.

The purpose of this test is to detect winding movement following the short-circuit test. A
recurrent surge generator is used to apply a voltage pulse to one or more terminals of the
transformer while recording the current response at one or more terminals. Interpretation of the
changes (of the oscillograph records taken before and after the short-circuit test) is largely a
matter of experience.

4.1.18 Audible Sound Test.

The purpose of this test is to prove the unit meets the guaranteed value. The guarantees are
usually based on total noise generated by the transformer. However, in special cases the noise
generated in specific frequency bands may also be guaranteed. The noise generated by a
transformer is primarily a function of the magnetostrictive characteristics of the core iron
coupled with construction techniques.
On a repaired transformer when sound levels are paramount and considerable rework of the core
is necessary, a repeat of the original sound tests is advisable.

4.1.19 Pressure Test.

The tank should be subjected to the positive and negative pressures that it is designed to
withstand.

4.1.20 Core Ground Test.

For core-form transformers (and some shell form) this test is often performed to verify that there
are no unwanted grounds on the core and that the core insulation system is adequate.

4.1.21 Contact Resistance Test.

Sometimes performed on transformers with no-load tap changers and/or load tap changers.

4.1.22 Auxiliary Wiring Test.

All auxiliary wiring should be checked to ensure that it is wired correctly. In addition the wiring
should be subjected to a 1500-volt 60-Hz high-potential test.

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5 Maintenance Tests and Analysis Of Results

5.1 Safety
Companies should have established safety procedures and practices as related to testing and
inspection of transformers - these procedures must be strictly enforced and adhered to. The
following is intended to provide general information only.

5.1.1 Testing
Safety to Personnel – Except for certain tests (e.g. TCG, Total Combustible Gas) which do not
require the apparatus to be deenergized, the equipment to be tested must be deenergized,
grounded, and disconnected from the power system using established operating procedures.
Typical safety procedures call for a visual check of the disconnection. If the bus is subsequently
disconnected from the bushing terminals, grounds must then be connected to the apparatus
terminals. Personnel should be instructed to treat all ungrounded apparatus as energized.
Grounds must be removed to permit the application of test voltage or ungrounded low-voltage
test leads.

Precautions must be taken to prevent personnel from contacting the bushing terminals of the
transformer while under test.

Warning signs, barriers, and/or easily visible tape can be used to mark off the test area. Warning
signs should conform to local, federal and company requirements, and should be taken down
after completion of the tests.

Safety Apparatus – When the test voltage to be applied to apparatus insulation exceeds the normal
operating value, there exists the possibility of failure under test. Before applying the test,
consideration should be given to protection of test and other field personnel and witnesses, and to
the time, material, and labor required for a possible repair or replacement. If failure could result in
fire, then fire-fighting equipment should be available.

5.1.2 Entering Transformers

Combustible Gas – Before personnel are required to enter a transformer, a measure of the
total combustible gas level should be made using suitable instrumentation. If safe limits are
exceeded, then the gas space must be purged with dry air.

Adequate Oxygen – Large power transformers are usually shipped without oil to reduce
weight. To prevent the entrance of moisture during transit, the tank is usually filled with
dry air or nitrogen gas under pressure. If a unit is shipped under nitrogen, the gas must be

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replaced with dry air (at least 19.5% oxygen) before permitting anyone to enter the
transformer.

CAUTION

NITROGEN GAS WILL CAUSE ASPHYXIATION

Dry air should be used to prevent moisture from entering the transformer. (Dry air is air with an
oxygen content of at least 19.5% and should have a dewpoint of at least -58'C in conformance
with ASTM D 3283.)
When personnel are required to enter a transformer, dry air should be allowed to replace the oil
as the oil is pumped out. If personnel are to enter a transformer in which all the oil has been
removed, a dry air supply should be introduced through a bottom inlet or by some means into a
low area of the transformer. Dry air flow should be maintained at all times when access holes or
bushing holes are open (removal of insulating oil from a transformer in which personnel will
enter requires precautions to ensure that the oxygen content is maintained at 19.5% prior to
personnel entering). The quantity of dry air being admitted should be such that its escape is
noticeable when access holes or bushing holes are open. A cover may be placed over open access
holes to conserve air. The work should be performed in such a sequence that when accessories
such as bushings are being installed, only one port other than the access holes will be open at any
one time.

5.2 Dielectric-Loss and Power-Factor Tests

5.2.1 Dissipation Factor-See Appendix A

5.2.2 Winding Insulation

Flower-factor testing is concerned primarily with the detection of problems existing or
developing in the ground insulation, interwinding insulation, bushings and oil in a transformer.

Test Energize Grounde Guarde UST Measur

d d d * e
1 H L – – CH +
CHL
2 H – L – CH
3 L H – – CL +
CHL
4 L – H – CL
5 Test 1 minus Test 2 CHL
6 Test 3 minus Test 4 CHL

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7 H – – L CHL
8 L – – H CHL
*Ungrounded-Specimen Test

Figure 1. Two-Winding Transformer Test

Figure 1 shows in simplified form a typical two-winding transformer and the standard series of
power-factor tests applied to it:

CH refers to all insulation between the high-voltage conductors and grounded parts, including
bushings, winding insulation, structural insulating members, and oil.

CL refers to same parts and materials between the low-voltage conductors and grounded parts.

CHL refers to all winding insulation, barriers and oil between the high- and low-voltage windings.
Tabulated in Figure 1 are the standard series of tests (I to 4), two calculated values, and two
supplementary tests-illustrating how data pertaining directly to CH, CL and CliL are obtained without
need for physical isolation of transformer parts or sections.

Test data are recorded in terms of alternating charging current and dielectric-loss, from which
power factors are calculated.
Figure 2 illustrates the same simplified dielectric circuit for a three-winding transformer.
Tes Energize Grounde Guarde UST Measure
t d d d *
1 H L T – CH + CHL
2 H – L, T – CH
3 L T H – CL + CLT
4 L – T, H – CL
5 T H L CT + CHT
6 T – H, L – CT
7 H, L, T – – – CH + CL
+ CT
8 Test 1 minus Test 2 CHL
9 Test 3 minus Test 4 CLT
10 Test 5 Minus Test 6 CHT
11 H – T L CHL
12 L – H T CLT
13 T – L H CHT
Figure 2. Three-Winding Transformer Test

CH, CL, and CHL are as defined above for a two-winding transformer.
CT refers to all insulation between the tertiary-voltage conductors and grounded parts, including
bushings, winding insulation, structural insulating members, and oil.

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CLT refers to all winding insulation, barriers and oil between the low- and tertiary-voltage
windings.
CHT refers to all winding insulation, barriers and oil between the high- and tertiary-voltage
windings.

Figure 3 illustrates a system for lumped measurements on a two-winding transformer. Three

measurements are made, the first two (A and B) include ground and interwinding insulation, and
the third (G) includes the combined ground insulations of the high-and low-voltage windings.
The power factors recorded for the three measurements are the weighted averages of the two
components involved in each.

Test Energized Grounded Measure

A H L CH +
CHL
B L H CL +
CHL
G H, L – CH + CL

Figure 3. Two-Winding Transformer Lumped Measurements

Factory tests, in many cases, are of the type illustrated in Figure 3. It should be obvious that, if a
condition of high power factor exists in one component (CH for example), it may be masked in
Test A of Figure 3 but accentuated in Test 2 of Figure 1 which permits separate determination of
CH, CL and CHL.

The obvious solution is to standardize on the method illustrated in Figure 1. It is consistent with
Method 11 in ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90, “Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers,” and is the test method used almost universally in the field. It increases
the sensitivity of the power-factor test to localized conditions. The method permits individual
measurements of charging currents and dielectric-loss for CH and CL, and power factors are
calculated from these. Currents and losses for Tests 2 and 4 are subtracted from those recorded
for Tests 1 and 3 to obtain data for a power-factor calculation for CHL, as in 5 and 6 in Figure 1.
If desirable, CHL may be measured directly by the Ungrounded-Specimen Test (UST) method.

For a two-winding transformer tested by ANSI/IEEE Method I (Figure 3), on the basis of the
three sets of capacitance and power-factor readings, the individual CH, CL, and CHL Power
factors could be computed using the formulas given in Appendix B at the end of this section.
However, it is recommended that transformer purchase specifications specifically stipulate that
the transformer power-factor data supplied by the manufacturers be obtained in conformance
with users field practice (i.e., Method 11 of ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90).

New transformers, as delivered, should have power factors not exceeding 0.5% (20°C). There
should be reasonable justification by the supplier for values in excess of this. If the higher values

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are caused by materials with inherently high power factor, their replacement should be
encouraged because of their masking effect on an otherwise valuable tool. It is not advisable to
energize a transformer received with a power factor in excess of 1.0%, without complete internal
inspection, consultation with the manufacturer, and drying, “ indicated.

The effects of temperature on power factor is a most important consideration, since the
magnitude of power factor recorded on a given specimen varies with temperature, and account
must be taken of this in comparing data recorded for: the same unit in the field versus the
factory; for the same unit on different occasions in the field; and for groups of similar units.

Table 1 includes three existing curves used by Doble clients to correct the winding-to-ground
and interwinding power factors for temperature.

The power factors recorded for routine overall tests provide information regarding the general
condition of the ground and interwinding insulation of transformers. They also provide a
valuable index of dryness of a transformer, and are helpful in detecting undesirable operating
conditions and failure hazards resulting from moisture, carbonization of insulation, defective
bushings, contamination of oil by dissolved materials or conducting particles, improperly
grounded or ungrounded cores, etc.

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Table 1. Tables of Multipliers for Use in Converting Power-Transformer Power Factors at Test
Temperatures to Power Factors at 20°C
Test (3)
Temperature (1) (2) TRANSFORMER
DOBLE AIEE COMMITTEE
Oil-Filled Power Oil-Filled Power
Oil and Oil-Filled Transformers Transformers
°C °F Power Transformers (Sealed, Gas-Blanketed and (Sealed, Gas-Blanketed and
(Free-Breathing and Modern Conservator Types) Modern Conservator Types)
Older Conservator Through 161 kV 230 kV, Up (Above 750 kV
Types) (750 kV BIL) BIL)
0 32.0 1.56 1.57 .95
1 33.8 1.54 1.54 .96
2 35.6 1.52 1.50 .96
3 37.4 1.50 1.47 .97
4 39.2 1.48 1.44 .98
5 41.0 1.46 1.41 .98
6 42.8 1.45 1.37 .98
7 44.6 1.44 1.34 .99
8 46.4 1.43 1.31 .99
9 48.2 1.41 1.28 .99
10 50.0 1.38 1.25 .99
11 51.8 1.35 1.22 1.00
12 53.6 1.31 1.19 1.00
13 55.4 1.27 1.16 1.00
14 57.2 124 1.14 1.01
15 59.0 1.20 1.11 1.01
16 60.8 1.16 1.09 1.01
17 62.6 1.12 1.07 1.01
18 64.4 1.08 1.05 1.00
19 66.2 1.04 1.02 1.00
20 68.0 1.00 1.00 1.00
21 69.8 .96 .98 1.00
22 71.6 .91 .96 .99
23 73.4 .87 .94 .99
24 75.2 .83 .92 .98
25 77.0 .79 .90 .98
26 78.8 .76 .88 .97
27 80.6 .73 .86 .97
28 82.4 .70 .84 .96
29 84.2 .67 .82 .95
30 86.0 .63 .80 .95
31 87.8 .60 .78 .94
32 89.6 .58 .76 .94
33 91.4 .56 .75 .73
34 93.2 .53 .73 .93
35 95.0 .51 .71 .92
36 96.8 .49 .70 .91
37 98.6 .47 .69 .91
38 100.4 .45 .67 .90
39 102.2 .44 .66 .89
40 104.0 .42 .65 .89
41 105.8 .40 .63 .88
42 107.6 .38 .62 .87
43 109.4 .37 .60 .86
44 111.2 .36 .59 .86
45 113.0 .34 .57 .85

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46 114.8 .33 .56 .84

47 116.6 .31 .55 .83
48 118.4 .30 .54 .83
49 120.2 .29 .52 .82
50 122.0 .28 .51 .81
52 125.6 .26 .49 .79
54 129.2 .23 .47 .77
56 12.8 .21 .45 .75
58 136.4 .19 .43 .72
60 140.0 .17 .41 70
62 143.6 .16 .40 .67
64 147.2 .15 .38 .65
66 150.8 .14 .36 .62
68 154.4 .13 .35 .59
70 158.0 .12 .33 .55
72 161.6 .12 .32
74 165.2 .11 .31
76 168.8 .10 .30
78 172.4 .09 .28
80 176.0 .09 .27

5.2.3 Bushings
In an effort to improve the sensitivity of the overall tests, by minimizing the amount of insulation
included in a measurement, and particularly in larger transformers, it is essential that separate
tests also be performed on the bushings in a transformer. For bushings equipped with taps, a UST
(Ungrounded- Specimen Test) is performed on the main insulation, C1; the tap insulation (C2) is
also measured. The C1 and C2 insulations are checked for both power factor and capacitance, and
any abnormality in either of these test parameters warrants an investigation. Specific details
concerning these and other bushing tests may be found in the following Doble references:
• Bushing Field Test Guide

• Power-Factor Test Sets Instruction Manuals

• Power-Factor Test-Data Reference Book

Solid porcelain and compound-filled bushings, and transformer bushings not equipped with test
taps or other means to conveniently and effectively isolate the bushings from the windings may
be tested by the Hot-Collar method that is described in the above references.

5.2.4 Oil
Transformer oil is both a dielectric-medium and coolant when used in high-voltage oil-filled
power transformers. Deterioration or contamination with products that reduce the effectiveness
of the oil to perform these functions should be checked for on a periodic basis. Also, new oil
should meet established test criteria such as those listed in the Doble Transformer Oil Purchase
Specification (TOPS). Information on the above is included in the Doble Reference Book on
Insulating Liquids and Gases. The most generally recognized field tests for transformer oil are:
visual examination, power factor, dielectric breakdown, neutralization number (acidity), and
interfacial tension (IFT).

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In the field, oil samples should be tested routinely for power factor. Good, new oil has a power
factor of 0.05% or less at 20'C. USED oil above 0.5% power factor at 20°C should be considered
as being in doubtful condition, and a further investigation should be made.

5.3 Single-Phase Low-Voltage Excitation-Current Test

Power-factor testing is concerned primarily with the detection of problems existing or
developing in the ground insulation, interwinding insulation, bushings and oil in a transformer.
Also of concern in field- acceptance, routine preventive-maintenance testing, and
troubleshooting of transformers is the detection of short-circuited turns, poor joints or contacts,
core problems, etc., which can develop and do exist in transformers. To fill this need, a technique
was developed by Doble in 1967 for field measurement of transformer excitation current. The
test method is a natural extension of the power-factor test and makes use of the same test
equipment. Numerous cases of winding, tap-changer and core problems have been detected--
many before failure, and many not otherwise detectable by other routine field tests such as
impedance and ratio measurements.

Figures 4, 5, and 6 illustrate the excitation-current test procedure for single-phase transformers
(Figure 4), and for three-phase Wye- and Delta-connected units (Figures 5 and 6, respectively).
Note that all Doble excitation-current tests are performed by the Ungrounded-Specimen Test
(UST) method.
On single-phase transformers the two currents obtained should be the same. Also, currents
recorded for single-phase transformers should be compared either among similar units or with
data obtained for previous tests on a particular unit or, possibly, against factory data.

On three-phase transformers the results recorded on the individual phases are also compared. For
a three- phase core-form transformer a pattern of two similar currents and one low current is
expected. The lower current for one of the phases (usually, Phase H2-H0 for a Wye-connected
winding, and Phase H1-H2 for a Delta-connected winding) is associated with that winding which
is wound on the center leg of a three- legged core. The magnetic reluctance of this phase is lower
than the other two phases and, therefore, this results in a lower excitation-current value.

Excitation-current test results may be affected by residual magnetism of the core, which may be
demagnetized without undue difficulty. This subject is discussed further in the 1976 Doble Client
Conference paper entitled “Transformer Exciting Current Measured With Doble Equipment (A
Progress Report),” See. 6-1 101.

Some companies include in their purchase specification for power transformers a single-phase
low-voltage (2 to 10 kV) excitation-current test.

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Ie Energize UST Float Ie Energize UST Float Ground

H1- H1 H2 X1X2 H1-H0 H1 H0 H2H3,X1X2X3 *
H2
H2- H2 H1 X1X2 H2-H0 H2 H0 H1H3,X1X2X3 *
H1
H3-H0 H3 H0 H1H2,X1X2X3 *
*If X is Wye-Connected, X0 is Grounded

Figure 4. Measurement of Ie in a Figure 5. Measurement of Ie in a Wye-Connected

Single-Phase Transformer Transformer Winding (Routine Method)

Ie Energize UST Ground Float

H1- H1 H2 H3* X1X2X3
H2
H2- H2 H3 H1* X1X2X3
H3
H3- H3 H1 H2* X1X2X3
H1
*If X is Wye-Connected, X0 is Grounded

Figure 6. Measurement of Ie in a Delta-

Connected Transformer Winding (Routine
Method)

5.4 Turns Ratio

The Turns Ratio test is primarily used as an acceptance test, but it is also useful as a tool for
investigating trouble, sometimes it is part of a routine test program. When the test is made
initially it is generally performed on all taps to verify that the internal connections are correct and
that the design of the transformer conforms to ANSI C57.12.00, “General Requirements for
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers.” The measured ratio should
compare with the nameplate to within 0.5% except as qualified in ANSI C57.12.00. The Turns
Ratio test may also detect short-circuited turns.

This test is made by either of two ways. One method involves impressing voltage on one of the
windings (depending upon the transformer ratio and available voltage) and, by using two
voltmeters (with potential transformers if necessary), taking simultaneous readings of the
impressed voltage and of the induced voltage in the other winding. On three-phase transformers
connected wye with the neutral brought out, the ratio can be checked with single-phase potential,
one phase at a time, phase-to-neutral. Other three- phase transformers require three-phase
potential. The manufacturers recommend that a voltage of at least 10 percent of the rated voltage

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be used when making the ratio test by this method; however, even with the two-voltmeter
method, this is not always practical in field testing.

Another method uses the Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) test set which is available
commercially. This test set has an internal hand-cranked alternator to supply the test potential.
The ratio of a standard transformer in the test set is adjusted until its voltage is exactly equal to
that of the transformer under test. The ratio of the standard transformer then indicates the ratio of
the transformer under test.

5.5 Winding Resistance

This dc test is used more often in the investigation of trouble than as a routine test. Resistance
measurements can be made on all windings of a transformer to check for proper connections and
to determine if open or high-resistance connections exist in parallel windings. The resistance
values are also used for loss measurements and for the temperature-rise measurement of a
transformer. Generally, this test is made using a Kelvin bridge on all the tap positions.

On three-phase transformers, the measurements are made on the individual windings (phase-to-
neutral) when possible. On delta connections, there will always be two windings (in series)
which are in parallel with the winding under test. For this reason, on a delta winding three
measurements should be made to obtain most accurate results.

Since the resistance of copper varies with temperature, all test readings must be converted to a
common temperature to give meaningful results. Most factory test data are converted to 75°C
and this has become the most commonly used temperature. The formula for converting resistance
readings on copper windings (to 75°C) is as follows:

234.5 + 75
R75°C = Rtest x
234.5 + Wdg. temp. °C
Some transformer windings are aluminum rather than copper; accordingly, the formula for
converting resistance readings on aluminum winding (to 75°C) is as follows:

225 + 75
R75°C = Rtest x
225 + Wdg. temp. °C

Due to the inability to obtain precise temperature measurements, the permissible deviation for
this test in the field is 2% of the factory test values.

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5.6 Core Grounds

Heating will occur in a core-form transformer due to circulating currents if the core laminations
are grounded at more than one point. The laminations that make up the core are insulated from
each other and from the end-frames and other structural members. These structural members are
normally connected to the main tank. The laminations are insulated from each other by a
chemical treatment that leaves a very thin layer of insulation. The insulation between laminations
is only a few ohms which is sufficiently high to prevent damaging eddy currents within the core
and, at the same time, is sufficiently low to permit the entire core to be effectively grounded by a
connection to only one of the laminations.

The core ground connection is usually located at the top of the transformer. On some designs,
this connection is not solid, but instead is made through a heavy-duty resistor in the 250 to 1000-
ohm range. A resistor in this ohmic range still accomplishes the effective grounding of the core,
but at the same time limits circulating currents. This ground connection is usually mounted under
a convenient manhole at the top of the transformer. Some designs bring the connection through
the tank with a small low-voltage bushing, and the grounding strap is external. These convenient
locations permit the ground to be easily removed and, thus, the core-to-ground insulation may be
readily tested with the transformer out of service.

The care-to-ground insulation normally consists of a pressboard material which should withstand
at least 2-kV ac. Damage incurred in shipment can very likely affect this core-to-ground
insulation. Therefore, it is recommended that it be tested before unloading the transformer from
the railroad car or truck on which it was shipped. This insulation generally should read 1000
megohms for a new unit; however, a reading as low as 50 megohms may be acceptable if there is
no evidence of core movement or mechanical damage.

When an unwanted core ground is detected, it should be cleared before returning the transformer
to service. In some instances, this may prove to be extremely difficult, and in these cases, it may
be practical to install a resistor in series with the normal grounding strap so as to make a high-
resistance loop. This resistor should be of the order of 250 to 1000 ohms.
Although this test is most important to check on shipping damages, consideration also should be
given to making it a routine test where feasible.

An extensive report on transformer core grounds was presented at the 1972 Doble Client
Conference; see “Transformer Core Grounds,” Sec. 6-601, 1972 Doble Client Conference
Minutes.

In shell-form transformers it is not important that the laminations be grounded in only one spot
since the flux distribution in this type of transformer differs from core-form transformers.
However, the core- ground test may be desirable on some shell-form designs.

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5.7 Fault Gases

5.7.1 Total Combustible Gases in the Space Above the Oil

There are several commercially available devices for measuring the percent total combustible gas
(TCG) in the gas of transformers that are equipped with a gm space above the oil level in the
main tank. Usually, an initial test is performed which serves to establish a benchmark against
which subsequent follow-up tests are compared; a noticeable increase above the benchmark level
may warrant an investigation. The following are some general guidelines:

Table 2. Guidelines for Combustible Gas Above Oil

%TCG Comments
0 to 0.5 No indication of incipient fault.
0.5 to 1.0* Take periodic gas samples two weeks to one month apart, until possible
upward or downward trend of readings is established.
1.0 to 5.0* Take immediate additional gas samples and prepare to investigate cause,
preferably by internal inspection of transformer.
Higher than 5.0* Remove transformer from service until cause is located and remedied.

*In all cases where a high value or sizeable increase in combustible gas is noted, an
oil sample should be carefully drawn and quickly sent to a laboratory for gas-in-oil
analysis to assist in determining the nature of the fault.

5.7.2 Fault Gases in the Oil

A more sensitive measure than %TCG in the gas space of a transformer is the amount of fault
gases dissolved in the oil. This method requires that an oil sample be obtained in an air-tight
container and sent to a laboratory where the “key” gases (i.e., hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ethane, ethylene, and acetylene) are extracted from
the oil and measured (usually) using a gas chromatograph. There are various methods of
analyzing the gases; perhaps the most common is to note the quantity of key gases in relation to a
benchmark test (i.e., rate of change) or results on similar transformers.

In addition to analyzing the data on the basis of quantity of fault gases measured, there are two
methods of fault diagnosis based on the ratios of key gases. These methods are referred to as the
Dornenberg Method and the Rogers Ratio Method. A summary of the ratio methods, plus
additional general information on this subject, is covered in ANSI/IEEE C57.104-1978, “Guide
for the Detection and Determination of Generated Gases in Oil-Immersed Transformers and their
Relation to the Serviceability of the Equipment.”

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5.8 Miscellaneous

While the foregoing represent the most generally accepted field tests for transformers, there are
other types of tests such as “corona”, “low-voltage impulse (LVI)”, and the low-voltage
impedance test; however, due to the nature of these tests it is difficult to obtain reproducible
results and, therefore, these tests are most often confined to the factory or in the field under
carefully controlled and very special circumstances. Details concerning these and other types of
tests may be found in the Minutes of Doble Client Conferences; refer to the “Index of Minutes,
Doble Client Conferences,” 1935-1967, 1968-74, and 1975-80.

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5.9 Appendix A for Chapter 5

The relationship between “power factor” and “dissipation factor” may be seen quite readily with
reference to Figure 7 below:

where: θ is the “dielectric phase angle”

δ is the “dielectric loss angle”

And cos θ = IR/IT = power factor

tan δ = cos θ = IR/IC = dissipation factor

Figure 7. This Figure Needs a Caption

Up to about 84° dielectric phase angle (6” dielectric loss angle) the dissipation factor and the
power factor are practically equal:

COS 84° = power factor = 0.1045

tan 6° = dissipation factor = 0.1051

Accordingly, the power factor and dissipation factor are practically equal up to about 10%. If the
dissipation factor is in excess of 10% (0.10), then the power factor may be easily obtained from a
“mathematics table” or by the following formula:

DF
PF =
1 + ( DF ) 2

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5.10 Appendix B for Chapter 5

For a two-winding transformer tested in conformance with ANSI/IEEE Method I (ANSI/IEEE
C57.12.90, “Test Code for Liquid-immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating Transformers”),
based on the three sets of power-factor and capacitance values obtained, the individual CH, CL,
and CHL Power factors May be computed using the following formulas:

(C H − LG )(% PFH − LG )(C HL −G )(% PFHL −G ) − (C L − HG )(% PFL − HG )

% Power Factor for C H =
C H − LG + C HL −G − C H − LG

(C L − HG )(% PFL − HG )(C HL −G )(% PFHL −G ) − (C H − LG )(% PFH − LG )

% Power Factor for C H =
C L − HG + C HL −G − C H − LG

(C H − LG )(% PFH − LG )(C L − HG )(% PFL − HG ) − (C HL −G )(% PFHL −G )

% Power Factor for C H =
C H − LG + C L − HG − C HL −G

It should be noted that the above computations include a number of multiplications, additions,
subtractions, and a division, of numbers of varying magnitudes, which could result in errors.
Accordingly, it is stressed that the procedure that allows for direct Measure of CH, CL, and CHL, is
preferred.

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6 Maintenance and Maintenance Test Schedule

6.1 Bulk Substation Power Transformers, Distribution-Station

Power Transformers, and Generator Step-Up Transformers

The suggested tests, inspections, and/or adjustments that are commonly made on a 1 to 3 year
frequency with the unit in service are:

Oil Tests
Power Factor
Dielectric
Color
Lubricate fans, coolers, and pumps
Test cooling equipment operation
Clean radiators and coolers as required
Clean contacts of electrical control equipment
Incipient-fault-gas test (total combustible gas content or gas-in-oil)
Oxygen content in gas space

The suggested tests, inspections, and/or adjustments that are commonly made on a 3 to 6 year
frequency with the unit out of service are:

Oil Tests
Dielectric
Color
Acidity
Interfacial Tension
Power Factor
Power-factor tests on windings and bushings
Excitation tests
Incipient-fault-gas test (gas-in-oil analysis also recommended at this time)
Ratio tests
Oxygen content in gas space
Tighten all inspection plates and re-gasket as required

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Clean and paint as required

Test and adjust gas seal equipment, regulator and pressure/vacuum relief device
Check external bushing lead connections
Check adequate ground continuity

6.2 Load Tap Changer Equipment Associated with Power

Transformers

The suggested tests, inspections, and/or adjustments that are commonly made on an annual basis
with the unit in service are:

Oil Tests
Dielectric
Color
Lubricate accessible motor and mechanism parts
Check accessible pins and cotter keys for damage or fatigue
Clean and inspect wiring, contactors, auxiliary switches and other parts as applicable
Check gauges and indicators for proper operation

Various tests, inspections, and/or adjustments (some of which are listed below) are often made
on the basis of load-tap-changer operations. The number of operations requiring an overhaul
will vary depending on the user’s experience. A satisfactory interval may be from 10,000 to
40,000 operations for bulk substation transformers, the actual interval being dependent on the
make of the transformer, and 50,000 operations for distribution substation transformers.

Oil Tests
Dielectric
Color
Drain oil and open the selector and transfer switch compartments
Perform all items listed for annual inspection
Inspect condition of all contacts, insulating boards, bushings, and drive mechanism
Check alignment of all contacts
Hand crank the load tap changer through several positions observing the operation of
the unit. Check the position of the contacts against the nameplate of the
transformer.
Operate the load tap changer electrically over the full range
In vacuum load tap changers check for contact wear
In vacuum load tap changers “hi pot” each vacuum bottle

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7 Transformer Drying Methods

7.1 Introduction

The Doble Client Committee on Transformers acknowledges the efforts of the numerous authors
who have presented papers on the subject of transformer drying; note the bibliography in Section
Vill. The following describes, generally, some of the more widely accepted and practical
methods for drying oil-filled power transformers.

CAUTION
In the referenced publications the concern for static charges when transformer oil flows
through pipes or tanks is emphasized. Also, the explosive mixture of oil vapors and air that
may be present is a cause for concern. Proper grounding of all devices is essential. No
smoking or open flames should be permitted. Fire extinguishers, preferably of the carbon
dioxide type should be on hand before beginning to dry out. Also, good practice dictates the
following:

1. Do not operate the tap changer when the transformer is under vacuum.

2. Do not oil-fill a transformer without some form of pressure release device installed.

3. Never enter a transformer unless m atmospheric content has been checked and
verified to contain at least 19.5% oxygen by volume.

4. Never apply voltage to a transformer under vacuum.

7.2 Hot Oil And Vacuum

Generally, the drying of transformer insulation involves the use of heat and/or vacuum. It should
be noted, however, that a vacuum should not be drawn on a transformer unless it is known that
the tank is suitably braced.

Where applicable, a drying method involving heating of the transformer insulation in

conjunction with a high vacuum has proven to be both successful and practical in the field. The
heating may be accomplished by a continuous spray of degassed hot oil (approximately 80°C)
over the core and coil assembly. The heating drives the moisture, in the form of water vapor,
outward from the windings; simultaneously, vacuum is applied to the transformer thereby

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evacuating the water vapor. The more efficient the vacuum, the more rapid the extraction of
moisture. The oil, which is sprayed in from the top of the transformer tank, may also absorb
some of the moisture. This oil is drained from the tank, dried and reheated.

It may be necessary to use several cycles of heat and vacuum to achieve suitable dryness.

7.3 Vacuum Alone

Vacuum alone as a transformer drying method has been used with varying degrees of success.
After the oil has been removed, a high vacuum is applied. If no heat is used, it is important that
the vacuum system be leak free and that the vacuum pump be very efficient; as such, it is
desirable to locate the pump as close as possible to the transformer.

The process must be maintained for a long enough time to remove the moisture, especially that
which is deeply embedded in heavier insulating members. In many cases, this will involve a
prolonged application of continuous vacuum. However, drying time is reduced considerably with
the addition of heat.

7.4 Hot Oil Without Vacuum

Heat alone, without vacuum, is also used to dry transformer insulation, particularly when a
transformer is not designed for vacuum. Heat is used to either “push” or “pull” moisture from the
windings, which is then conducted away by the oil.

The short-circuit method of heating the windings can be used to heat the transformer and drive
the moisture into the oil. The oil is then dehydrated and degassed (before returning to the
transformer) in order to absorb additional moisture.

Another method is to circulate hot oil through an external heater. The heated oil in the
transformer absorbs moisture from the windings, after which it is recirculated through a
dehydrator and reheated to repeat the cycle.

It should be noted that while these methods will remove moisture from the transformer windings,
the time required for adequate drying is significantly longer than when used in conjunction with
vacuum.

7.5 Hot Air

The hot-air method consists of delivering hot air (80’C-100’C) into the bottom of the unit and
letting it exhaust through the top. The exterior of the transformer tank should be blanketed to

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minimize heat loss. This will also keep the interior of the tank at a uniform temperature,
preventing condensation. The temperature differential between inlet and outlet air should not
exceed about 20’C.

CAUTION

Take care to ensure that the hot-air inlet does not direct the flow of hot air directly onto
insulating material. Also, the heater should be raffled to prevent sparks from entering the
transformer.

Drying time using the hot-air method is a relatively long process that can be shortened by
employing a vacuum. (Again, the transformer must be designed to withstand vacuum.) When
using the hot-air method with vacuum, the air should be circulated continuously until the
winding reaches a temperature of 90 to 100’C. At this time, the heating duct is removed and high
vacuum applied. It may be necessary to employ more than one cycle of heat and vacuum to attain
adequate dryness.

7.6 In-Service Drying

CAUTION

In-service transformer drying or in-service oil reconditioning, which involves circulating

the oil through an external system, generally is employed only as a last resort because of
the inherent hazards involved. for example, this method, if not done properly, could
introduce bubbles into the transformer and thereby cause flashovers. Also, particulate
matter may be stirred and allowed to move into high-stress areas where, again, flashovers
may occur. Accordingly, it is not the recommendation of the Doble client committee on
transformers to employ in-service drying, and the comments following are only for
general information.

In one method of in-service drying, the oil is removed from the bottom of the transformer and
dried by passing through a reconditioning or reclaiming system. Special care should be taken to
maintain a safe minimum oil level in the transformer tank at all times. The clean and dry oil is
then returned to the top of the transformer, at some point below the safe minimum oil level, and
in such a way as to prevent bubble formation or serious agitation of the liquid. Since the clean
and dry oil is subsequently mixed again with moisture-laden oil, this process of drying is
relatively slow.

Another in-service drying method involves gas circulation. The gas (or air) in the space above
the oil is removed and passed through a filter of silica gel or other drying agent. The dried gas is
then returned to the top of the transformer tank, where it will absorb moisture from wet oil. This
process may require an extensive period of time (possibly one to two years) in order to achieve
the desired dryness.

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7.7 Vapor Phase

The vapor-phase method of transformer drying was developed by the General Electric Company.
This method, while capable of removing moisture rapidly and efficiently, involves the use of
equipment that is considerably more sophisticated than that used in field drying methods. While
the need for more sophisticated equipment may make vapor-phase drying impractical for most
applications, the user may wish to consider this method for a large transformer where time is the
utmost concern.

The vapor-phase drying method involves heating to vapor (boiling) a fluid, such as kerosene or
special oils, while the transformer is under vacuum. The hot vapors, in excess of 100’C,
condense on the cooler surfaces of the windings and cellulose insulation, thereby rapidly
increasing the temperature and “boiling out” the moisture, which is then evacuated. The
condensate may also carry some particulate material from the windings.

After sufficient drying time, the condensate is drained and further vacuum applied to the
transformer. Drying time will depend upon the physical characteristics of the insulation and the
time required for moisture in the different insulations to reach final equilibrium.

7.8 Monitoring Dryness

The degree of dryness of transformer insulation will depend upon the efficiency of the drying
equipment as well as the length of time the drying procedure is maintained. The most common
methods of monitoring the dryness of a transformer are:
• Dew point

• Vapor-pressure equilibrium charts

• The amount of water extracted, as from a cold trap in a vacuum line

• Power factor

• Polarization index
The dew point of a gas atmosphere surrounding the windings is the temperature at which
moisture vapor in the gas will condense or freeze. This temperature is generally compared with
manufacturers’ recommendations or users specifications. While dew point is an effective means
for assessing dryness of a transformer, it should be understood that this method relies on a state
of equilibrium between the solid and gaseous elements of the transformer. Equilibrium, however,
may not be achieved until weeks after drying has started; therefore, any measurement taken
during drying time cannot be considered “final.”

Vapor-pressure equilibrium (Piper) charts give an indication of the moisture content (by volume)
within the insulation. This subject was covered at the 1955 Doble Client Conference in a
“classic” paper by Mr. R. L. Murray, “Vacuum Technique as Applied to Evaluation of Moisture

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Content in Oil-Filled Transformers,” Sec. 6-301. The use of the charts involves converting dew-
point measurements to vapor pressure, then utilizing this value at transformer temperature to
determine percent moisture. While, ideally, this would give a good indication of the degree of
dryness, the charts rely upon equilibrium of moisture among all components and, as such, are
subject to the same limitations as mentioned above.

The amount of water collected in a cold trap is obviously a good indicator- of the water being
removed from a transformer. Most users discontinue drying when the rate of moisture collected
reaches a low point and levels off. At this point, the efficiency of the drying equipment and
technique cannot produce further drying except at a very slow rate. The question still remaining,
however, is how much moisture remains in the transformer windings.

Winding-insulation power factor does not rely upon a moisture equilibrium among the various
insulating members, but measures the overall (average) dryness. As such, power factor can give
an indication of deeply embedded moisture even though the vapor atmosphere is dry.

The normal test procedure for checking insulation power factor of power transformers is covered
in Section V: MAINTENANCE TESTS AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. However, special
precautions should be taken when monitoring the insulation power factor of transformers that are
undergoing a drying process.

CAUTION
Never apply voltage to a transformer under vacuum.

The proper procedure for checking the insulation power factor of a transformer that is
undergoing vacuum drying is to first break the vacuum with dry air or nitrogen. Then connect the
high-voltage test cable to the high-voltage winding and the low-voltage test lead to the low-
voltage winding(s). The test voltage generally should not exceed 5 to 10% of the nominal line-to-
ground voltage rating of the high- voltage winding; however, this should be checked with the
manufacturer. One test method involves the Ungrounded-Specimen Test (UST) technique to
check the interwinding (CHL) insulation; however, the Grounded-Specimen Test (GST)
technique also may be used, particularly if the ground insulation (C.) is of special concern. The
above method involves measuring the power factor after various intervals of drying, then
terminating the drying process when the power-factor readings begin to level off.

DC insulation resistance and polarization index (P.I.) is another tool for checking transformer
dryness.

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8 Synopses Of Papers On Transformers

Presented At Doble Client Conferences

8.1.1 Aging Characteristics - Also Refer to Insulation Life & Loading

8.1.2 Acoustic Intensity Meter - Also Refer to Partial

Discharge

Acoustic Intensity Gilbert Addis 1992 6-10.1

Noise radiated by large transformers has, in some cases, become a significant environmental problem.
Noise levels can be specified by a customer to the manufacturer, however, measurement by the
manufacturer before shipping presents two problems. Measurement must be made in an anechoic room
and cannot be made on the factory floor because of its high background noise level. Factory measurement
cannot be made under the load conditions seen in the field and so may not be representative of the field
noise level. This paper reports on an acoustic intensity meter developed by Westinghouse that permits
sound level measurements in the presence of high ambient noise.

8.1.3 Air Bubbles

Failure of a 90-VA, 3-Phase Power Transformer H. A. McColeman 1965 6-501

This paper describes the failure of a 90-MVA, 230-kV 13.2-kV OFP transformer having solid insulation
between windings. The winding-to-winding failure was due to corona in air bubbles that were generated
by the oil pumps. The oil pumps have been relocated so they no longer produce air bubbles.

8.1.4 Air Supply

Internal Inspection of Large Power Transformers Using H. J. Winsor 1965 6-101

Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus

A report covering recently acquired compressed air breathing apparatus for use by men entering nitrogen-
filled tanks of large power transformers for inspection, bushing installation on maintenance. The
breathing equipment and its use for transformer inspection are described.

Dry-Air Technique as Used on EHV Equipment A. H. Locke 1967 6-201

A report covering the preparation of EHV transformers for service and filling them with oil. It is stated
that the so-called Dry Air Technique will insure both a minimum of moisture contamination to insulation
and a maximum of breathing safety to personnel.

Portable Dry-Air Supply for Field Servicing Power G. T. Lautenschlager 1975 6-101
Transformers

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This machine economically converts atmospheric air to dry air (-75°F dew point) at a 15 SCFM rate and
provides a liberal supply during internal work on transformers, for blanketing stored oil in tankers, etc.

8.1.5 Aluminum Windings

Aluminum Winding Applications and Experience J. N. Davis 1969 6-601

R. E. Geiler

This paper briefly describes the Kuhlman Electric Company experience in the use of aluminum windings
for distribution and small power transformers. The selection of aluminum as a transformer conductor is
determined largely by transformer economics. Laboratory, manufacturing, and field service data will be
presented emphasizing the reliability of properly designed aluminum coils. Particular emphasis will be
given in relating production problems to field service problems, and suggestions for field operation and
maintenance from the manufacturers’ viewpoint.

Aluminum Conductors for Transformer Windings G. F. Mitchell, Jr. 1969 6-701

Although the use of aluminum for conductor material in electrical equipment is not new, it is a more
recent development for transformer windings in this country. The historical background and economics
involved are reviewed. Service experience having proven the reliability, the design considerations,
including electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of aluminum, are explained. The methods of
making terminations and joints are also covered.

8.1.6 Arresters – Internal

Failure of an Internal Arrester Inside a Westinghouse N. G. Perry 1973 6-301

161/69/13.2-kV 30/40/50-MVA Autotransformer

This paper describes a Westinghouse surge protector explosive failure inside a 30/40/50-MVA
Wye/Wye/Delta autotransformer equipped with an LTC and a voltage rating of 161/69/13.2 kV.

8.1.7 Askarel-Filled – Also Refer to Retrofilling

Askarel-Filled and Dry-Type Transformer Power A. L. Rickley 1966 6-901

Factors R. E. Clark

Updated tabulations of power factors.

Insulation Criteria for Pyranol (Askarel)-Filled J. P. Kinney, Jr. 1973 6-1101

Transformers

This paper discusses the significance of power-factor measurements on pyranol-filled transformers from
the viewpoint of the manufacturer in which the manufacturer’s attitude that power factor is not too
significant as an indicator of condition of the transformer is explained because of the effects of minute
contamination of the pyranol by other components in the transformer. The criteria for evaluating results of
power-factor tests on pyranol transformers are explained in this paper.

In a discussion following the presentation of the paper that appears in these Minutes, the attitude of the
Doble Engineering Company is explained expressing the feeling of the client group whose need for a
means for determining the condition of the insulation of pyranol-filled transformers is explained.

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8.1.8 Audit Program – Also Refer to Inspection

8.1.9 Brown Boveri

Failure, Rebuild, and Rewiring of Two 525 kV Brown G. W. Struve 1988 6-8.1
Boveri Corporation Type TUDFKAW Autotransformers

This paper describes Bonneville Power Administration’s operating experience with Brown Boveri Type
TUDFKAW 525-241 kV autotransformers. These units have experienced premature failure due to partial
discharge conditions located at the tapped winding-to-ground shield interface.

After two units were rebuilt at the manufacturer’s facility, a new problem arose. Improper placement of
internal medium-voltage leads prompted unbalanced current flow that resulted in an overheating
condition and burning of crepe paper insulation.

8.1.10 Carbonization – Also Refer to Tap Changer

Carbonization of Power Transformers Windings R. G. A. Brearley 1961 6-401
Detected by Power-Factor Tip-Up Tests

The purpose of this paper is to describe the initial test data on four large power transformers, the
investigation procedures that were followed, the defects that were found, and the final test results. Since
some of the conclusions reached are only tentative, a further objective of this paper is to promote
discussion and further investigation by others.

Power-Transformer Trouble Detected by Doble Power- J. W. Copper 1974 6-301

Factor Tip-Up Tests

The power factors obtained for routine tests on a three-phase autotransformer (138/69--12.5 kV, 15
MVA) were high and had increased substantially since the previous tests. During the dryout, a tip-up in
power factor with increasing test voltage was noted for the CT insulation component. After several drying
procedures, the power factors for all of the insulation components had decreased. While tip-up was still
noted for the CT component, it had decreased in magnitude.

8.1.11 Cast Coil

Encapsulated Distribution Transformers E. L. Raab 1963 6-1201

A detailed discussion covering resin encapsulated distribution transformers for primary voltages through
7620 volts (line to neutral). The basic construction, electrical and physical characteristics, and potential
applications are some of the points discussed.

8.1.12 Combustible Gas

Also Refer to Conservator, Dissolved Gas-in-Oil, Repairing Transformers
Detection of Combustible Gases in Nitrogen-Sealed C. A. Duke 1962 6-101
Power Transformers R. O. Taylor

This paper discusses the experience of the Tennessee Valley Authority in the study of combustible gas in
power transformers as a means of detecting incipient fault conditions. In this program more than 200
transformers were checked from three to six times in 1961. No transformers have been removed from
service because of incipient faults; however, two are not on the upward trend in combustible gas
concentration.

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Field Experience with the Transformer Fault-Gas H. H. Wagner 1962 6-601

Detector

A report covering field experiences in detecting faults of various types, of several manufacturers, on
several power systems.

The following seen papers were presented during the “Symposium on Gas Analysis for Detection of
Incipient Faults in Power Transformers”

Introduction to Symposium on Gas Analysis for P. L. Bellaschi 1963 6-101

Detection of Incipient Faults in Power Transformers

Experience in Testing Nitrogen in Oil-Filled R. D. Barrett 1963 6-201

J. C. Parker
Transformers

Pennsylvania Transformer Total Combustible Gas H. H. Wagner 1963 6-301

(TCG) Incipient Fault Detector

Gas Analysis for Detection in Transformers (Client A. L. Rickley 1963 6-501

Experience) R. E. Clark

The Mechanism of Gas Generation in Oil-Filled H. R. Sheppard 1963 6-601

Transformers

Failure and Repair of a Transformer Joint R. J. Crawley 1963 6-701

Detection of Combustible Gases in Nitrogen-Sealed C. A. Duke 1964 6-1001

Power Transformer (A Progress Report) C. R. Goodroe
R. O. Taylor
W. W. Thompson

This is a progress report covering the Tennessee Valley Authority’s experience in the use of analyses of
combustible gases in power transformers for detecting incipient faults. Since the January 1962 report
regular tests have been initiated on a total of 1160 transformers.

Incipient Transformer Fault Detected by Combustible C. E. Crawford 1964 6-1201

Gas Monitoring Program and Ultra Sound Tests A. F. Wilson

This paper describes the test methods used to monitor 26 power transformers rated 100,000 kVA for
combustible gas in the nitrogen, and the investigation of an incipient fault that was detected by these
methods. Screen tests are performed with an explosimeter, and gas analysis is done by mass spectrometry.

Development of a Continuous Monitoring Total H. H. Wagner 1964 6-1901

Combustible Gas (TCG) Incipient Fault Detector

A preview of the nature and application of a new TCG fault detector. The design is in its final stages but
is not quite completed.

Calibration and Comparison of Fault Gas Detectors E. M. Syrjamaki 1964 6-2101

A report covering the results of tests with the Johnson-Williams Models SS and G and the Pennsylvania
TCG Model A detectors.

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TCG Analysis and Use of Davis M-6 Vapotester R. C. Hutchins 1965 6-201

This report covers a program started in January 1963 to sample the nitrogen-blanketed transformers for
combustible gas content on a monthly gases. Three nitrogen-blanketed line reactors are also included in
the sampling program.

Combustible Gas Problem M. L. Ferguson 196 6-201

This paper is a partial extension to the 1964 papers primarily because of a reference made to a
combustible gas investigation of an 80,000-kVA transformer at the manufacturer’s plant. At that time the
transformer was undergoing a series of tests to determine the cause and source of combustible gas
generation.

Combustible Gas in Power Transformers D. J. Thomas 1966 6-1001

A discussion covering the gas-detector relay, rates of gas collection, significance of gases, combustible
gas analyzer, gas analysis, or sat analysis, infrared spectrophotometry, and gas chromatography.

Automatic Sampling and Measurement of Combustible M. Rose 1967 6-801

Gases in Transformers

A report by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation concerning their experience with automatic sampling
and measurement of combustible gases in transformers.

Pennsylvania TCG Transformer Fault-Gas Continuous H. H. Wagner 1967 6-701

Monitor

This paper describes a detector that continuously monitors the transformer gas space for combustible
gases; included are its functions, principle of operation, and application.

Generation of Combustible Gas in 230-kV Oil-Filled W. McDermid 1968 6-301

Current Transformers

Of 75 current transformers installed since 1953, four have produced combustible gas. Results of the
investigation of these are described.

Combustible Gas Tests on the Gas Space in Oil Samples H. G. Darron 1969 6-1101

The application of gas chromatography to combustible gas tests on gas from the space above oil samples
is described as a simple method of monitoring how older transformers form combustible gas. Details on
two defective transformers found by this method are given.

Experience with Power Transformers Combustible Gas R. O. Taylor 1969 6-1201

Testing

This paper presents 24 indicated fault conditions that were discovered through routine combustible gas
testing. We have now had eight years experience with combustible gas testing and have more than 1200
transformers under a regular schedule of combustible gas surveillance. In 22 of the 24 cases, the cause for
gas generation was found when the transformers were disassembled and inspected.

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Incipient Fault Detected by Gas-in-Oil Analysis L. Oms 1981 10-101

Progress report on problems detected by combustible gas analysis as part of a preventive maintenance
program for step-up and larger transformers. This paper includes an update on the basic techniques
employed by the Doble Engineering Company. This paper also reviews four transformer incipient faults
detected as a result of combustible gas analyses.

Gas-in-Oil Practice and Experience an Ontario Hydro J. F. Baker 1981 10-201

J. A. Salovaara
Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

Additional Experience with Gas-in-Oil Analysis K. A. Mennerich 1982 6-101

Involving Step-Up Transformer No. 2 at the Roseton
Electric Generating Station

This report documents the latest series of events involved in analyzing this transformer’s gassing
problem. The author describes the inspection, and testing, the repairs, and other considerations that
Central Hudson evaluated to assure, to the best of their ability, that the transformer will now provide
satisfactory service. Central Hudson is using the tool of gas-in-oil analysis to watch very closely the
generation of combustible gases versus time.

Discussion H. A. Ruggles 1982 6-101A

On-Line Hydrogen-in-Oil Monitoring T. W. Gouldsborough 1983 6-601

J. F. Millward

A summary is provided of experience with hydrogen-in-oil monitoring equipment installed on electrical

apparatus.

Discussion J. Gauthier 1983 6-601A

Closure T. W. Gouldsborough 1983 6-601B

J. F. Millward

Reliability Improvements on Operating Gas-Space E. M. Petrie 1983 6-701

Power Transformers

During certain extraordinary events, gas bubble evolution can occur in power transformers of the gas-
space oil preservation type. Methods have been developed to reduce the probability of this occurrence.
The only method known to completely eliminate the possibility of bubble evolution in super saturated oil
is accomplished by retrofitting the gas-space transformer with a constant pressure oil preservation system.

Discussion 1983 6-701

Failure of Number One Unit 275 MVA GSU at Brayton R. E. Minkwitz, Sr. 1984 6-101
Point

Brayton Point is a thermal generating plant with a gross capacity from four units of 1759 MVA. The GSU
transformer on No. I unit is rated 275 MVA, 115118 kV and was manufactured by McGraw-Edison. This
transformer was placed in service initially in December of 1979 and removed from service because of the
presence of combustible gas in the oil on July 25, 1981. After an extensive testing program at Brayton
Point and at the factory, the unit was dismantled. The gas was generated as a result of the improper
fabrication of the core.

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Our History of Power Factor Testing P. W. Brunson, Jr. 1988 2-4.1

The establishment of database consisting of Doble test results for the past decade is described, together
with the development of software to perform trend analysis on the current tests with respect to previous
test.

Trend Analysis of Power Factor Test Reports P. W. Brunson, Jr. 1989 2-3.1

This paper is an update of last year’s paper titled, “Our History of Power Factor Testing”. Topic includes
a review of our computerized Doble Power-Factor Test Reports; improvements/additions to the software
since last year; a look at the methodology of Trend Analysis of Power-Factor Test Reports, and some
initial results of the Trend Analysis effort.

Discussion S. H. Osborn, Jr. 1990 6-5.1

Implementing a Fourth Generation Substation J. E. Skog 1990 6-5.1

Maintenance Management System

In 1989 Puget Power began developing and implementing its “fourth generation” substation maintenance
management system. This system includes the following elements:

Identification
Prioritization
Feedback/Measurement
Projection

Selling upper management on such a system during relatively tight financial times has been a challenge.
This paper discusses both the elements of the maintenance management system and methods used to sell
upper management the concepts.

8.1.13 Conservator
Modification of Conservator Transformers to Permit W. W. Thompson 1967 6-601
Combustible Gas Surveillance

This paper describes a method of altering conservator transformers to enable the detection of combustible
gases resulting from faults within the transformers

8.1.14 Constant Oil Preservation System

Reliability Improvements on Gas-Space Power E. M. Petrie 1984 6-601
Transformers (A Progress Report

A progress report is presented on a 1983 Doble Client Conference paper, “Reliability Improvement on
Operating Gas-Space Power Transformers.” Emphasis will be on general comments and questions that
Doble Clients have with regard to recommendations and modifications made in the 1983 paper.
Specifically, questions related to applicability and type of equipment affected Will be addressed.
Recent laboratory data and field experiences will also be reviewed.

General Discussion 1984 6-601A

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E. M. Petrie
D. A. Yannucci, J.B.
Utilization of Inherent Transformer Life Expectancy Templeton 1984 6-1401

Discussion P. L. Bellaschi 1984 6-1501A

Discussion G. T. Lautenschlager 1984 6-1501B

Discussion R. W. Pfeiffer 1984 6-1501C

General Discussion 1984 6-1501D

8.1.15 Cooling - Also Refer to Oil Pumps

Supplementary Cooling Builds Transformer Integrity S. D. Myers 1980 6-301
and Reliability

This paper presents the problems introduced by design temperatures to the Achilles’ heel of a
transformer – the paper insulation – and the type of relief that can be obtained by use of Supplemental
Cooling to reduce the top oil temperature to 60°C. The Supplemental Cooling system is an engineered
project that meets the peculiar needs of servicing energized transformers, which are rated up to 140%
overloads.

Use of Auxiliary Coolers on Power Transformers – A W. J. McNutt 1981 6-501

Manufacturer’s View

Auxiliary coolers can be beneficial in limiting conductor and oil temperatures when additional continuous
load beyond nameplate rating must be carried on already installed transformers. However, the added
cooling will almost invariably not be matched to the characteristics of the original cooling equipment. As
a consequence it will be necessary to add more auxiliary cooling than would at first be estimated in order
not to exceed winding temperature limits.

Thermo-Hydraulic Monitoring System for Power R. J. Musil 1985 6-901

Transformers with Directed Oil Flow

The thermo-hydraulic image is a new type of winding hot spot temperature detector for forced oil
(particularly OD) cooled transformers.

With the thermo-hydraulic monitoring system, the heating winding of the thermocouple is thermally
insulated and forced oil cooled, as is the winding to be monitored. It is thus a thermo/electric as well as a
hydraulic image of the winding associated with it. In case of partial or total loss of the forced oil cooling
equipment, oil circulation through the thermocouple is reduced proportionally and the corresponding
increase of the hot spot temperature is indicated.

The performance of this system is demonstrated and verified during heat runs on large power
transformers.

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8.1.16 Core Grounds - Also Refer to Dissolved Gas-In-Oil Analysis

Transformer Core Grounds A. L. Rickley 1972 6-601
R. E. Clark

Reports on the results of a survey of core-grounding and testing practices of several utilities and
manufacturers. Discussed are core ground problems; type of grounding, accessibility of core ground
connections, testing, explosive hazards during tests, and the significance and elimination of unintentional
grounds.

In-Service Measuring of Transformer Core Insulation J. B. Leach 1973 6-401

This paper describes this company’s experience with an extraneous core ground on a General Electric
core-form three-phase autotransformer rated 300 MVA 345/138/13.8 kV. A method for monitoring and
recording the current and voltage core-to-ground together with an alarm circuit while in service is
described.

Transformer Core Grounds R. H. Phillips 1973 6-90?

This paper expands on the information reported in the 1972 paper on Transformer Core Grounds
presented by A. L. Rickley and R. E. Clark, 6-601.

Recurring Core Ground Found by Combustible-Gas A. Marquez 1977 6-301

Analysis

This paper describes the detection of an unintentional core ground by combustible-gas testing and
dissolved gas-in-oil analysis. After eliminating it the first time, the core ground recurs and is again
indicated by combustible-gas tests.

Recurring Core Ground, Investigation and Repair A. Marquez 1981 6-301

This paper is a follow-up report on a 1977 paper that described a recurring core ground and its
elimination. The core ground again returned, eventually leading to the untanking of the core and coils, the
locating of the ground, and repairs that hopefully are permanent.

Detection, Analysis, and Rehabilitation of Unintentional Danny E. Bates 1981 6-10.1

Paul W. Brunson, Jr.
Core Grounds in Large Power Transformers

This paper discusses Alabama Power Company’s experiences in locating unintentional grounds on cores
of large core-form and shell-form type power transformers. In addition, techniques used to analyze the
location and/or source of these grounds is reviewed. Finally, this presentation will highlight a number of
helpful techniques used in eliminating the unintentional ground or at least diminishing its harmful effects.
Special emphasis will be placed on Westinghouse shell-form power transformers with burning T-beam
problems.

Discussion William Boettger 1991 6-10.1A

L. E. Luke
John C. Hatfield

Closure Danny E. Bates 1991 6-10.1B

Paul W. Brunson

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8.1.17 Corona - Also Refer to Shielding, Air Bubbles

Field Measurement of Corona Discharges in Power L. A. Kenoyer 1960 6-401
Transformers

The tests reported in this paper indicated that corona discharges were occurring in transformers at less
than normal operating voltage and that these discharges could readily be detected with available test
methods. The test circuit and equipment, test procedure, problems encountered in making the tests, and a
discussion of the test results are covered in this paper.

Corona Test on Large Power Transformers in the Field C. A. Duke 1960 6-401
L. E. Smith

Field testing of large power transformers for corona poses several problems. Some of the problems
encountered during actual field conditions are given in this paper. Suggestions are offered as guides for
future tests. This paper does not report on actual corona damage in transformers.

Radio-Influence-Voltage Testing of Transformers T. A. Chesher 1964 6-901

A discussion covering this type of test and the types of defects found. Test data and the test circuit are
included.

Ultrasonic Corona Detection in Transformers J. H. Carpenter 1964 6-2201

Basic techniques for using ultrasonic equipment for detecting, ranging, and triangulation of corona
sources in transformers are described. The system is applicable during factory insulation tests and on
transformers installed and in operation.

Corona Testing of Transformers S. Bennon 1965 6-801

It is reported that considerable progress has been made in the development of equipment and techniques
for measuring corona levels of transformers. Radio Noise Meters meeting standard specifications are
available. Simplified measuring circuits have been developed using the bushing condenser tap. It is also
reported that one of the most important areas for investigation today is the determination of the absolute
significance of the measured corona levels.

Corona Discharges in Power Transformers (Detection J. A. Forster 1965 6-901

and Quantitative Measurement)

A report covering switching surges, insulation coordination, tests on insulation structures, and tests on
individual components of transformer insulation.

Power Transformer Corona Tests in the Field E. J. Rogers 1965 6-901

D. A. Gillies
L. E. Humbard

This paper discusses several aspects of experiences of on-site measurement of radio influence voltages
(RIV) in oil-filled power transformers. Discussed are the problems of conducted and radiated RIV, the
high-voltage bushing capacitance-tap resonant circuit and instrumentation; also included are
improvements in test methods and results of recent tests.

Progress in Corona Testing Power Transformers H. H. Brustle 1970 6-801

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The paper deals with improvements made in sonic corona detection and location equipment, as well as a
brief description of the methods and techniques employed in its use. Typical case histories are given to
illustrate our experience with RIV and sonic corona testing.

Power Transformer Corona Testing P. L. Bellaschi 1971 6-201

(1) Introduction, (2) Chronological Developments, (3) Standardization and Application, (4) Present
Status – Basic Issues, (5) Recent Developments, (6) Present Practices: Standards – Specifications, and
(7) Summary – Conclusions – Work Ahead.

Power-Transformer Corona Testing and Corona Levels P. L. Bellaschi 1976 6-601

(A Progress Report)

This paper reports the present status of the art of power-transformer factory-acceptance corona testing and
in particular, for the HV and EHV applications.

8.1.18 Current Transformers - Also Refer to Instrument Transformers

Online Monitoring of Freestanding Current B. W. Arp 1987 6-701
Transformers at Tennessee Valley Authority J. R. Boyle
H. B. Cummings

Frequency Response Determination of Current and E. L. S. DeMelo 1987 6-901

Potential Transformers

This paper describes a method for determining the transformer ratio variations versus frequency in a
range up to 5 kHz or more. The results from this information are used in harmonics and transient signal
measurements, the results of several on-site tests are shown, and CT, CVT, and PT frequency response
diagrams are provided.

Current Transformer Failure Analysis C. F. Caral 197 6-1701

J. F. Filho
S. Lins
M. M. Mendonca

This paper describes maintenance planning of the current transformer, failure analysis, determining the
conditions of operating equipment, chromatographic analysis of current transformer insulating oil to
prevent failure, and recommended combustible gas values to prevent failures in 245 kV current
transformers.

Extra High Voltage Current Transformer Program—An G. G. McCrae 1988 6-14.1

Update

A preliminary report on the results of an IEEE Questionnaire sent to North American utilities by an ad-
hoc committee of concerned utility people from the IEEE Transformer Committee. The Questionnaire
covered all 345 kV and higher current transformers.

B. C. Hydro’s experience with EHV current transformers of various manufacture are also discussed.

Repair of 765 kV Current Transformer M. D. Loy 1989 6-3.1

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This paper outlines problems experienced with porcelains cracking on several 765 kV current
transformers. It also outlines steps taken to remove and replace porcelains and to process and test the units
after repairs were completed.

Update of Recent 500 kV Current Transformer Problems J. Laasko 1989 6-4.1

This paper describes recent developments and results of investigations into the failures of 500 kV current
transformers supplied by two manufacturers.

Discussion P. Davreau 1989 6-4.1A

Discussion T. A. Syzmanski 1989 6-4.1B

Discussion A. Manuel Corvo 1989 6-4.1C

Current Transformer Field Testing as Applied to Relay M. F. Lachman 1990 3-6.1

Protection

This paper is proposed as a part of the future PAT Committee Guide. It presents current transformer
classifications and limited theory of operation, followed by descriptions of the test procedures
recommended for current transformer field testing.

8.1.19 Degassing
On-Line Degassing of an EHV Power Transformer P. W. Brunson 1990 6-11.1

During the Spring of 1989, a large 230 kV GSU transformer began gassing due to problems with its tank
shielding system. Because of the critical nature of this unit (base load unit), it was essential to keep it in
service until an outage could be arranged in the Fall. This paper relates the steps taken to de-gas the
transformer while still maintaining service.

Discussion J. Laakso 1990 6-11.1A

General Discussion 1990 6-11.1B

8.1.20 Design and Application

Permalex - A New insulation System for Sealed, Liquid- E. L. Raab 1960 6-301
Immersed Apparatus

A detailed discussion covering composite insulation systems such as used in transformers. Factors of
aging, degradation of cellulose, thermally upgrading cellulose, eyanoethylated kraft, system
compatibility, tensile retention, aging effects in oil, and accelerated life tests are some of the subjects
covered.

Preferred Design Power Transformers H. J. Mason 1960 6-501

This paper covers the concept, cooling, application, basis for major component changes, features of new
standard components, tanks and other features of Preferred Design power transformers.

Insuldur - A Transformer Insulation System G. W. Minor 1960 6-601

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A description of a new insulation system for oil-filled transformers. Initially used for pole-type
distribution transformers and later extended to power transformers. Background information and the
program followed in the development of the INSULDUR system are discussed.

Development Work at Moloney Electric Company V. F. Christen 1961 6-601

A discussion covering development work and tests that are made by this manufacturer.

Power Transformers (New Developments in Design and P. L. Bellaschi 1965 6-1301

Application)

This report covers recent developments and trends, economic advantages, and practical limitations of
reduced insulation, etc.

EHV Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors (Recent P. L. Bellaschi 1966 6-801
Developments)

A progress report covering equipment requirements for 1966-1969, shipment limitations affecting rating
and design, progress in impulse switching surge and corona tests, shunt reactors, and installation of
equipment.

Designing Transformers to Withstand Short Circuits R. L. Schwab 1968 6-601

R. J. Cossaart

With the growth in power system size and complexity, transformers are now subjected to more frequent
and more severe short circuits. To keep pace with these requirements to withstand greater number of more
severe short circuits, it has been necessary to make continual improvements in mechanical bracing of core
and coil assemblies, processing of coils, and use of better insulating materials from mechanical strength
standpoint.

Short-Circuit Capability and Testing of Power P. L. Bellaschi 1969 6-101

Transformers

There is a pressing need to re-examine at this time the requirement of power transformers in reference to
the short-circuit capability of the equipment for the condition of service encountered on present-day
systems. The paper examines and details these requirements in light of service experience, and in
reference to the design of the equipment, and in particular the need for implementing the standards at this
time with an acceptance-design short-circuit test. Guidelines for the development of a test code for short-
circuit testing of power transformers are presented in this paper.

Power Transformer Short-Circuit Strength W. J. McNutt 1971 6-601

Applications and operating practices for power transformers have been changing in the utility industry.
To avoid unacceptable levels of field failures, design technology and performance standards must change
to keep pace. The General Electric multifaceted development program to advance design technology is
described. A proposed Test Code to establish ground rules for evaluation of the capability of their
transformers to meet the requirements of electrical systems is appended to the paper.

Displaced and Damaged Transformer Coils and Their C. L. Dawes 1972 6-1001
Detection

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The escalation of power transformer failures resulting from short circuits has become a matter of wide
interest and concern. This has resulted in the initiation of a comprehensive program by the industry
directed to the overall problems of power transformer mechanical strength, revision of present
transformer short-circuit-current standards, the development of an industry code for short-circuit testing
of transformers, and the study and development of diagnostic methods of detecting displaced and
damaged transformer windings.

The purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the relations among the currents, magnetic fluxes,
and forces associated with transformer windings, and to relate them to simple electromagnetic laws; to
describe the diagnostic measurements which are being used or which are proposed to detect failure,
frequently obviating visual inspection.

Internal Shunt-Connected Nonlinear Resistance W. J. McNutt 1974 6-601

Elements in Transformer Windings

Nonlinear resistance elements similar to those used in lightning arresters are applied in some General
Electric power transformers to limit the impulse voltage appearing across a portion of a winding or to
control the voltage distribution within the winding. This paper describes the several types of application
and examines the current drawn by the nonlinear resistance for some typical cases. It is demonstrated
these currents are extremely small and do not influence field measurements of power factor or exciting
current.

American Nuclear Insurers Transformer Loss Prevention L. A. Witt 1981 6-101

Program

American Nuclear Insurers instituted a transformer loss prevention program as a result of several large
losses in 1978. A review of the problem is presented, using some of ANI’s historical data as a basis. Since
the inception of the program, losses to ANI have been significantly reduced.

Rectangular Coil, Core Form Power Transformers C. R. Murray 1981 6-201

This paper traces the development and application of the rectangular coil core-form power transformer
from its beginning to the present time. A discussion is given explaining why rectangular coil construction
is replacing comparable circular coil construction in a wide variety of transformer applications. Also
discussed are design and manufacturing considerations and prototype testing used to verify short-circuit
capability.

Discussion R. F. Casey 1981 6-201A

Discussion C. E. Merryman 1981 6-201B

Discussion H. A. Ruggles 1981 6-201C

Closure C. R. Murray 1981 6-201D

Use of Auxiliary Coolers on Power Transformers - A W. J. McNutt 1981 6-501

Manufacturer’s View

Auxiliary coolers can be beneficial in limiting conductor and oil temperatures when additional continuous
load beyond nameplate rating must be carried on already installed transformers. However, the added
cooling will almost invariably not be matched to the characteristics of the original cooling equipment. As
a consequence it will be necessary to add more auxiliary cooling than would at first be estimated in order
not to exceed winding temperature limits.

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Tertiaries in Large Transformer Banks - The Problems P. L. Bellaschi 1981 6-701

They Present

This paper describes the performance of ternaries in large power transformers. It also discusses the need
to strengthen specifications and requirements, and for further improvements in protective measures to
minimize the risks of failures to the installations in service, in the case of through-faults. The paper
also summarizes the results of a recent study on this subject.

Discussion R. W. Pfeiffer 1981 6-701A

Discussion M. P. Leme 1981 6-701B

Discussion M. Birkett 1981 6-701C

Closure P. L. Bellaschi 1981 6-701D

Transformer Life Can Be Extended S. D. Myers 1982 6-601

This elementary presentation speaks to the deleterious effects of transformer oil decay products, heat,
water, and oxygen on transformer longevity. Each factor has been the subject of worldwide study of
technical groups who have not necessarily transmitted pragmatic information to the reader or student.
These studies combined with over 25 years observation of industrial and utility sized transformers results
in a maintenance philosophy that will take the mystery out of prolonging the life of transformers, and give
a base on which to build more life into the transformer than the manufacturer intended.

Developments in the UHVs in Reference Specifically to P. L. Bellaschi 1982 6-801

1200-kV Power Transformers (A Progress Report)

This paper is a progress report on the 1979 Conference paper, ‘Developments in the UHVs in the next
Five to Ten Years in Reference Specifically to 1200-kV Power Transformers,’ with reference to the
applications of the EHVs (765/800 kV; 5001550 kV). This report relates to these developments and
focuses on the key role of the insulation in the design, testing, and application of 1200-kV units.

The Key Role of the Doble Client Conference in the P. L. Bellaschi 1983 6-101
Development of Electric Power Transformers

The increase in the demand for electric power that has continued from the 1940s through the 1950s and
1960s and into the 1970s has resulted in a challenge that has been met by the electric power industry.
New insulation systems were designed and new tests and standards have been developed.

The industry’s answers to these challenges are well documented in the Doble Conference Minutes.

This paper outlines these developments as they are documented in the Minutes, and points out the
contributions by the client group and others in this dynamic period of electric utility growth.

Improvements in Vertical Clamping of Westinghouse L. Wilson 1983 6-201

Rectangular Coil Transformers

This paper describes how a failed Westinghouse 5000-kVA rectangular coil transformer with a primary
voltage of 34.5 kV and a secondary voltage of 12.47 kV was rebuilt to improve its short-circuit
withstanding capability. During the rebuilding process, the coil clamping structure was improved to
restrict the vertical motion of the coils. Additional clamping structure improvements are described in the
paper.

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Transformer Excitation Current Tests Using Doble E. H. Povey 1983 6-401

Insulation Test Equipment (A Summary)

This paper summarizes the experience accumulated by the Doble Company and its clients in the
measurement of transformer excitation currents. A simple theory of excitation currents is given, with
examples of the types of faults the measurement of such currents are expected to reveal. Test procedures
and the analyses of results are covered, particularly as they apply to three-phase transformers of various
core designs and winding connections. An appendix gives the simple mathematical considerations
involved in the analysis.

Reliability Improvements on Operating Gas-Space E. M. Petrie 1983 6-701

Power Transformers

During certain extraordinary events, gas bubble evolution can occur in power transformers of the gas-
space oil preservation type. Methods have been developed to reduce the probability of this occurrence.
The only method known to completely eliminate the possibility of bubble evolution in super saturated oil
is by retrofitting the gas-space transformer with a constant pressure oil preservation system.

Discussion 1983 6-701A

Investigation and Repair of a Medium Power B. T. Pollom 1984 6-201

Transformer

This paper describes the investigation performed on a 12/16/20 MVA transformer following high
dissolved combustible gas test results. After the unit was untanked and dismantled, a further investigation
revealed severe overheating. The problems were corrected and the unit was rebuilt satisfactorily.

Current Limiting Reactors Installed as an Integral J. C. Murphy 1984 6-301

Component of Power Transformers

This paper describes design changes made in power transformers by this client to limit fault current and
thus prevent failures due to high-current fault conditions.

Reliability Improvements on Gas-Space Power E. M. Petrie 1984 6-601

Transformers (A Progress Report)

A progress report is presented on a 1983 Doble Client Conference paper, ‘Reliability Improvement on
Operating Gas-Space Power Transformers.’ Emphasis will be on general comments and questions that
Doble Clients have with regard to recommendations and modifications made in the 1983 paper.
Specifically, questions related to applicability and type of equipment affected will be addressed. Recent
laboratory data and field experiences will also be reviewed.

General Discussion 1984 6-601A

8.1.21 Dew Point – Also Refer to Air Supply

8.1.22 Dissolved Gas-in-Oil
Also Refer to Core Ground Instrument Transformers, Repairs
Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Transformer Oils - J. E. Dind 1971 6-1101
J. Regis
A Progress Report R. Daoust

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Dr. J. Morgan

An epidemic of failures in nitrogen sealed CTs about five years ago initiated a program of dissolved gas
analysis as a method of early detection and diagnosis of abnormal conditions. The paper covers the scope
of the program, the sampling device and its use, the measurement of the dissolved gases and its accuracy,
the effect of solubility coefficients, and studies made to determine the representation of the oil sample.
Results of the program are shown and analyzed. It is estimated that the program has produced savings
amounting to three times the expense.

Experience with Incipient Fault Detection by Gas-in-Oil G. G. McCrae 1972 6-701

Analysis

This paper is a combined effort and covers our investigation of the failure of a Brown Boveri 45-mvar
500-kV reactor as well as the investigation of failure of a CGE Type IC 230-kV current transformer.
Emphasis is on gas-in-oil analysis to detect incipient failures.

Combustible Gas Monitoring - 500 kV Current D. A. Gillies 1973 6-201

Transformers L. H. Muckerheide

This describes the system of combustible gas monitoring set up to monitor the condition of 500-kV,
Messwandler-Bau, Type JT-500 current transformers after one of these devices exploded violently in
service in July 1972. As a result of combustible gas monitoring of the 63 current transformers involved in
the study, they were divided into four classes depending upon the type of combustible gas present. The
conditions found when some of the units requiring investigation were opened for study are described.

Experience with Gas-in-Oil Analysis Involving K. A. Mennerich 1978 6-601

C. K. Kniffin
Generator Step-Up Transformers at the Roseton T. R. Weed
Electric Generating Station

The paper presents details on the gassing and repair of a 560-MVA generator step-up transformer
including: (1) combustible gas-in-oil data for damaged transformer as well as a sister unit; (2) Information
on discussions with Doble Engineering and Westinghouse regarding the gassing; (3) the testing, coil
problem, and repair of the unit; (4) the significance of using various gas-in-oil analysis codes pertaining
to these transformers; (5) The costs associated with the replacing and repair of the generator step-up unit.

Analytical Techniques for Fault-Gas Analysis (A A. L. Rickley 1978 10-401

Review) G. W. Armstrong, Jr.
A. E. Baker

This paper presents an analysis of ‘key gas” versus ‘ratio method’ (i.e., Dorenberg-Roger’s method) on
“normal” and “abnormal’ transformers. Also included is the significance of CO versus C02 and of H2 for
various conditions.

Transformer Shield Problems Surveillance by Dissolved J. F.Barresi 1978 6-901

Gas-in-Oil Analysis

This paper describes a transformer shield mounting problem that was detected and monitored by the
analysis of dissolved gas-in-ail techniques. The transformer is a 345122.8-kV generator step-up rated 945
MVA manufactured by ASEA Sweden. In cooperation with the manufacturer, a gas-in-oil analysis
program was established prior to energizing to monitor the transformer integrity through initial loading
and periodically through its life.

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Combustible Gas Ratios and Problems Detected H. C. Manger 1978 6-1101

This paper reviews the gas-in-cil analyses which were taken on several gassing transformers by various
utilities and which were reported at this year’s Symposium on Gassing Transformers. The faults as
indicated by the analyses are compared to the actual faults and are discussed in light of the five different
coding methods in use at the present time.

Gas-in-Oil Monitoring on the Puerto Rico Water C. J. Perez M. 179 6-501

Resources Authority 231230-kV American Elin
Transformers (A Progress Report)

The paper is a progress report on the gas readings obtained on four American Elin 544-MVA, 230/13.2-
kV transformers and the results of an internal inspection conducted on one of the units.

Application of Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) During R. J. Musil 1980 6-801

H. Foschum
Factory Testing of Power Transformers

This paper statistically analyzes the results of long-time short-circuit factory tests on large power
transformers. Procedures for DGA during factory tests are established and compared with methods used
on transformers in service. Evaluating the factory tests, the normal increase in fault gases is determined as
well as limit values for transformers considered to be without defects and for units meriting further
investigation. Application of DGA to long-time no-load tests is discussed.

Gas-in-Oil Analysis as a Diagnostic Tool for Monitoring J. D. MacDonald 1980 6-901

A. P. Vitols
Power Transformer Insulation Integrity

The General Electric Company’s experience with the gas-in-oil analysis technique is discussed in this
paper. Knowledge gained over the past several years from research projects, routine factory and field
testing, and from contract work done by organizations outside General Electric will be included. ‘Gas-in-
Oil Analysis of Power Transformers

Gas-in-Oil Analysis of Power Transformers Doble Client Committee 1980 6-1001

(Manufacturers’ Comments) on Transformers

At the request of the Doble Transformer Committee, a letter was sent to 11 transformer manufacturers in
the summer of 1979 requesting answers to several questions concerning the use of dissolved-gas analysis
in the factory testing and evaluation of power transformers. This Committee Report is a summary of
replies to these questions received from six major transformer manufacturers.

Additional Experience with Gas-in-Oil Analysis K. A. Mennerich 1982 6-101

Involving Step-Up Transformer No. 2 at the Roseton
Electric Generating Station

This report documents the latest series of events involved in analyzing this transformer’s gassing
problem. The author describes the inspection, and testing, the repairs, and other considerations that
Central Hudson evaluated to assure, to the best of their ability, that the transformer will now provide
satisfactory service. Central Hudson is using the tool of gas-in-oil analysis to watch very closely the
generation of combustible gases versus time.

Discussion H. A. Ruggles 1982 6-101A

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Application of DGA to Detection of Hot Spots in Load Rick Youngblood 1993 6-4
Tap-Changers

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) has been universally accepted as a diagnostic and preventive maintenance
tool for monitoring oil-filled transformers. Extension of this proven technology to other types of electrical
equipment is worth considering. One type of equipment is the load tap changer (LTC) - Load tap changers
arc during normal operational cycles-, thus, gases such as acetylene and hydrogen, generated by oil
decomposition during arcing, are present at significant concentrations in the LTC compartment.
Determinations of acetylene and hydrogen concentrations are thus not indicative of a problem. Ethylene,
however, is a fault gas associated with both arcing and pyrolysis, or thermal decomposition, of the
dielectric fluid. It is thus possible to monitor ethylene levels to ascertain the presence of hot spots in the
LTC chamber.

In order to apply DGA to load tap changers, normal and abnormal ethylene levels must be empirically
established. LTC gassing data has been acquired and correlated with physical inspection of LTCS.
Several case histories are presented that demonstrate a strong correlation between ethylene levels and
LTC hot spots.

General Discussion 1993 6-4A

8.1.23 Distribution Transformer

Moloney Distribution Transformers V. F. Christen 1960 6-701

This paper states that the heart of the Moloney distribution transformer is its core and that it is designed to
take full advantage of the latest improvements in the magnetic properties of grain oriented silicon care
steel and at the same time lend itself to fast accurate manufacture so necessary to today’s assembly-line
procedures. These procedures are described.

Power Factors for Oil-Filled Distribution Transformers D. J. Kopczynski 1980 6-801

The purpose of this report is to provide the Doble Client Group with an update tabulation of winding
insulation power-factor test-data on oil-filled distribution transformers of various ages and manufacturers.

8.1.24 Doble Developments

Improved Performance of the Doble M2H Test Set S. H. Osborn, Jr. 1988 2-3.1
Under Extreme Conditions of Electrostatic Interference P. R. Brooks

A summary of the modifications and improvements that have been and are being made to the Doble Type
M2H test set. These improvements include an automatic polarity indicator and an upgraded ICC circuit.

Transformer Ratio Measurements Using the M2H Test D. Train 1989 6-7.1
Set N. W. Hansen

A method of measuring turns ratio of power transformers using the M2H test set is described together
with the factors that affect the precision. The technique is based on capacitance measurements of an
auxiliary capacitor, and the polarity of the winding connections is automatically checked during the
process. The precision conforms to ANSI C 57.1200 - 1980 in which an uncertainty not exceeding 0.5%
is specified. The results of measurements on a range of actual power transformers are included.

Discussion D. J. Kopaczynski 1989 6-7.1A

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The Cross-Check Test for Transformers (Review of An D. J. Kopaczynski 1990 6-10.1

Old Technique with New Application to Delta-Wye R. Levi
Transformers)

This paper reviews the basic principles of the Cross-Check test technique. A new application, to Delta-
Wye transformers, is presented and suggested as an investigatory tool. Another method of effectively
isolating sections of windings, by setting the de-energized tap changer between steps, is also described.

8.1.25 Drying - Also Refer to Maintenance

Vacuum Filling of Power Transformers L. A. Kenoyer 1961 6-201
A discussion covering the procedure normally used for vacuum filling of power transformers and the
special treatment for transformers with higher stresses.

Field Vacuum Treatment of Large Oil-Filled D. D. Holmes 1965 6-1001

Transformers (A Progress Report)

A report on the current practices and experience of Alabama Power Company in vacuum drying power
transformers.

Dry-Out of Transformers by Gas Circulation Method L. A. Kenoyer 1961 6-201

A description of the dry-out and filter system, and a tabulation giving the results.

Vacuum Drying of Oil-Filled Transformers (A Progress F. W. Morin 1967 6-101

Report)

The Electrical Repair Centre, Hydro-Quebec, performs major repairs to transformers. This report
describes the methods and equipment used for transformer insulation drying at the Centre with particular]
reference to vacuum-drying with cold-traps on large modem power transformers. The paper gives
examples of dry-out logs on several transformers.

Field Treatment and Oil Filling of EHV Transformers H. H. Wagner 1970 6-1301

This paper brings up to date the information presented at a similar symposium during the 1966
Conference.

Transformer Vacuum Oil Processing J. Heflin 1973 6-501

This is a discussion of procedures followed when receiving and drying new power transformers.

Transformer Insulation Drying Methods G. G. McCrae 1975 6-301

The objective of this paper is to examine the actual physics of transformer insulation drying and then to
relate the science to various methods commonly used under factory and field conditions.

Specifications to Assure Drier Transformers B. G. Kreuger 1975 6-1101

This paper discusses the revision to the Northern States Power Company’s transformer purchase
specifications to include power-factor test limits as a result of several recent transformer failures.

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Transformer Drying R. F. Casey 1977 6-101

When it has been determined that drying of an oil-immersed transformer is advisable or necessary, there
are several alternative methods which may be considered. This paper discusses these alternatives, going
through the important points on each one.

Field Drying of an 83-MVA Transformer Following W. T. Alley 1979 6-601

Field Repairs, Using Current Through the Windings in a
Dry Tank Under Vacuum

This paper describes the procedures used in energizing the transformer from a connected hydro unit at
controlled low voltage. Other voltage sources could be used. Calculations for power requirements are
presented. Necessary precautions are also outlined.

Cryogenic-Vacuum Drying of Cellulosic Insulation in A. T. Showalter 1982 6-501

EHV Transformers and Reactors

A method is presented which will ensure maximum dielectric withstand of oil impregnated cellulosic
insulation after major repairs or during initial installation of transformers and reactors. Over 15 years
experience in using the cryogenic-vacuum drying method to make deep dryouts without heat on reduced
BIL large power equipment has demonstrated this method to be both effective and efficient. By
measuring and monitoring critical parameters during the drying process, it is possible to prevent
insulation system failures due to moisture and to check the effectiveness of a manufacturer’s deep drying
process.

Transformer Life Can Be Extended S. D. Myers 1982 6-601

This elementary presentation speaks to the deleterious effects of transformer oil decay products, heat,
water, and oxygen on transformer longevity. Each factor has been the subject of world-wide study of
technical groups who have not necessarily transmitted pragmatic information to the reader or student.
These studies combined with over 25 years observation of industrial and utility sized transformers results
in a maintenance philosophy that will take the mystery out of prolonging the life of transformers, and give
a base on which to build more life into the transformer than the manufacturer intended.

8.1.26 Dry-Type Transformers - Also Refer to Power Factor

Insulation Power-Factor Testing on Dry Type Power G. S. Dolchak 1989 6-10.1
Transformers (A Progress Report)

This is a follow-up report pertaining to Pennsylvania Power and Light Company experiences regarding
Doble power-factor testing of 18 GE 4.16/0.48 kV Dry-Type/FA-AA power transformers at two steam
electric generating stations. The original paper was published in the 1978 Doble Client Conference
Minutes, Section 6-1201.

Discussion E. J. Marottoli 1989 6-10.1A

Power Factor Testing of Dry-Type Power and E. J. Marottoli 1989 6-11.1

Distribution Transformers R. Levi

This paper includes an update of previously tabulated power factor data in a format that provides
additional information to assist test personnel in evaluating the condition of insulation associated with
dry-type transformers.

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8.1.27 Dry-Out
Transformer Dry-Out and Oil Processing, Update L. B. Baranowski 1986 6-601
B. T. Baranowski

Experiences of vacuum drying of transformers in plant and field are reported along with latest techniques,
including checking enclosures for vacuum integrity. Cryogenic cold traps and interstage traps are
discussed. Applications of fullers earth for mobile and stationary plants are described, as well as
instrumentation for total water and gas content.

8.1.28 Exciting Current - Also Refer to Failures

Transformer Shorted Turns Detected by Excitation- A. Marquez 1976 6-501
Current Tests

This paper describes the detection of a transformer fault by exciting-current tests, with all other routine
field-acceptance tests being acceptable. Due to the time schedules and other factors, the transformer was
energized at system voltage and failed. Factory inspection confirmed a turn-to-turn short circuit in the
secondary winding.

Single-Phase Exciting-Current Measurements on C. L. Dawes 1977 6-801

E. H. Povey
Three-Phase Shell-Type Transformers

Theoretical studies and measurements on a model transformer show that incorrect winding assembly can
be definitely diagnosed.

Single-Phase Exciting-Current Measurements on Three- C. L. Dawes 1978 6-701

Phase Shell-Type Transformers - Part II E. H. Povey

This paper is an extension of the paper of the same title and authors presented at the 1977 Doble Client
Conference. Relative flux magnitudes and their patterns resulting from single-phase exciting-current tests
are developed from tests on a model three-phase shell-type transformer.

Exciting-Current Test Confirms Winding Failure M. A. Salvant 1978 6-1001

This paper presents the test data and relates it to the failure and findings during the teardown inspection.

The Effect of Test voltage on Exciting Current E. H. Povey 1979 6-101

Measurement

This paper points out that the unusual voltage-current relationships observed in transformer exciting
current tests made with Doble test sets can be explained by the permeability characteristics of the core.

Single-Phase Excitation Current Measurements on E. H. Povey 1979 6-201

Three-Phase Core-Type Transformers

This paper illustrates by actual measurements on a small three-phase transformer the validity of using
excitation current tests to detect faults in both delta-connected and wye-connected three-phase core-type
transformers, utilizing the test techniques currently recommended by the Doble Company.

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Deteriorated Turn Insulation Detected with Exciting R. S. Caldwell 1979 6-301

Current Tests

This paper describes the detection of deteriorated turn insulation on two transformers. The correlations
between the exciting current values and the actual findings at the repair shops are made. In both cases,
repair costs are discussed.

Transformer Excitation Current Tests Using Doble E. H. Povey 1983 6-401

Insulation Test Equipment (A Summary)

This paper summarizes the experience accumulated by the Doble Company and its clients in the
measurement of transformer excitation currents. A simple theory of excitation currents is given, with
examples of the types of faults and the measurement of such currents are expected to reveal. Test
procedures and the analyses of results are covered, particularly as they apply to three-phase transformers
of various core designs and winding connections. An appendix gives the simple mathematical
considerations involved in the analysis.

Mechanical Collapse of Autotransformer Low Voltage H. A. Ruggles 1984 6-501

Winding Found by Changing of Interwinding
Capacitance

The paper describes a 60 MVA autotransformer removed from service when Doble insulation power-
factor tests detected mechanical failure.

The Appalachian Power Company test specialist noted that the interwinding capacitance (CHL) had
changed from 2650 pf to 5 100 pf with only slight change in power factor. Our analysis of the changes
over a 17-year period suggested collapse of the low-voltage winding away from the high-voltage winding,
a common mode of failure. Low-voltage impedance tests supported this hypothesis.

Discussion A. L. Rickley 1984 6-501A

8.1.29 Electrostatic Interference

Electrostatic Interference, A Review and Progress S. H. Osborn, Jr. 1987 2-401
Report

Understanding how electrostatic interference affects the test set measuring circuits permits the test
engineer to improvise on his standard test procedures as necessary.

This paper reviews the effects of electrostatic interference on Doble measurements along with the
alternative test procedures to minimize their influence.

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8.1.30 EPRI Projects

Update on EPRI Projects on Static Electrification T. V. Oommen 1986 6-1301

Two EPRI funded projects on static electrification are in progress, conducted by Westinghouse and MIT.
The Westinghouse study focuses on static electrification control in power transformers; the MIT study
examines flow induced electrification effects in power apparatus.

Westinghouse examined the charging behavior of new and service-aged oils used in power transformers
as a function of oil origin, temperature, moisture, exposure to light, and contact with container surface.
Attempts were made to isolate and identify charge producing species in high charging oils. Mixtures of
transformer oil and perchloroethylene were also studied. Currently a flow model is being developed to
study partial discharge effects.

The subject of the MIT study is modeling, analysis, and measurement of flow induced electric field
generation in power apparatus using a unique flow design, and focuses on the basic processes of charge
generation, transport, accumulation, and leakage. Experiments are described of laboratory models that
simulate physical processes at work in high-voltage equipment and the development of a noncontacting
sensor of electrification effects associated with the electrical double layer.

General Discussion 1986 6-1401

Research in EPRI Transmission Substations Program G. Addis 1987 2-101

An overview of several projects in EPRI transmission substation program is presented. These include
fault detection, transformer loading, and PCB research. The transformer gas-in-oil detector and infrared
fault detectors for gas insulated substations are discussed.

Transformer loading covers two projects investigating bubble formation during severe overloading.
These include both laboratory trials and computer modeling. In the PCB area, research project on
formation of PCDF/PCDD from PCT/TCB and improved PCDF analytical techniques are covered.

PCB projects for field use involve PCB analysis, spill cleanup, retrofill versus replacement, a solvent
extraction plant for mineral oil decontamination, and a dc arc furnace for capacitor destruction. The
overall EPRI status on continuing PCB programs as well as those being phased out is put into perspective.

Progress in the Control of Static Electrification in S. R. Lindgren 1987 6-1601

Power Transformers

EPRI managed research has developed the basic understanding of static electrification in transformers and
established feasibility of improvement in reliability of large forced-oil-cooled power transformers.
Theoretical and parametric studies at Westinghouse, McGraw-Edison, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have identified fundamental relationships of static
electrification that occurs at interfaces between insulating oil and solid material boundaries, with oil
properties, flow velocity, temperature, and applied voltage. These investigators, along with others,
presented their findings at an EPRI sponsored workshop held in Monterey, California, November 12-13,
1986. This paper summarizes the workshop proceedings plus subsequent research and outlines future
approaches aimed at development of specific tools for evaluation and avoidance of static electrification in
power transformers.

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Update on Progress in the Control of Static S. R. Lindgren 1988 6-11.1

Electrification in Power Transformers

At the 1987 Doble Conference, EPRI summarized results of theoretical and parametric studies at
Westinghouse, McGraw-Edison, MIT, and Rennselaer that identified fundamental relationships of oil
properties, flow velocity, temperature, and applied voltage with static electrification effects occurring at
the interface between flowing insulating oil and solid material boundaries. The transformer failure
problem is extremely complex with four mechanisms - generation, transport, accumulation, and leakage -
and five to ten factors for each mechanism to be considered. In addition, there may be subtle
interrelationships that can develop runaway conditions. This paper WI describe EPRI’s approach, focused
on development of tools for evaluation and avoidance of static electrification problems in power
transformers, and the results thus far.

Update on Progress in the Control of Static R. Lindgren 1989 6-5.1

Electrification in Power Transformers

This paper describes the past year’s progress in four projects focused on EPRI’s objective, which is to
develop test strategies, monitoring instrumentation, design tools, and countermeasures to cure and avoid
static electrification problems in power transformers. The approach, described a year ago, is to split the
problem into several transformer-related basic elements for experimental work and analysis. These
investigations are a continuation of earlier work dating back to 1979 when EPRI first encountered static
electrification with flowing refrigerant 113 in a prototype HVDC valve.

Update on Progress in the Control of Static Stanley R. Lindgren 1990 6-12.1

Electrification

Catastrophic failures of very large power transformers continue to occur with evidence linking static
electrification as a probable cause. A sequel to the 1986 workshop was held November 1989, cosponsored
by EPRI and PSE&G. that reported progress of researchers worldwide. A summary of this workshop is
presented including progress of the four EPRI projects described at previous Doble Conferences.

An Overview of Geomagnetically Induced Currents B. L. Damsky 1990 6-15.1

(GIC)

In the mid-nineteenth century, when the first long range telegraph lines were constructed, we learned that
there are occasions when currents flow in the earth. The phenomenon was soon seen to be associated with
auroral displays and eventually it was connected with the sun. This paper explains what we know about
the relevant solar phenomena and how showers of particles interact with the earth’s magnetic field to
produce earth currents. EPRI’S past work is covered and plans for a mitigation scheme and a warning
network are explained.

Failed High-Voltage Instrument Transformers Stanley R. Lindgren 1991 6-6.1

A two-day workshop conducted by EPRI September 24 to 26, 1990, confirmed that highly destructive
internal failures of free-standing high-voltage CTs and VTs can occur with little warning following many
years of service. There are several root causes, including design, materials, workmanship, and possibly
service conditions inadequately reflected in industry performance and testing methods. A summary of the
workshop findings will be presented, including identified needs for EPRI-sponsored research.

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Update on Progress in the Control of Static Stanley R. Lindgren 1991 6-12.1

Electrification in Power Transformers

Catastrophic failures of very large power transformers continue to occur with evidence linking static
electrification as a probable cause. A summary of progress on the four EPRI projects described at
previous Doble Conferences will be presented. Recent work will be described that is focusing upon the
effects of moisture migration associated with a long time transformer shutdown, such as has preceded
some failures.

Update on Progress in the Control of Static 1992 6-8.1

Electrification

Measured Effects of GMD on Power System Robert L. Lesher 1992 6-9.1

William E. Feero
(SUNBURST Status Report) EPRI Project RP 3211-01

8.1.31 Extra High Voltage (EHV)

Repair of 345 kV Transformers J. L. Determan 1987 6-401

In March 1966, a bank of four 100 MVA Allis-Chalmers, 345,000 to 138,000 volt load tap changing
transformers was placed in service in our Cimarron Substation as a portion of our EHV system. These
units had arrived by rail and two transformers had shipping damage apparent on the switching reactors,
which were mounted suspended from the cover inside a compartment at one end of the main winding.

Repairs to these reactors were made under the supervision of a Factory Service Engineer. AU tests were
satisfactory and the bank was placed in service on April 1, 1966.

Extra High Voltage Current Transformer Program—An G. G. McCrae 1988 6-14.1

Update

A preliminary report on the results of an IEEE Questionnaire sent to North American utilities by an ad-
hoc committee of concerned utility people from the IEEE Transformer Committee. The Questionnaire
covered all 345 kV and higher current transformers.

B. C. Hydro’s- experience with EHV current transformers of various manufacturers is also discussed.

Repair of 765 kV Current Transformer M. D. Loy 1989 6-3.1

This paper outlines problems experienced with porcelains cracking on several 765 kV current
transformers. It also outlines steps taken to remove and replace porcelains and to process and test the units
after repairs were completed.

Update of Recent 500 kV Current Transformer Problems J. Laasko 1989 6-4.1

This paper describes recent developments and results of investigations into the failures of 500 kV current
transformers supplied by two manufacturers.

Discussion P. Davreau 1989 6-4.1A

Discussion T. A. Syzmanski 1989 6-4.1B

Discussion A. Manuel Corvo 1989 6-4

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8.1.32 Factory Tests

- Also Refer to Dissolved Gas-in-Oil
Functional Evaluation of Transformer Insulation H. R. Sheppard 1966 6-1101

This paper describes a test method in use by Westinghouse that employs a 15 kVA, 7200 volt, pole-type,
and distribution transformer as a test model. Also included in this paper is a description of some
insulation component testing for materials to be used in functional evaluation of complete system. Test
data are also presented on the most recent evaluation of two important systems components in oil-filled
transformers; namely, stabilized paper (Insuldur) and oil.

Avoiding In-Service Failures of Power Transformers by W. M. McDermid 1976 6-1001

Specification of Long-Time, Low-Frequency Factory
Tests

The philosophy of requiring long-time, low-frequency tests in the factory is reviewed together with
appropriate monitoring techniques. Detailed examples are given of major in-service failures which could
have been avoided had such tests been performed.

Factory Acceptance Tests for Power Transformers - The P. L. Bellaschi 1980 6-1101
Cost of Special Tests

The need for an investigation in this area became apparent several years ago as cost of equipment
unrelentingly continued its upward rise. Initially the study was directed to the medium power
transformers.

8.1.33 Failures
Also Refer to Instrument Transformers, Maintenance, Over-excitation, Repairing Transformers
Inadequate Clearances on Internal Buswork in Large A. W. Donovan 1960 6-101
Power Transformers

A report covering a failure of a large power transformer in which was caused by insufficient clearances
between bolts and copper buswork. The bolts had been inserted from the wrong side of the terminal pad
on an 18 kV bushing within the main tank of the transformer.

Failure of a 90-MVA, 3-Phase Power Transformer H. A. McColeman 1965 6-501

This paper describes the failure of a 90 MVA, 230 kV/13.2 kV OFP transformer having solid insulation
between windings. The winding-to-winding failure was due to corona in air bubbles which were
generated by the oil pumps. The oil pumps have been relocated so they no longer produce air bubbles.

Survey of Power Transformer Failure Rates L. A. Kenoyer 1965 6-601

A report covering a survey of failure rates and extended outage rates of large power transformers of
recent manufacture.

Transformer Failure at the Allen Steam Plant R. C. Price 1966 6-301

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This report concerns two separate troubles that caused one of the three identical 315 MVA transformers at
the Allen Steam Plant at Memphis, Tennessee, to fail and threatened the remaining two transformers. The
transformer that failed is Bank No. 2 at this station and is a Type FOA, 161/23 kV unit.

Power Transformer Failures Due to Short Circuit A. H. Locke 1969 6-201

This paper presents an evaluation of short-circuit failures, the causes of short-circuit failures and
discusses steps to be taken.

Detection of Transformer Fault Using Exciting Current R. I. Tudor 1969 6-401

Test

A case of turn-to-turn shorting found by exciting current tests is described.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with A. L. Rickley 1969 6-501

R. E. Clark
Doble Equipment (A Progress Report)

An updating of the 1968 Conference paper also includes details of a faulty unit detected by this method.

Moloney Transformer Failures R. H. Peterson 1971 6-401

Five failures of a similar nature during the past 12 years are described. After the 1970 Conference paper
on carbon cloud formation in the LTC compartment of Moloney transformers, a survey of their
transformers was made and the same condition was found in some of them. The manufacturer’s
recommendations are summarized and plans for a continuing investigation are outlined.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with A. L. Rickley 1970 6-1501

R. E. Clark
Doble Equipment (A Progress Report)

An updating of 1968 and 1969 Conference papers, including a discussion of the effects of residual core
magnetism on measurement of exciting current.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with A. L. Rickley 1971 6-1001

R. E. Clark
Doble Equipment (A Progress Report)

An updating of papers presented at the last four Conferences on exciting-current testing with Doble test
equipment.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured Using Doble J. H. Campbell 1972 6-201

Equipment (Field Experience)

Discusses the faults found on two transformers and what was done to correct them.

Excitation Current Tests Used to Detect a Transformer F. C. Norton 1972 6-301

Winding Fault

The impact recorders on a new transformer indicated that it had sustained an excessive impact during
shipment. TTR, Megger, core ground, Winding resistance, and Doble insulation test results were normal.
However, the exciting currents measured with the Doble set were abnormal. Supplementary tests
confirmed the abnormal exciting currents and subsequent factory inspection revealed a turn-to-turn fault
in the low-voltage Winding.

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Transformer Exciting Current Measured with Doble A. L. Rickley 1972 6-401

Equipment (A Progress Report) R. E. Clark

A sixth in a series of articles presented on this subject describes five instances in which significant cases
of trouble in transformers were detected or confirmed by exciting-current measurements. Also described
are two cases of unusual test data which were explained by variations in transformer design.

Experience with 735 kV Equipment J. P. Germain 1972 6-1201

B. P. Garceau
J. H. Sullivan
J. Dind

A six and one half year history of experiences with respect to 735 kV equipment including transformers,
shunt reactors, circuit breakers, disconnects, instrument transformers and lightning arresters is described
in this paper. It also describes the class of failure that may be expected, an estimate of reliability, and a
graph displaying the frequency of power transformer failures.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with C. L. Dawes 1973 6-601

A. L. Rickley
Doble Equipment (A Progress Report) R. E. Clark

This is the seventh in a series of reports presented since 1967 on the use of Doble test equipment in
measurements of transformer exciting currents during routine field-acceptance and preventive
maintenance tests. Test procedures have been developed and are reviewed once again in this report,
particularly in view of some supplementary or alternate methods proposed by Professor C. L. Dawes in a
separate report.

Cases of defects detected during the past year are discussed, and a technique proposed in 1970 for
neutralizing residual magnetism in single-phase transformers is extended to three-phase units.

Measurement of Exciting Current to Detect Damage in C. L. Dawes 1973 6-701

Three-Phase Transformers

Transformer windings and cores are frequently damaged by grounds, short-circuits, overheating, and
mechanically damaged by displacements produced by abnormal currents during short circuits and by
effects which occur during transportation.

The methods usually used to detect and locate such damaged windings and cores are electrical ones.
Among these is the measurement of the exciting current. For these reasons the measurement of exciting
current has been found to be an effective method in the detection of faults in both windings and cores
which is described in the references cited at the end of this paper.

Transformer Neutral Lead Failure J. L. Determan 1973 6-1001

B. T. Heydman

This failure involved a 30/40/50 MVA transformer so constructed that two leads are used for the neutral
connection from the windings to the HoXo bushing. Phase 1 and Phase 3 have a common lead and Phase
2 has a separate lead. The nameplate connection diagram does not indicate this construction.

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Failure of Four McGraw-Edison Transformers A. W. McDermid 1974 6-101

Discusses the failure of four peaking generator transformers which was attributed to excessive moisture.
The transformers (rated 124 to 14.4 kV, 125 MVA and 118-14.4 kV, 37 MVA) were approximately one
year old.

Destruction by Fire of a 715-kV Autotransformer W. J. Fernihough 1974 6-201

This paper describes the outbreak of a fire on an ASEA autotransformer, single phase, 33 MVA. It will
discuss damage done and effect of the fire on nearby equipment.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with Doble A. L. Rickley 1974 6-501

Equipment (A Progress Report) R. E. Clark

This paper updates previous Conference papers on this subject by the same two authors.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with A. L. Rickley 1975 6-801

R. E. Clark
Doble Equipment (A Progress Report)

This is the eighth in a series of reports presented since 1967 on the use of Doble test equipment in
measurement of transformer exciting currents during routine field-acceptance and preventive maintenance
tests. Included are some of the more interesting cases of trouble either detected or confirmed during the
past year.

Transformer Damage Detected by Excitation-Current D. A. Freund 1976 6-701

Tests

This paper discusses the damage caused by through-fault current. Variations in the excitation-current tests
made before and after the through-fault current instigated an onsite visual inspection which verified that
transformer damage had occurred. A photograph made after untanking shows the core dislocation which
caused the change in excitation current.

Exciting-Current Test Detects Winding-Assembly Error M. A. Salvant 1976 6-801

in Repaired Shell Form Transformer

This paper discusses how the Doble exciting-current test data was used to analyze an overheating problem
in a 45/60175 MVA, 115/69 kV shell form transformer which had been rewound. The connection of the
center phase winding in a shell form transformer and its significance to the problem are explored also.

Transformer Exciting Current Measured with A. L. Rickley 1976 6-1101

R. E. Clark
Doble Equipment (A Progress Report)

This is the ninth in a series of reports presented since 1967 on the use of Doble test equipment in
measurement of transformer exciting current during routine field-acceptance and preventive maintenance
tests. Included are some of the more interesting cases of trouble either detected or confirmed during the
past year.

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In-Service and Test Failures Resulting from Flashover in W. M. McDermid 1980 6-101
Oil Under Power Frequency Voltage Stress

Four different situations involving flashover of an oil gap are discussed together with corrective action
taken to date. In three cases the voltage stress on the oil gap was purely 60 Hz, while in the fourth case
there was a direct-voltage component.

Failure of the Dyna-Comp Mark III System in a General G. H. Nolin 1980 6-701
Electric Transformer

Public Service Company of New Mexico had a through-fault on a General Electric three-winding
transformer rated 345 kV Y to 6600Y/6900Y, 42/56/70 MVA, OAIFAIFOA. The Dynacomp clamping
system failed to perform as designed and allowed coil movement of two phases resulting in broken coil
blocking.

Neutral Reactors: A Means of Reducing the Risk of M. L. Johnson 1982 6-201

Transformer Short-Circuit Failure

This paper summarizes Consumer Power Company’s three year in-house study which: (1) identified
power transformers on the transmission system which were inherently vulnerable to short circuits and
most likely to fail, (2) evaluated possible solutions to the problem for both technical and economic
suitability, and (3) recommended neutral reactors for weak system transformers and generator step-up
units.

Since installation of neutral reactors, Consumers Power Company has experienced no short-circuit failure
of any large power transformer.

Improvements in Vertical Clamping of Westinghouse L. Wilson 1983 6-201

Rectangular Coil Transformers

This paper describes how a failed Westinghouse 5000 kVA rectangular coil transformer with a primary
voltage of 34.5 kV and a secondary voltage of 12470Y kV was rebuilt to improve its short-circuit
withstand capability. During the rebuilding process, the coil clamping structure was improved to restrict
the vertical motion of the coils. Additional clamping structure improvements are described in the paper.

Electromagnetic’s Type UF-115 Potential Transformer N. Barbeito 1983 6-301

Failures

This paper covers the failures of two of these units on our system and the subsequent investigation and
the discovery of an inherent problem with these units. It will also discuss the remedy and the
modifications of the units to insure their integrity.

The Use of Thermography for Evaluating LTCs R. E. Minkwitz, Sr. 1984 6-101

Thermography has proven to be a valuable diagnostic tool for evaluating load tap changers on power
transformers on the Northeast Utilities System. This paper describes the technique used in evaluating
LTCS, provides reference data, and illustrates a typical tap changer problem detected through the use of
thermography.

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Failure of Number One Unit 275 MVA GSU at Brayton A. J. Roy 1983 6-501
Point

Brayton Point is a thermal generating plant with a gross capacity from four units of 1759 MVA. The GSU
transformer on No. I unit is rated 275 MVA, 115/18 kV and was manufactured by McGraw-Edison. This
transformer was placed in service initially in December of 1979 and removed from service because of the
presence of combustible gas in the oil on July 25, 1981. After an extensive testing program at Brayton
Point and at the factory, the unit was dismantled. The gas was generated as a result of the improper
fabrication of the core.

‘Investigation and Repair of a Medium Power B. T. Pollom 1984 6-201

Transformer

This paper describes the investigation performed on 12/16/20 MVA Transformer following high
dissolved combustible gas test results. After the unit was untanked and dismantled, a further investigation
revealed severe overheating. The problems were corrected and the unit was rebuilt satisfactorily.

Mechanical Collapse of Autotransformer Low Voltage H. A. Ruggles 1984 6-501

Winding Found by Changing of Interwinding
Capacitance

The paper describes a 60 MVA autotransformer removed from service when Doble insulation power-
factor tests detected mechanical failure.

The Appalachian Power Company test specialist noted that the interwinding capacitance (CHL) had
changed from 2650 pf to SI 00 pf with only slight change in power factor. Our analysis of the changes
over a 17-year period suggested collapse of the low-voltage winding away from the high-voltage winding,
a common mode of failure. Low-voltage impedance tests supported this hypothesis.

The presentation will include pictures of the damaged windings, test results, and discussion of the
mechanical aspects.

Discussion A. L. Rickley 1984 6-501A

Failure of a General Electric 150/2001250 MVA, R L. Spells 1986 6-701

512GR.Y/132.79-13.8 kV, Single-Phase
Autotransformer with Tertiary Winding

This paper describes the failure of a single-phase autotransformer with tertiary winding after having been
deenergized so the no-load tap position could be changed. It also describes the problems found inside the
transformer and the reason for the failure.

Violent Failure of a Siemens-Allis Current Transformer A. Marquez 1986 6-801

J. Turner
Type AKOF 525

This paper describes the violent failure of a 500 kV Siemens-Allis current transformer at the Salt River
Project Palo Verde Switchyard. It also describes the on-site investigation by Siemens and Salt River
Project personnel.

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In-Service Experience with EHV Instrument R. A. Sarkinen 1986 6-901

Transformers

The Bonneville Power Administration has experienced various types of troubles and failure with the
many different manufacturers and types of EHV instrument transformers. The report will summarize our
experiences and failure rates of 500 kV current transformers, capacitor voltage transformers, and
magnetic voltage transformers. Also, a short description of precautions and modifications is given.

Discussion A. K. McCabe 1986 6-1101

V. I. Kogan

Investigation of the Failure of a 500/230 kV, 480 MVA P. W. Brunon 1986 6-1101
Westinghouse Shell-Type Transformer

This paper covers the investigation (and results) of the failure of a 500/230 kV, 480 MVA Westinghouse
shell-type power transformer. This transformer was new at the time of the failure and had never seen any
load. Investigation revealed the failure was due to static electrification. It is noteworthy that this is the
first failure of its type involving a transformer oil other than Gulf Transcrest H and that the observed
electrostatic charge tendencies of the oil were considerably lower than those levels considered to be of
concern. This paper includes the factory teardown of the subject transformer.

Failure and Field Repair of a Federal Pacific 230/67 kV, R. L. Spells 1987 6-301
120/1601200 MVA Three-Phase Autotransformer

This paper describes the failure of a Federal Pacific 230/67 kV. 1201160/200 MVA autotransformer and
the procedure of removing a portion of the tank top, then removing the preventive autotransformer from
the main tank to perform the repair.

The presentation includes pictures of the damage to the transformer, and of the removal and installation of
a portion of the top to remove the preventive autotransformer.

Second Failure of a 400 MVA 500-230 kV Shell-Type P. W. Brunson, Jr. 1987 6-1401
Autotransformer at South Bessemer Transmission
Substation

The first of the transformers in question failed in the Fall of 1985 due to static electrification. In the
Spring of 1986 a second transformer failed during field corona testing. This presentation compares the
two failures and details the teardown of the second unit.

Oil Charging Tendency Effect on Large Power J. P. Grandjeon 1987 6-1501

B. Hochart
Transformers

This report covers the investigation of transformers known to have experienced internal electrical static
discharges. One of the two transformers failed in service after an unusual system disturbance. The core
and coils were removed from the tank and, during investigation, the damage due to static discharging was
clearly evident.

This report describes the results of further investigation and research studies including the effects of both
oil velocity and temperature on static discharge activity.

Discussion W. J. McNutt 1987 6-1501A

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Closure B. Hochart 1987 6-1501B

Current Transformer Failure Analysis C. F. Cabral 1987 6-1701

J. F. Filho
S. Lins
M. M. Mendonca

This paper describes maintenance planning of current transformers, failure analysis, determining the
conditions of operating equipment, chromatographic analysis of current transformer insulating oil to
prevent failure, and recommended combustible gas values to prevent failures in the company’s 245
current transformers.

Failure of the Millstone Point Unit One GSU A. J. Roy 1988 6-4.1
Transformer

This paper describes the findings and conclusions relating to the in-service failure of a General Electric
345 kV to 22.8 kV, 700 MVA, three-phase, generator step-up transformer. A suspected generic problem
involving formex winding insulation and vertical pressboard spacers is also described.

Enameled Wire Degradation in Large Power J. A. Salovaara 1988 6-5.1

Transformers

This paper describes Ontario Hydro’s investigation of the impact of possible degradation of the enameled
wire used in the low-voltage windings of ten large generator transformers. Evidence from failed
transformers was obtained and analyzed. The results of the analysis, weighed in light of information
obtained from other available sources, were used to assess the extent and severity of the problem.

Discussion W. J. McNutt 1988 6-5.1A

Discussion G. G. McCrae 1988 6-5.1B

Failure, Rebuild, and Rewiring of Two 525 kV Brown G. W. Struve 1988 6-8.1
Boveri Corporation Type TUDFKAW Autotransformers

This paper describes Bonneville Power Administration’s operating experience with Brown Boveri Type
TUDFKAW 525-241 kV autotransformers. These units have experienced premature failure due to partial
discharge conditions located at the tapped winding-to-ground shield interface.

Failure in Single-Phase Autotransformer 550/460 kV - S. A. Batista 1989 6-6.1

C. G. Rodriquez
250 MVA in CESP System Attributed to the
Electrostatic Charges in Insulation

This paper presents details of the failure of a single-phase autotransformer, which interconnects the 460
and the 550 kV systems in the southeast region of Brazil. The transformer exploded and was consumed by
fire, without any previous abnormality being detected in the system. Possible reasons for the occurrence
are presented as well as the description of the equipment inspection made in the field. The inspection
indicated that the most feasible explanation is electrostatic charging due to high velocity of cooling oil.
Other units in bank are being monitored by ECT tests with pumps running in an attempt to control the
problem.

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Failure of a Hevi-Duty Transformer at Puget Sound D. V. Allaway 1989 6-8.1

Power and Light Company

This paper describes the repair history, failure, and subsequent rebuild of a 15/20/25 MVA, 115 -
13.09/7.56 kV, delta-wye, Hevi-Duty power transformer, serial number GM 301414, which was
purchased in 1981 and installed at Somerset Substation in 1982.

Ferroresonance-Induced Failures in High Voltage S. R. Lambert 1990 6-3.1

Transformers by Air Break Switch Operations D. W. Durbak
R. J. Ringlee

During recent years Northeast Utilities has experienced a number of 115 kV transformer failures during
energizing operations with an air break disconnect switch.

Because Northeast Utilities has hundreds of 115 kV transformers in service, and because many of the
failures occurred during switching operations, of particular concern was which of the transformers were
prone to failure, why they failed, and what could be done to prevent failures.

Consequently, a project was initiated to examine the most recent failure, simulate postulated failure
modes, and confirm the most likely failure mode(s). This paper describes the inquiry and its findings.

‘Short-Circuit Test Failure of a General Electric G. A. McCulla 1990 6-6.1

12/16/60 MVA 69/12.47 kV Transformer

This paper reports the short circuit test failure, and subsequent retest, of a General Electric medium power
transformer. This unit is a 12/16/20-22.4 MVA 67,000 to 12,47017200 volt three-phase transformer
equipped with an on-load tap changer. The author outlines his utility’s experience with the transformer
short-circuit test. Included are test results, pictures of the failed windings, and a brief description of the
modifications incorporated into the new low-voltage windings prior to the successful second test.

‘Comparison of Two Different Methods for Removing a R. Spells 1990 6-7.1

Failed Preventive Autotransformer from a Federal
Pacific 230/67 kV, 120/160/200 MVA Three-Phase
Autotransformer

During the past few years, Florida Power has had the opportunity to replace failed preventive
autotransformers from Federal Pacific transformers. Two different methods were used to remove the
preventive autotransformer from the transformer tank. One method was to remove a part of the top cover
over the preventive autotransformer and to lift the preventive autotransformer out with a crane. The other
involved cutting a section of the tank adjacent to the preventive autotransformer and pulling the
preventive autotransformer out. A comparison of cost, materials, techniques, and degree of difficulty is
presented in this paper.

Failure of 500 kV Messwandler-Bau Type JTSOO G. W. Struve 1990 6-9.1

R. A. Sarkinen
Current Transformer

In 1989, BPA experienced three violent failures of 500 kV Messwandier-Bau Type JT-500 current
transformers (CTs). An aggressive test program revealed a large number of CTs in service with high
levels of combustible gases in the oil. This paper discusses testing, monitoring, and investigation of the
Messwandier-Bau CTs, and the current preventive maintenance program for EHV CT’s.

Investigation of Used 500 kV Nissin Magnetic Power Pamela C. Odam 1991 6-5.1

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Transformers for Gas-Insulated Substations Sokom K. An

In 1989 EPA experienced failures of two 500 kV gas-insulated magnetic PTs (MPTs). Because of the
history of MPT failures, six MPTs were replaced with CVTs installed at the air entrance bushings. Four
original unfailed MPTs were removed for testing and inspection.

Analysis concluded that the MPTs had been subjected to excessive line discharge duty. A unit was
selected for a complete destructive teardown.

Evidence of significant winding movement was found in the unit, when it was disassembled. Analysis of
low-voltage diagnostic data indicated that all four MPTs had sustained some level of winding movement
and should not be considered reliable units for return to use.

Investigation of Violent Failures to Westinghouse T. Wayne McDonald 1992 6-3.1

Potential Transformers APT-550

Discussion Daniel J. Hendrick 1992 6-3.1A

750 kV Current Transformers Failure Investigation Jose V. Carvalho 1992 6-4.1

The site inspections of three failed CTs are reported as well as the tests carried out by CEPEL on one unit
taken out of service due to high gas content in the oil.

Tests and inspections of four CTs returned to the manufacturer are also reported. Gas-in-oil analysis used
as a method to detect incipient faults in these CTs is described.

Westinghouse Type ACT-1300, 345 kV Current Ernest J. Frattini 1992 6-5.1

Transformer Moisture Ingress and Combustible Gas Paul A. Mushill
Generation

This paper discusses the investigation of a current transformer that exhibited a chronic oil leak at the
isolated-lead bushing flange. Initially, attempts were made to seal the leak in the field, but increases in the
power factor and high levels of combustible gases dissolved in the oil prompted a teardown. Moisture
contamination was indicated by tracking on the primary-lead insulation. A bad connection between the
center conductor and clamp had caused an overheating condition which resulted in sludging of the oil in
the reservoir and presumably contributed to the flange gasket deterioration.

Westinghouse Type ACT-900 and ICT-900 230 kV Raymond M. Kearns 1992 6-5.1A
Current Transformer Failures

Discussion Pamela C. Odam 1992 6-5.1B

Discussion W. J. Penner 1992 6-5.1C

General Discussion 1992 6-5.1D

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The Influence of Transformer Load Tap Changers on Mark F. Lachman 1992 6-6.1
Single-Phase Exciting-Current Test Results

When exciting-current tests are performed on different load tap changer positions, the behavior of the test
results depends on the design of the tap winding and on whether a series transformer or autotransformer is
present. Over the years, Doble Company has accumulated many examples of different test result patterns.
The intent of this paper is to correlate this information and explain how and why the results are affected
by the position of the load tap changer.

Discussion William J. McNutt 1992 6-6.1A

Failure and Field Repair of Two 345 kV Transformers Harry A. Ruggles 1992 6-7.1

This paper describes the failure and repair of two 345/13.8 kV plant auxiliary transformers at the Indiana
Michigan Power Co. Breen Plant. These Westinghouse transformers were heavily damaged internally by
345 kV bushing failures that damaged their superstructure above the windings. Indiana Michigan Power
Co. personnel removed the damaged parts, cleaned the carbon and porcelain from the windings, and ABB
personnel from Muncie Plant assisted in reinstalling new materials.

Failure of ABB UZE Tap Changer on Kuhlman Kenneth L. Millard 1993 6-3
Transformer

This paper discusses the failure and subsequent investigation of a Kuhlman 10 MVA 138/1.3.09 kV
transformer equipped with an ABB (ASEA) Type UZE load tap changer. The subject unit had been
removed from service twice, initially due to a high temperature condition which was apparently caused by
unintentional core grounds in the series transformer. Following a field repair, the unit had to again be
removed from service, and the tap changer reversing switch contacts were found to be badly burned. The
core ground problem was presumed to be caused by circulating currents.

Following their experience, Consumers Power learned that retrofit kits for upgrading UZE tap changer
reversing switches had been developed by the manufacturer.

Discussion Wayne Hanson 1993 6-3A

Discussion Rutger Johansson 1993 6-3B

Craig Stiegemeier

Boston Edison Experience with Field Installation of Ann F. Heuston 1992 6-11.1
Luxtron Sensors

This paper discusses Boston Edison’s installation and operating experience with Luxtron fiber optic
temperature sensors. Sensors were installed in the field in one 448 MVA and two 336 MVA
autotransformers during field modifications.

Discussion Alain Tanguy 1992 6-11.1A

Michel Tudrej

Discussion William J. McNutt 1992 6-11.1B

Experience with Fiber Optic Hot-Spot Sensors in 450 John F. Troisi 1992 6-12.1
MVA SMIT Autotransformers

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The paper provides some insight into the background, and application of fiber optic probes for hot-spot
measurement. It is specifically addresses the work of the SMIT Company of Holland with respect to two
450 MVA autotransformers supplied to the New York Power Authority. Emphasis is placed on system
description, heat-run results, and field measurement.

8.1.34 Fault Pressure Relays

Also Refer to Pressure Detecting Relays Ferroresonance
Ferroresonance C. L. Dawes 1971 6-901

Ferroresonance is a condition that often occurs in electric power systems when transformer windings
which have high inductance become connected, usually inadvertently, in series with the capacitance of the
transmission conductors, producing a resonant circuit. This often results in oscillations and high voltage
which can be damaging to connected apparatus. Because of saturation of their iron cores, the magnetizing
current of transformers contains a large proportion of harmonics which is undesirable since they tend to
be a source of voltage oscillations. Because of saturation, the inductance varies widely with the current so
that there is no single ferroresonant frequency and the resultant waves are very irregular containing many
high frequencies.

8.1.35 Federal Pacific

Failure and Field Repair- of a Federal Pacific 230/67 R. L. Spells 1987 6-301
kV, 120/1601200 MVA Three-Phase Autotransformer

This paper describes the failure of a Federal Pacific 230167 kV, 120/160/200 MVA autotransformer and
the procedure of removing a portion of the tank top, then removing the preventive autotransformer from
the main tank to perform the repair.

The presentation includes pictures of the damage to the transformer, and of the removal and installation of
a portion of the top to remove the preventive autotransformer.

8.1.36 Fire Prevention

Fire Prevention and Protection in an Electric Utility N. D. Lindsay 1970 6-601

We carried out very extensive fire testing on an actual station mock-up and this was completely
instrumented and a great deal of valuable data obtained that has influenced our practices, which will be
described in the paper.

Fixed Fire Protection for Oil-Filled Transformers E. H. Hill 1970 6-701

R. P. Hunt

There is a need for fixed fire protection on oil-filled transformers in electric substations. This fire
protection can include absorption pits, oil separator pits, and automatic water spray.

8.1.37 Gas Filled Transformers

Prospects of Gaseous Insulation for Future Use in L. A. Morgan 1964 6-1701
Transformers

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In recent years there has been considerable interest in gas-filled power transformers. The introduction of
the fluorocarbon family of gases as a cooling and insulating medium has improved the operating
characteristics and size of gas-filled transformers over the older nitrogen-filled type. However, gas-filled
transformers still cost more than askarel-cooled transformers of comparable ratings and apparently will
still continue to cost more in the foreseeable future. Therefore, it now appears that the use of gaseous-
insulated transformers will be restricted to those cases where application or strong personal preference
justifies the higher price over other type transformers.

“Experience with Sealed Gas-Filled Dry-Type R. I. Tudor 1966 6-501

Transformers

This paper relates Power-Factor testing experience and maintenance experience on C3F8 and C4FB
Sealed-Dry-Type Transformers.

8.1.38 Gas in Oil

On-Line Hydrogen-in-Oil Monitoring T. W. Gouldsborough 1983 6-601
J. F. Millward

A summary is provided of experience with hydrogen-in-oil monitoring equipment installed on electrical

apparatus.

Discussion J. Gauthier 1983 6-601A

Closure T. W. Gouldsborough 1983 6-601B

J. F. Millward

Failure of Number One Unit 275 MVA GSU at Brayton R. E. Minkwitz, Sr. 1984 6-101
Point

Brayton Point is a thermal generating plant with a gross capacity from four units of 1759 MVA. The GSU
transformer on No. 1 unit is rated 275 MVA, 115/18 kV and was manufactured by McGraw-Edison. This
transformer was placed in service initially in December of 1979 and removed from service because of the
presence of combustible gas in the oil on July 25, 1981. After an extensive testing program at Brayton
Point and at the factory, the unit was dismantled. The gas was generated as a result of the improper
fabrication of the core.

‘Investigation and Repair of a Medium Power B. T. Pollom 1984 6-201

Transformer

This paper describes the investigation performed on 12/16120 MVA transformer following high dissolved
combustible gas test results. After the unit was untanked and dismantled, investigation revealed severe
overheating. The problems were corrected and the unit was rebuilt satisfactorily.

In 1983 a paper was presented at the Conference concerning W. McDermid 1985 6-701
Manitoba Hydro’s experience in the application of Morgan J. F. Millward
Schaffer Transfo Tester Probes, as well as preliminary
experience with the Syprotec Hydran® 20IR continuous on-line
hydrogen-in-oil monitoring system which has been successfully
applied to the protection of 24 HVDC valve damping resistor
circuits. To date, two potentially explosive failures have been
prevented. A number of refinements have been made in the
Hydran2OlR installation. Response tests to know hydrogen-in-

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cil concentrations are being made on an annual basis.

Field Testing of Hydran® 101 and 201 for Dissolved Hydrogen G. Belanger 1985 6-801
in Transformer Oil

Two series of field tests were carried out with the new analytical
devices to measure dissolved hydrogen in transformer oils,
namely the Hydran 101 and 201. The former consists in a
portable unit that will give a read out of the dissolved hydrogen
from a 5 cc oil sample. Two such units were tested in separate
regions on Hydro-Quebec’s network with more than 100
samples. The samples analyzed with the Hydran 101 were also
analyzed by the usual gas chromatography technique. A
screening procedure is proposed arising from these tests
whereby the Hydran 101 could be used to discriminate samples
that need to be fully analyzed.

About 50 large pieces of equipment (transformers or- reactors)

have been monitored for dissolved hydrogen by a device giving
in real time the gas concentration. These units (Hydran 201)
have been installed in different parts of the network on
equipment presenting a whole range of background of hydrogen
contents. The results for 18 months will be presented with an
assessment of the analytical tool and the usefulness of
monitoring dissolved hydrogen in real time basis.

Tennessee Valley Authority’s Application of the Hydran® 20IR R. D. Sparks 1986 6-401
On-Line Hydrogen Monitor to 500 kV Current Transformers J. H. Turney

This paper includes a brief description of the test program

undertaken to prove the applicability of the technology to current
transformers and an overview of the actual installations. The
operation and performance of the Hydran 201R instruments is
also discussed.

General Discussion 1986 6-401

Ti Correlation Between Results of Dissolved Gas Analysis and C. L. C. Sobral 1986 6-501
Actual Transformer Inspection Vieira

This paper examines several cases where transformers were

removed from service as a result of chromatographic analyses of
gases dissolved in insulating oil. Each case is analyzed by
comparing the diagnoses obtained using the usual methods of
dissolved gas analysis (DGA) with the results of an actual
internal inspection of the equipment.

In the preparation of DGA diagnosis, criteria were rigorously

used as found in the literature, no attempt being made to
approximate values or codes. Similarly, internal inspection
reports closely followed the format found in the papers listed in
the bibliography.

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Online Monitoring of Freestanding Current Transformers at B. W. Arp 1987 6-701

Tennessee Valley Authority J. R. Boyle
H. B. Cummings

Continuous On-Line Hydrogen-in-Oil Monitoring D. H. Grant 1987 6-1201

W. McDermid
(A Progress Report) J. F. Millward

Papers concerning Manitoba Hydro’s experience with on-line

hydrogen-in-oil monitoring were presented at the 1983 and 1985
Conference. Since that time, data have been accumulated on the
long-term stability of these sensors based on annual end-to-end
response tests. Some modifications have been necessary to
improve the durability of the sensor. In addition to the
application previously described, the same monitoring
equipment is being retrofitted to a group of fault-prone power
transformers. Some preliminary data are available on these
installations.

Discussion R. J. O’Brien 1987 6-

1201A

On-Line Degassing of an EHV Power Transformer P. W. Brunson 1990 6-11.1

During the Spring of 1989, a large 230 kV GSU transformer

began gassing due to problems with its tank shielding system.
Because of the critical nature of this unit (base load unit), it was
essential to keep it in service until an outage could be arranged
in the Fall. This paper relates the steps taken to de-gas the
transformer while still maintaining service.

Discussion J. Laakso 1990 6-

11.1A

General Discussion 1990 6-

11.1B

8.1.39 Gas in Silicone Transformers

Gas-in-Fluid in Silicone-Filled Transformers S. H. Osborn, Jr. 1990 6-14.1

For many years gas-in-oil analysis has been used to indicate

what has been taking place inside of oil-filled transformers. As
silicone liquid-filled transformers have become more common,
we have looked to analysis of the gas dissolved in the silicone
fluid to give us that kind of information. One important
consideration for analyzing silicone fluid-filled transformers is
to distinguish which gases are formed as a result of silicone
deterioration and which are formed as a result of deterioration of
solid insulation. Improved evaluation techniques should make
gas-in-fluid analysis an important diagnostic tool for silicone
fluid-filled transformers.

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An Overview of Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GIC) B. L. Damsky 1990 6-15.1

In the mid-nineteenth century, when the first long range

telegraph lines were constructed, we learned that there are
occasions when currents flow in the earth. The phenomenon was
soon seen to be associated with auroral displays and eventually it
was connected with the sun. This paper explains what we know
about the relevant solar phenomena and how showers of
particles interact with the earth’s magnetic field to produce earth
currents. EPRI’s past work is covered and plans for a mitigation
scheme and a warning network are explained.

The Destructive Effects of Geomagnetic Induced Currents in W. J. McNutt 1990 6-16.1

Power Transformers

Two severe geomagnetic storms in March and September of

1989 produced thermal damage in four generator transformers at
the Salem nuclear generating station, only one of which was
readily repairable. The interaction of the geomagnetic induced
current with power transformers is discussed and the specific
effect on these transformers is described.

The Hydro-Quebec System Blackout of March 13, 1989: System P. Czech 1990 6-17.1
Response to Geomagnetic Disturbance S. Chano
H. Huynk
A. Dutil

This paper describes the event of March 13, 1989, on the Hydro-
Quebec power system when an exceptionally intense magnetic
storm caused protection systems to trip or shut down seven static
compensators on the 735 kV transmission network. The paper
also outlines initiatives taken to establish a secure mode of
operation as well as future actions planned to ensure better
performance under geomagnetic storm conditions.

Discussion J. G. Kappenman 1990 6-18.1

8.1.40 General Electric

Problems Experienced with General Electric Type LRT-200 M. A. Salvant 1982 6-401
Load/Vac Tap Changer

This paper presents the problems Florida Power Corporation has

experienced with the LRT-200 tap changer, dating back to 1979,
and General Electric’s recommendations. The paper also reviews
a winding failure that was attributed to an LRT-200 tap changer
problem.

Discussion H. A. Ruggles 1982 6-401A

Discussion J. H. Hackney 1983 6-401B

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General Electric Mark 11 GSU Transformers Potential Problems Ronald L. Barker 1991 6-9.1

This paper deals with General Electric Mark 11 design

transformers manufactured prior to circa 1972. It addresses the
problems of loosening of windings due to low density cellulose
insulation and ruptured oil boxes. It covers the reblocking and
reclamping of several 230 kV and 500 kV GSUs in the field.

Discussion Paul W. Brunson, 1991 6-9.1A

Jr.

8.1.41 High Temperature Insulation

High Temperature Insulation for Liquid Filled Transformers M. A. Franchek 1989 6-12.1

This paper will discuss the benefits and drawbacks of using

Aramid insulation in liquid-filled transformers. It will also take a
brief look at the thermal, electrical, mechanical, and physical
properties of Aramid insulation and their impact on transformer
performance.

Discussion J. P. Kenney 1989 6-12.1A

General Discussion 1989 6-12.1B

Closure M. A. Franchek 1989 6-12.1C

‘Increased MVA Transformer Rebuilds with Thermally W. J. McNutt 1989 6-13.1

Upgraded Insulation

Thermally upgraded insulation (Nomex®) has been utilized in

the rebuild of service-damaged power transformers to achieve
rating increases 50% and more. At the same time, electrical and
mechanical integrity can frequently be improved through the
application of up-to-date design technology.

Discussion L. W. Pierce 1989 6-13.1A

J. P. Kinney

General Discussion 1989 6-13.1B

Closure W. J. McNutt 1989 6-13.1C

8.1.42 Hitachi Transformers

Partial Discharge Test Applied to Two 500 kV, 100 MVA, A. F. Teles 1986 6-101
Autotransforrners Repaired at the Boa Esperanca Power Plant E. L. S. Mello
E. M. Cavalcanti

This paper describes the tests (at nominal voltage applied to two
Hitachi, 500/ 3 – 230/ 3 – 13.8 kV, 100 MVA,
autotransformers which were repaired at the Boa Esperanca
Power Plant. Those units stopped operating because the 13.8 kV

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windings were damaged due to a short circuit during service.

After the repair, the manufacturer and CHESF agreed to make

two tests at nominal voltage, partial discharge, and no-load loss.
The paper shows the arrangement made for the tests and
describes the results obtained.

Field Repair of Two 500 kV, 100 MVA, E. M. Cavalcanti 1986 6-201
R. J. Carmo
Hitachi Autotransformers

This paper describes the field repair of two single-phase 500

kV, 100 MVA, Hitachi autotransformers which failed during
operation due to an external short circuit on the delta connection
of the 13.8 kV tertiary of a 300 MVA bank. The repair consisted
of a complete dismantling of the equipment in order to replace
the two damaged tertiary coils with new ones. Action was
necessary to provide a proper environment control in the field to
guarantee the desired quality level in the operation and in the
application of materials. The two units were subjected to a
drying process, and no-load partial-discharge tests were
performed with satisfactory results.

On-Line Hydrogen-in-Oil Monitoring W. McDermid 1985 6-701

J. F. Millward
(A Progress Report)

In 1983 a paper was presented at the Conference concerning

Manitoba Hydro’s experience in the application of Morgan
Schaffer Transfo Tester Probes, as well as preliminary
experience with the Syprotec Hydran 201R continuous on-line
hydrogen-in-ail monitoring system which has been successfully
applied to the protection of 24 HVDC valve damping resistor
circuits. To date, two potentially explosive failures have been
prevented. A number of refinements have been made in the
Hydran 201R installation. Response tests to known hydrogen-in-
oil concentrations are being made on an annual basis.

Field Testing of Hydran® 101 and 201 for Dissolved Hydrogen G. Belanger 1985 6-801
in Transformer Oil

Two series of field testers were carried out with the new
analytical devices to measure dissolved hydrogen in transformer
oils, namely the Hydran 101 and 201. The former consists in a
portable unit that will give a readout of the dissolved hydrogen
from a 5 cc oil sample. Two such units were tested in separate
regions on Hydro-Quebec’s network with more than 100
samples. The samples analyzed with the Hydran 101 were also
analyzed by the usual gas chromatography technique. A
screening procedure is proposed arising from these tests
whereby the Hydran 101 could be used to discriminate samples
that need to be fully analyzed.

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About 50 large pieces of equipment (transformers or reactors)

have been monitored for dissolved hydrogen by a device giving
in real time the gas concentration. These units (Hydran 201) has
been installed in different parts of the network on equipment
presenting a whole range of background hydrogen contents. The
results for 18 months will be presented with an assessment of the
analytical tool and the usefulness of monitoring, in real time
basis, dissolved hydrogen.

Tennessee Valley Authority’s Application of the Hydran 201R R. D. Sparks 1986 6-401
On-Line Hydrogen Monitor to 500 kV Current Transformers

This paper includes a brief description of the test program

undertaken to prove the applicability of the technology to current
transformers and an overview of the actual installations. The
operation and performance of the Hydran 201R instruments is
also discussed.

General Discussion 1986 6-401A

Extra High Voltage Current Transformer Program—An Update G. G. McCrae 1988 6-14.1

A preliminary report on the results of an IEEE questionnaire sent

to North American utilities by an ad-hoc committee of
concerned utility people from the IEEE Transformer Committee.
The questionnaire covered all 345 kV and higher current
transformers.

B. C. Hydro’s experience with EHV current transformers of

various manufacturers is also discussed.

8.1.43 Impedance Tests

Power Transformer Testing

This paper describes a device for use with resistance-measuring

equipment. This device regulates the direct-current supply to the
measuring instrument and thereby cuts the time of measurement
of resistance of windings of large power transformers in half. In
addition, it furnishes protection against overloading and damage
to the measuring instrument.

8.1.44 Impulse Tests

Progress Report - Low Voltage Impulse Testing of D. A. Gillies 1970 6-901
L. E. Humbard
Transformers E. J. Rogers

Additional experience in the use of low-voltage impulse testing

to detect transformer damage due to external short circuits.

Detection of Transformer Coil Movement by the Use of E. J. Adolphson 1975 6-401

R. H. Carlson

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Strain, Gauges and Low-Voltage Impulse Tests

This paper discusses low-voltage impulse test techniques for

field use as well as the use of strain gauges in the monitoring of
coil-clamping pressures.

Frequency-Domain Analysis of Responses from Low-Voltage A. G. 1976 6-201

Impulse Testing of Power Transformers Richenbacher

This paper describes frequency domain analysis techniques and

explains how they are beneficial when applied to low-voltage
impulse-testing of transformers. Among the major benefits
derived from the application of these techniques are: (1) analysis
of resultant wave forms by these techniques yields information
obscured in time domain, (2) equipment and test-lead shielding
requirements may be reduced, and (3) impulse-generator output-
voltage requirements may be reduced.

Low-Voltage Impulse Testing of Power Transformers D. L. Lanphier 1977 6-601

D. A. Gillies
(A Progress Report)

This paper covers low-voltage impulse testing on new

transformers before and after short-circuit testing. The use of
this method as a maintenance tool is also discussed.

Impulse Testing (Recent Developments) P. L. Bellaschi 1964 6-1301

A discussion including what the purchaser representative should

know about impulse tests, insulation requirements and tests for
transformers, present ASA and NEMA standards, impulse test
guide for transformers, impulse testing of other station
apparatus, and switching surge testing.

8.1.45 Infrared Scanning

Experience with Low-Voltage Impulse Testing of E. J. Rogers 1969 6-301
D. A. Gillies
Power Transformers L. E. Humbard

Over the past several years, the industry has become more and
more aware that a difference exists between the rated short-
circuit strength of power transformers as expressed in the
standards and the demonstrated strength on operating systems.
BPA has become very concerned because of several in-service
failures of units on our system obviously having insufficient
mechanical strength. Transformers on our system that have
failed as a result of fault-type short-circuits include units
manufactured by three of the leading American manufacturers of
electrical power equipment.

In an attempt to assure ourselves that the short-circuit strength of

power transformers will meet the duty imposed by the BPA

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system, we have initiated several steps. The most pressing of

these is the development of a diagnostic test tool which will
reliably indicate whether a transformer’s windings have
undergone a harmful physical change following an in-service, or
a test, short-circuit.

Experience with the New Hughes Infrared Imaging System P. W. Brunson 1988 9-8.1

A history of infrared imaging experience covering the past

decade followed by a technical discussion of the Hughes
Probeye 7100.

Discussion D. L. Johnson 1989 9-8.1

Experience with the New Hughes Infrared Imaging System - An D. E. Bates

Update

This paper is an update of the 1988 paper and begins by briefly

reviewing the equipment used. The remainder of the paper
covers actual field experiences and the effort to develop
diagnostic techniques concerning problems located by the
infrared scanning method of testing.

Discussion A. J. Roy 1989 9-8.1A

General Discussion 1989 9-8.1B

In-Service Measuring of Transformer Core Insulation J. B. Leach 1973 6-401

This paper describes this company’s experience with an

extraneous core ground on a General Electric core-form three-
phase autotransformer rated 300 MVA 345/138/13.8 kV. A
method for monitoring and recording the current and voltage
core-to-ground together with an alarm circuit while in service is
described.

The User of Thermography for Evaluating LTCS A. J. Roy 1983 6-501

Thermography has proven to be a valuable diagnostic tool for

evaluating load tap changers on power transformers on the
Northeast Utilities System. This paper describes the technique
used in evaluating LTCS, provides reference data, and illustrates
a typical tap changer problem detected through the use of
thermography.

On-Line Hydrogen-in-Oil Monitoring

A summary is provided of experience with hydrogen-in-oil

monitoring equipment installed on electrical apparatus.

EHV Transformer Audit Program Harry A. Ruggles 1991 6-13.1

In March 1989, AEPSC initiated a program of audits on EHV

transformers which were newly assembled and filled or had

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undergone major maintenance. The program of auditing

procedures and practices forms the basis of a quality control
program for this equipment. When work on major equipment has
been completed, the project is reviewed through written
documentation by an AEP transformer specialist. The
recommendation to place the equipment in service is reviewed
and approved by senior management. A wide variety of
problems have been isolated and corrected through this program.

The EDF Diagnostic Method Evaluation - A Program Philippe Guuinic

Jean-Marie
for a New Power Transformer Inspection Policy Maujean

Christian Legrand
Gerald Sanchis

Patrick Luccione

Jean-Pierre
Patelli

Oliver Cohard

The various operational departments which operate power

transformers within EDF recognize the need to improve their
know-how in terms of on-site diagnostics of power transformers.
The aim is to harmonize current policies by defining a
hierarchical inspection principle suitable to each population
(production and transmission). A program to evaluate four
diagnostic methods; physio-chemical analysis of oils, partial
discharges, polarization, and power factor of the insulation has
been under way since the beginning of 1992 and should be
completed by 1994. The paper presents this program and
emphasizes the complementary nature of these methods, and
illustrates the first results with typical examples.

General Discussion 1993 6-6A

EHV Transformer Erection and Filling Under J. A. Forster 1968 6-801

G. G. McCrae
Cold Conditions

This paper details B. C. Hydro’s standard procedure for erecting

and filling EHV reactive equipment. Oil dielectric breakdown of
30 kV on a 0.040 VDE gap, 5 ppm moisture and 0. 1% dissolved
gas are obtained in ambient temperatures of -25°F.

Installation of EHV Transformers R. J. Coassaart 1970 6-1401

During the past years the installation of EHV transformers has

been quite successful. There have been circumstances though
that have contributed to extensive delays and additional costs
due to weather, construction interruptions, contaminated oil,

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inadequate vacuum pumps and filtering equipment. With the

recent widespread availability of dry air and degassing
equipment, the installer now has the tools to overcome these
obstacles to place the transformer in service in its proper
condition. The points covered in this paper are the major new
items recommended for installation.

8.1.46 Instrument Transformers

Also Refer to Combustible Gas, Dissolved Gas-in-Oil,
Power Factor
Instrument Transformer Insulation Power Factors R. E. Clark 1964 6-2001

Updated tabulation of power factors for instrument transformer

insulation.

Testing Insulation of Potential Devices M. D. Coughlin 1968 6-201

On our system there are 170 General Electric and 260

Westinghouse potential devices in service. This paper describes
the type of tests made on the potential device to determine the
condition of the insulation. A summary of test values and typical
defects found by the tests are also included.

Shorted Turn Problems in Two Brands of 15-kV Butyl-Molded W. B. Martin, Jr. 1972 6-501
Current Transformers

This paper presents an evaluation of shorted turn problems in

molded current transformers, discussing their cause, methods of
detection, and steps being taken in an effort to eliminate the
trouble.

Power-Factor Corrections for Bushings and Instrument R. H. Gunning 1982 6-701

Transformers

Using an environmental chamber, power-factor correction data

have been established over the temperature range of -40°C to
+40°C for several types of bushings and instrument
transformers.

Electromagnetic’s Type UF-115 Potential Transformer N. Barbeito 1983 6-301

Failures

This paper covers the failures of two of these units on our

system and the subsequent investigation and the discovery of an
inherent problem with these units. It will also discuss the remedy
and the modifications of the units to insure their integrity.

Doble Testing of Instrument Transformers (A Review) D. J. 1983 6-801

Kopaczynski
M. Rivers

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This report reviews ac dielectric-loss and power-factor testing of

instrument transformers: current transformers (CTs), potential
transformers (PTs), and metering outfits (MOs) - The use of the
excitation-current test technique for PTs and MOs is also
covered. A review is made of the various test techniques,
including comments on test voltage and temperature, surface
leakage, and the effects of shipping crates. A tabulation of
power-factor test data for CTs, PTs and MOs will be included in
the final report.

Violent Failure of a Siemens-Allis Current Transformer J. Turner 1986 6-801

A. Marquez
Type AKOF 525

This paper describes the violent failure of a 500 kV Siemens-

Allis current transformer at the Salt River Project Palo Verde
Switchyard. It also describes the on-site investigation by
Siemens and Salt River Project personnel.

In-Service Experience with EHV Instrument Transformers R. A. Sarkinen 1986 6-901

The Bonneville Power Administration has experienced various

types of troubles and failure with the many different
manufacturers and types of EHV instrument transformers. The
report will summarize our experiences and failure rates of 500
kV current transformers, capacitor voltage transformers, and
magnetic voltage transformers. Also, a short description of
precautions and modifications is given.

Discussion A. K. McCabe 1986 6-901A

V. I. Kogan

General Discussion

Online Monitoring of Freestanding Current Transformers at B. W. Arp

Tennessee Valley Authority J. R. Boyle
H. B. Cummings

Power-Factor Testing of General Electric Type JVS Potential S. D. Darden 1987 6-801
Transformers

Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the early

1980s, Wisconsin Power and Light Company (WPL) has used
GE JVS-350 potential transformers designed for outdoor
substation applications at 69 kV. They are suitable for use with
conventional metering, relaying, and control devices. Following
several failures, WPL began the process of power-factor testing
these transformers in an effort to improve system reliability.
This paper describes the power-factor test program and the test
results.

Frequency Response Determination of Current and Potential E. L. S. DeMelo 1987 6-901

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Transformers

This paper describes a method for determining the transformer

ratio variations versus frequency in a range up to 5 kHz or more.
The results from this information are used in harmonic and
transient signal measurements. The results of several on-site
tests are shown, and CT, CVT, and PT frequency response
diagrams are provided.

Current Transformer Failure Analysis C. F. Caral 1987 6-1701

J. F. Filho
S. Lins
M. M. Mendonca

This paper describes maintenance planning of the current

transformer, failure analysis, determining the conditions of
operating equipment, chromatographic analysis of current
transformer insulating oil to prevent failure, and recommended
combustible gas values to prevent failures in the company’s 245
current transformers.

Second Failure of a 400 MVA 500-230 kV P. W. Brunson, 1987 6-1401

Jr.
Shell-Type Autotransformer at South Bessemer

Transmission Substation

The first of the transformers in question failed in the Fall of

1985 due to static electrification. In the Spring of 1986 a second
transformer failed during field corona testing. This presentation
compares the two failures and details the teardown of the second
unit.

Repair of 765 kV Current Transformer M. D. Loy 1989 6-3.1

This paper outlines problems experienced with porcelains

cracking on several 765 kV current transformers. It also outlines
steps taken to remove and replace porcelains and to process and
test the units after repairs were completed.

Update of Recent 500 kV Current Transformer Problems J. Laakso 1989 6-4.1

This paper describes recent developments and results of

investigations into the failures of 500 kV current transformers
supplied by two manufacturers.

Discussion P. Davreau 1989 6-4.1A

Discussion T. A. Syzmanski 1989 6-4.1B

Discussion A. Manuel Corvo 1989 6-4.1C

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8.1.47 Leak Repairs

Power Transformers - Liquid and Gas Leak Repairs G. T. 1985 6-301
Laugenschlager

This paper deals with the repair and prevention of liquid and gas
leaks in industrial plant power transformers. It covers
preliminary in-service investigation and tests to determine the
most economical plan. Special required procedure for Askarel
transformers will be considered along with complete Doble
insulation tests as appropriate.

8.1.48 Life of Transformers - Also Refer to Loading

“Sixty-Five Degree Temperature Rise Power Transformers P. L. Bellaschi 1962 6-701

This paper outlines the present standards and operating guides

for 65°C temperature rise power transformers; life tests on
distribution transformers; factors influencing the life of
transformer insulation; deterioration of insulation at high
temperature; modified cellulose upgraded insulation systems;
rating of 65°C temperature rise power transformers; combined
effect of high temperature and electrical stress insulation; and
other considerations in the development and application of 65°C
rise transformers (technical and economic) .

Effect of Cyclical Loading on Power Transformer Life C. E. Monty 1964 6-701A

A detailed report including considerable actual data.

Life Expectancy of HV Power Transformers in Service P. L. Bellaschi 1968 6-701

What to expect in remaining life of power transformers that have

been in service for 20 - 25 years is evaluated in the light of
experience on one system and internal examinations of
transformers on this and a number of other systems.

Discussion J. A. Keyser 1968 6-701A

Life Expectancy of HV Power Transformers in Service - P. L. Bellaschi 1971 6-101

Progress Report

The subject under discussion relates to the evaluation of life

expectancy of HV power transformers in service. In this
connection, an extensive study was conducted in 1966 on a
group of fifty 230-kV power transformers. The results of that
study were reported at the 1968 Client Conference. At that time,
an excellent discussion of a similar study and evaluation of a
group of 229 transformers. 138 kV and 26 kV, both medium and
small power, were presented by Mr. J. A. Keyser. Since that
time, further studies and discussion have ensued, so much so that

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it appeared apropos to update the report briefly on developments

at this time, especially in view of the continued interest of the
clients in the subject matter and its growing importance. This
presentation, therefore, essentially is in the nature of a progress
report.

Impact Loading as a Factor of Influence on Transformer D. A. Yannucci 1978 6-501

Insulation Life

Overcurrents on power transformers cause components of the

insulation system to be exposed to dynamic mechanical stress of
varying magnitude, duration, and rate of occurrence. This type
of mechanical stress is termed as impact loading. Several factors
influence transformer insulation life, such as temperature,
moisture content, and electrical stress. Impact loading is noted as
possibly one of these factors and its relative importance to the
total sum of factors influencing transformer insulation life is
examined. Guidelines were proposed that determine
acceptable levels of impact loading for power transformers.

The Results of Portland General Electric Company Transformer Y. G. Bae 1979 6-1101
Thermal Loading Validation Experiments

The thermal model validation experiments are the direct

outcome of actual field measurement by embedding
thermocouples inside a transformer. The experimental processes
are briefly described and the results are discussed in this paper.

The Results of Portland General Electric Company Transformer Y. G. Bae 1979 6-1101
Thermal Loading Validation Experiments

The thermal model validation experiments are the direct

outcome of actual field measurement by embedding
thermocouples inside a transformer. The experimental processes
are briefly described and the results are discussed in this paper.

Discussion P. L. Bellaschi 1979 6-1101A

American Nuclear Insurers Transformer Loss Prevention L. A. Witt 1981 6-101

Program

American Nuclear Insurers instituted a transformer loss

prevention program as a result of several large losses in 1978. A
review of the problem is presented, using some of ANI’s
historical data as a basis. Since the inception of the program,
losses to ANI have been significantly reduced.

Use of Auxiliary Coolers on Power Transformers - A W. J. McNutt 1981 6-501

Manufacturer’s View

Auxiliary coolers can be beneficial in limiting conductor and oil

temperatures when additional continuous load beyond nameplate
rating must be carried on already installed transformers.

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However, the added cooling will almost invariably not be

matched to the characteristics of the original cooling equipment.
As a consequence it will be necessary to add more auxiliary
cooling than would at first be estimated in order not to exceed
winding temperature limits.

Transformer Life Can Be Extended S. D. Myers 1982 6-601

This elementary presentation speaks to the deleterious effects of

transformer oil decay products, heat, water, and oxygen on
transformer longevity. Each factor has been the subject of world-
wide study of technical groups who have not necessarily
transmitted pragmatic information to the reader or student. These
studies combined with over 25 years observation of industrial
and utility sized transformers results in a maintenance
philosophy that will take the mystery out of prolonging the life
of transformers, and give a base on which to build more life into
the transformer than the manufacturer intended.

8.1.49 Symposium on Utilization of Inherent Transformer Life

Expectancy

Introduction to Symposium on Utilization of Inherent A. L. Rickley 1984 6-801

Transformer Life Expectancy

Keynote Presentation: ‘is Transformer Life Really Affected by O. R. Compton 1984 6-901
Loading?’

Conserving Inherent Transformer Life Expectancy D. L. Johnson 1984 6-1001

A Discussion of the Utilization of Inherent Transformer Life L. J. Savio 1984 6-1101

Expectancy

Hydro-Quebec’s Experience With Transformer Loading J. R. Germain 1984 6-1201

R. Beauchemin
G. Gravel

A Discussion of Utilization of Inherent Transformer Life W. J. McNutt 1984 6-1301

Expectancy

Utilization of Inherent Transformer Life Expectancy E. M. Petrie 1984 6-1401

D. A. Yannucci
J. B. Templeton

Discussion P. L. Bellaschi 1984 6-1501A

Discussion G. T. 1984 6-1501B

Lautenschlager

Discussion R. W. Pfeiffer 1984 6-1501C

General Discussion 1984 6-1501D

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‘Furfuraldehyde-in-Oil, How to be Sure Your Transformer Has D. H. Grant 1990 10-4.1

Not Been Weakened by Heat

This paper describes why Manitoba Hydro believes it is

important to have an indication of the degree of thermal
deterioration of cellulose in transformers. The results found in
hundreds of analyses will be summarized. Comments are
provided on the merits of screening apparently problem-free
devices based on two analyses. While it is slightly more
expensive to analyze a sample from every large piece of
equipment, there are merits to this over just looking at problem
transformers.

Discussion W. J. Fernihough 1990 1-4.1A

General Discussion 1990 10-4.1B

Analysis of the Degree of Polymerization of Paper Samples from A. Bassetto F. 1990 10-5.1
Service-Aged Transformers J. Mak

This utility’s examination of the degree of polymerization of

paper insulation from a sampling of its aging transformers is
described together with the insulation aging criteria that they
developed from these tests. This examination also demonstrated
the varying degrees of aging within a given transformer which
are dependent on location within the transformer and its loading
history.

Discussion W. J. McNutt 1990 10-5.1A

Closure A. Bassetto F. 1990 10-5.1B

8.1.50 Symposium on Monitoring Transformer Aging

Monitoring Transformer Aging S. H. Osborn, Jr. 1991 6-15.1

Monitoring the Integrity of Cellulose Insulation in Order to Paul J. Griffin 1991 6-16.1
Determine Power Transformer Life

Determination of the Degree of Polymerization of Paper A. Bassetto F. 1991 6-17.1

Jose Mak
Microsamples from Power Transformer Windings

The determination of the degree of polymerization (DP) of paper

samples from power transformers and voltage regulators is a
very practical and reliable approach to the evaluation of the
remaining life of such pieces of equipment.

A technique for obtaining paper microsamples from the

windings has been developed and tested by the authors. It
consists of taking a very small amount of paper (e.g., 0.08g)
from the outer wraps of the high-voltage windings of core-type
units. A comparison between the DP of paper samples from

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different locations has been made.

Power Transformer Aging Antonio M. 1991 6-18.1

Corvo
Antonio Carlos
T. Diogo
Denis Ferratone

There are approximately 444 power transformers in service on

CESP’s power system. Their voltage ratings range from 69 kV
to 550 kV. About 33% of them have been operating for more
than 20 years. So it’s very important for CESP to evaluate their
remaining useful life in order to plan the replacement of the
more aged ones.

This paper concerns the test methods that have been used by
CESP to assess the transformer aging process in an effort to
establish a correlation between aging processes and life
expectancy.

Discussion A.Bassetto F. 1991 6-18.1A

Prediction of the Expected Transformer Lifetime by T. Kawada 1991 6-19.1

E. Mori Kokubu
Detection Of C02 and CO K. Goto

Thermal deterioration of transformers results in the decrease of

tensile strength (rather than electrical strength) of the insulating
paper and pressboard. The decrease of tensile strength has a
constant relationship to the increase in the amount of CO2 and
CO formed by their thermal deterioration, which depends on
temperature. Then the expected transformer lifetime predicted
from an allowable limit for the drop in tensile strength was
determined using the amount of the increasing rate of CO2 and
CO dissolved in insulating oil.

Transformer Aging and Replacement Policy Philippe Guuinic 1991 6-20.1

Patrick Le
(An Overview) Guennec
Jean-Marie
Maujean
Joseph Sapet
Michel Tudrej

This paper presents EDF’s maintenance policies concerning

transmission and step-up transformers, ideas concerning aging
process of the winding, and current research relative to the
analyses of cellulose degradation products.

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The Analysis of Transformer Oil for Degradation Products from Nick Dominelli 1991 6-21.1
Overheated Solid Insulation

This paper presents an analysis of the degradation products of

cellulose insulation. Included are a historical background, a
statistical analysis of our test results, and some comment on
future trends in diagnostic analysis insofar as it pertains to
electrical apparatus insulation.

Symposium on Monitoring Transformer Aging Hormoz Azizian 1991 6-22.1

Symposium on Monitoring Transformer Aging William J. 1991 6-23.1

McNutt

General Discussion on Symposium on Monitoring Transformer 1991 6-24.1

Aging

8.1.51 Loading - Also Refer to Life of Transformers

Transformer Loading Study A. R. Caprez 1966 6-101

Loading Guide and more recent developments in insulating

materials. It is concluded that loading a dual rated transformer to
2000/o and a triple rated only to 2300/c of self-cooled rating is
possible and should be considered in the decision of transformer
capacity additions and new design.

Digest and Application of ‘Guide for Loading P. L. Bellaschi 1975 6-501

Oil-Immersed Power Transformers with 65°C or 55°C

Average Winding Rise’

This paper presents a practical discussion and evaluation of the

IEEE report, “Guide for Loading Oil-Immersed Power
Transformers with 65°C or 55°C Average Winding Rise. “ Since
the report will not be available for at least another year, it is felt
that such a review at this time is expedient in view of the present
energy crisis.

Use of Loading Guides to Increase Power Transformer E. F. Eldred 1976 6-901

Utilization

Virginia Electric Power Company has, like most other electrical

utilities, found it necessary to defer investment in new power
transformers and to increase the loading on existing units. This
paper discusses the use of industry standard loading guides,
including the use of the IEEE recommended increased loading
guide now awaiting approval by ANSI.

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Transformer Thermal Loading Model Validation Y. G. Bae 1978 6-301

L. N. Sherban
Experiments Research Project

This paper describes transformer thermal model validation

experiments. Thermocouples were embedded inside a
transformer during rewind to measure winding hot-spots, core
and oil temperatures. These experiments compare the results of a
thermal loading model equation with actual measurements taken.
The design and experimental process are also discussed.

Evolution of Transformer Loading Practices at Portland General Y. G. Bae 1979 6-1001

Electric Company

Transformer loading practices at PGE are described. These

practices are the direct result of several years study with System
Control Incorporated. The results from the standards for the
loading of transformers under particular PGE operating
conditions and economic considerations.

Hydro-Quebec’s Experience with J. P. Germain 1984 6-1201

R. Beauchemin
Transformer Loading G. Gravel

Transformer Loadability Assessment Based on Leo J. Savio 1992 6-16.1

William J.
ANSI Loading Guide Equations and Gas Evolution McNutt
Prediction

A new transformer loading planning tool has been developed

which models a transformer thermally using ANSI/IEEE loading
guide equations, while also providing maximum flexibility for
varying loading patterns, ambient temperature cycles, and
cooling modes. In addition, after thermal aging considerations
have been satisfied, a prediction is made whether gas bubbles
could be evolved for the particular load pattern and
temperatures. The paper presents the fashion in which studies
were made for the Consolidated Edison Co. system and the
benefits which were realized.

General Discussion 1992 6-16.1A

8.1.52 Loading Guide

“A New Tool to Guide Loading Decisions for Power W. J. McNutt 1988 6-13.1
Transformers

A predictive tool, in the form of a personal computer program,

has been developed to assist utilities in selecting loading
conditions beyond nameplate rating which will not be
susceptible to evolution of free gas bubbles. This mathematical
model properly recognizes the effects of the significant

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variables, and its predictions show generally good correlation

with experimental tests. The paper presents the results of
parametric studies utilizing the model that illustrate which
operating conditions are more (or less) prone to experience free
gas evolution.

General Discussion 1988 6-13.1A

Transformer Loadability Assessment Based on Leo J. Savio 1992 6-16.1

William J.
ANSI Loading Guide Equations and Gas Evolution McNutt
Prediction

A new transformer loading planning tool has been developed

which models a transformer thermally using ANSI/IEEE loading
guide equations, while also providing maximum flexibility for
varying loading patterns, ambient temperature cycles, and
cooling modes. In addition, after thermal aging considerations
have been satisfied, a prediction is made whether gas bubbles
could be evolved for the particular load pattern and
temperatures. The paper presents the fashion in which studies
were made for the Consolidated Edison Co. system and the
benefits that were realized.

General Discussion 1992 6-16.1A

8.1.53 Load Tap Changers

“Discovery and Field Repair of McGraw-Edison 115 kV NLTC B. H. Davison 1987 6-201
Problem

Using DGA, this utility detected an incipient problem in a 1971

vintage transformer, and, by monitoring DGA on a decreasing
time interval, kept it in service until acetylene amounts
approached criticality. Internal inspection revealed
carbonization and sludging on one phase of the NLTC caused by
a problem recognized by the manufacturer in 1972.

Successful design alterations of all models were made at that

time, and field repairs were made to existing EHV NLTCs then
in service, but not to lesser rated transformer NLTCS. The
problem now has appeared in 115 kV NLTCS. Successful field
repairs were made and the unit is back in service.

The Influence of Transformer Load Tap Changers an Single- Mark F. Lachman 1992 6-6.1
Phase Exciting-Current Test Results

When exciting-current tests are performed on different load tap

changer positions, the behavior of the test results depends on the
design of the tap winding and on whether a series transformer or
autotransformer is present. Over the years, Doble Company has
accumulated many examples of different test result patterns. The

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intent of this paper is to correlate this information and explain

how and why the results are affected by the position of the load
tap changer.

Discussion William J. 1992 6-6.1A

McNutt

Failure of ABB UZE Tap Changer on Kuhlman Transformer Kenneth L. 1993 6-3
Millard

This paper discusses the failure and subsequent investigation of

a Kuhlman 10 MVA 138/13.09 kV transformer equipped with an
ABB (ASEA) Type UZE load tap changer. The subject unit had
been removed from service twice, initially due to a high
temperature condition which was apparently caused by
unintentional core grounds in the series transformer. Following a
field repair, the unit again had to be removed from service, and
the tap changer reversing switch contacts were found to be badly
burned. The core ground problem was presumed to be caused by
circulating currents.

Following their experience, Consumers Power learned that

retrofit kits for upgrading UZE tap changer reversing switches
had been developed by the manufacturer.

Discussion Wayne Hanson 1993 6-3A

Discussion Rutger Johansson 1993 6-3B

Craig
Stiegemeier

Ted J. Haupert 1993 6-4

Application of DGA to Detection of Hot Spots in
Fredi Jokob
Load Tap-Changers Rick Youngblood

Application of DGA to Detection of Hot Spots in Ted J. Haupert 1993 6-4

Fredi Jokob
Load Tap-Changers Rick Youngblood

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Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) has been universally accepted as a diagnostic and preventive maintenance
tool for monitoring oil-filled transformers. Extension of this proven technology to other types of electrical
equipment is worth considering. One type of equipment is the load tap changer (LTC). Load tap changers
arc during normal operational cycles; thus, gases such as acetylene and hydrogen, generated by oil
decomposition during arcing, are present at significant concentrations in the LTC compartment.
Determinations of acetylene and hydrogen concentrations are thus not indicative of a problem. Ethylene,
however, is a fault gas associated with both arcing and pyrolysis, or thermal decomposition, of the
dielectric fluid. It is thus possible to monitor ethylene levels to ascertain the presence of hot spots in the
LTC chamber.

In order to apply DGA to load tap changers, normal and abnormal ethylene levels must be empirically
established. LTC gassing data has been acquired and correlated with physical inspection of LTCS.
Several case histories are presented that demonstrate a strong correlation between ethylene levels and
LTC hot spots.

General Discussion 1993 6-4A

8.1.54 Maintenance and Repairs

Use of Nitrogen and Vacuum in Installing, J. C. Parker 1963 6-801

Operating. and Maintaining Power Transformers

Some of the points covered in this paper are the treating of oil, receipt of transformers, vacuum treatment,
filling the transformers with oil, periodic tests, maintenance, and vacuum drying.

How Do You Treat Your EHV Transformers and L. C. Aicher 1970 6-1101
H. G. Fischer
Shunt Reactors? E. T. Norton

Considerable effort has been expended on the matter of field handling, installing and monitoring of EHV
transformers and shunt reactors in recent years. It has resulted in improved techniques for evaluating the
condition of the transformer, and this in turn has influenced the procedures that include oil filling. The
presentation explains why the recommendations are in order and why they differ from practices used with
lower voltage equipment.

Processing and Filling of EHV Transformers and R. J. Musil 1970 6-1201

Reactors

Listed are basic criteria and considerations for factory processing, shipment. oil filling, and dry-out of
EHV equipment. Also discussed are field experience with constant pressure, oil preservation systems, and
gas detective relays on 500 kV transformers and reactors.

Testing, Inspection, Rewinding and Drying of a 205 R. F. Casey 1972 6-101

MVA, 138/19.5-kV Transformer

This paper discusses the problems involved after a failure of a large power transformer complete with a
comprehensive account of the testing, inspection and repair. Particular emphasis is given to the problem
of vacuum drying this unit after its repair.

’Preventive Operation’ to Eliminate Through-Fault R. F. Casey 1977 6-101

Transformer Failures’

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A preventive maintenance program may eliminate unscheduled service outages, but early detection of
incipient transformer failures by preventive operational procedures is necessary if through-fault
transformer failures are to be effectively reduced. This report will deal with the preventive operational
procedures adopted by Idaho Power Company which have drastically reduced their rate of power
transformer failures.

American Nuclear Insurers Transformer Loss L. A. Witt 1981 6-101

Prevention Program

American Nuclear Insurers instituted a transformer loss prevention program as a result of several large
losses in 1978. A review of the problem is presented, using some of ANI’s historical data as a basis. Since
the inception of the program, losses to ANI have been significantly reduced.

In-House Repair of 18124130-MVA 67-13.09Y-kV M. A. Salvant, Jr. 1981 6-401

Transformer

The paper deals with the discovery of a winding problem while performing routine Doble tests. It also
covers the experiences of Florida Power Corporation in the teardown and subsequent rebuild of the unit,
in house.

Field Repair of a 765 kV, 300 MVA Autotransformer R. M. Bennett 1985 6-401

A single phase 300-MVA, 440/143/13.8-kV transformer manufactured by O.E.C. Power Transformer

Limited of Stafford, England, failed on July 2, 1982. This autotransformer was placed in service in
August 1978. An internal inspection was made and found that the low end of the high-voltage lead had
failed to the frame and then the tank. It was recommended that an on-site repair be made due to cost of
removing and shipping the transformer.

Partial Discharge Test Applied to Two 500 kV, 100 A. F. Teles 1986 6-101
MVA Autotransformers Repaired at the Boa Esperanca E. L. S. Mello
Power Plant E. M. Cavalcanti

This paper describes the tests applied to two Hitachi, 500 / 3 − 230 / 3 − 138 kV , 100 MVA
autotransformers which were repaired at the Boa Esperanca Power Plant. Those units stopped
operating because the 13.8 kV windings were damaged due to a short circuit during service.
After the repair, the manufacturer and CHESF agreed to make two tests at nominal voltage,
partial discharge, and no-load loss. The paper shows the arrangement made for the tests and
describes the results obtained.
Field Repair of Two 500 kV, 100 MVA, E. M. Cavalcanti 1986 6-201
R. J. Carmo
Hitachi Autotransformers

This paper describes the field repair of two single-phase 500 kV, 100 MVA, Hitachi autotransformers
which failed during operation due to an external short circuit on the delta connection of the 13.8 kV
tertiary of a 300 MVA bank. The repair consisted of a complete dismantling of the equipment in order to
replace the two damaged tertiary coils with new ones. Action was necessary to provide a proper
environment control in the field to guarantee the desired quality level in the operation and in the
application of materials. The two units were subjected to a drying process, and no-load partial-discharge
tests were performed with satisfactory results.

Investigation to Determine the Location of a Low T. W. Hayes 1986 6-301

Energy, Audible Electrical Arcing in a Power

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Transformer

This paper recounts the procedures employed in locating the source of a low-energy, electrical arcing in a
30140/50 MVA, OA/FOA/FOA 138 kV autotransformer. The diagnostic tools utilized were: gas-in-oil
analysis, electrical testing, acoustic emission instrumentation, and visual inspection.

General Discussion 1986 6-301A

Discovery and Field Repair of McGraw-Edison 115 kV B. H. Davison 1987 6-201

NLTC Problem

Using DGA this utility detected an incipient problem in a 1971 vintage transformer, and, by monitoring
DGA on a decreasing time interval, kept it in service until acetylene amounts approached criticality.
Internal inspection revealed carbonization and sludging on one phase of the NLTC caused by a problem
recognized by the manufacturer in 1972.

Successful deign alterations of all models were made at that time, and field repairs were made to existing
EHV NLTCs then in service, but not to lesser rated transformer NLTCS. The problem now has appeared
in 115 kV NLTCS. Successful field repairs were made and the unit is back in service.

Failure and Field Repair of a Federal Pacific 230/67 kV, R. L. Spells 1987 6-301
120/160/200 MVA Three-Phase Autotransformer

This paper describes the failure of a Federal Pacific 230/67 kV, 120/160/200 MVA autotransformer and
the procedure of removing a portion of the tank top, then removing the preventive autotransformer from
the main tank to perform the repair.

The presentation includes pictures of the damage to the transformer, and of the removal and installation of
a portion of the top to remove the preventive autotransformer.

Repair of 345 kV Transformers J. L. Determan 1987 6-401

In March 1966, a bank of four 100 MVA Allis-Chalmers, 345,000 to 138,000 volt load tap changing
transformers was placed in service in our Cimarron Substation as a portion of our EHV system. These
units had arrived by rail and two transformers had shipping damage apparent on the switching reactors,
which were mounted suspended from the cover inside a compartment at one end of the main winding.

Repairs to these reactors were made under the supervision of a Factory Service Engineer. All tests were
satisfactory and the bank was placed in service on April 1, 1966.

Repair of 765 kV Current Transformer M. D. Loy 1989 6-3.1

This paper outlines problems experienced with porcelains cracking on several 765 kV Current
transformers. It also outlines steps taken to remove and replace porcelains and to process and test the units
after repairs were completed.

Reblocking and Reclaiming of Transformer Coils M. Y. Lau 1989 6-9.1

During the past few years, B. C. Hydro has had the opportunity to check the integrity of coil clamping in
12 transformer units with suspected faults or shipping damage. A majority were found to have very little
or inadequate coil clamping pressure. Coils in eight units were reclamped on site. This paper describes the
method employed and experiences gained in reclamping of the units.

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Discussion R. L. Barker 1989 6-9.1A

Discussion A. Marquez 1989 6-9.1B

Discussion W. J. McNutt 1989 6-9.1C

Discussion W. McDermid 1989 6-9.1D

A. Glodjo
M. Dudar

Closure M. Y. Lau 1989 6-9.1E

Power System Trouble-Shooting by Remote Visual R. D. Sansom 1990 6-8.1

Inspection Using Videoendoscope A. W. Simms

This paper gives an introduction to Video Technology and gives a visual display of the use of Video
Probe in power system equipment.

8.1.55 McGraw-Edison
Problems with McGraw-Edison Type 550-B and Doble Client Committee 1982 6-301
on Transformers
550-C Load Tap Changers

This paper describes two clients’ experiences with McGraw-Edison Type 550 Tap Changers. Included in
the report are several problems experienced by each, along with manufacturers’ solutions.

Discussion G. A. Wilson 1982 6-301A

Discovery and Field Repair of McGraw-Edison 115 kV B. H. Davison 1987 6-201

NLTC Problem

Using DGA, this utility detected an incipient problem in a 1971 vintage transformer, and, by monitoring
DGA on a decreasing time interval, kept it in service until acetylene amounts approached criticality.
Internal inspection revealed carbonization and sludging on one phase of the NLTC caused by a problem
recognized by the manufacturer in 1972.

Successful design alterations of all models were made at that time, and field repairs were made to existing
EHV NLTCs then in service, but not to lesser rated transformer NLTCS. The problem now has appeared
in 115 kV NLTCS. Successful field repairs were made and the unit is back in service.

8.1.56 Metal-in-Oil
Location of Incipient Transformer Faults by Metal in Oil J.E.Skog 1980 6-601
Analysis J.B.Digiorgio
F.Jokob
T. J. Haupert

Fault gas analysis is an important tool in determining if incipient faults exist inside a transformer.
Location and determination of the severity of the fault becomes a new challenge. This paper describes
Puget Sound Power and Light Company’s experience in meeting the challenge by utilizing metal-in-oil
analysis.

Update on Metal-in-Oil Analysis as it Applies to T. V. Oommen 1984 6-401

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Transformer Oil Pump Problems

The technique of metal-in-oil analysis was applied for the identification of metal bearing particles and
how it relates to pump wear problems. Pump bearing wear generates particles containing copper, lead,
zinc and other components of the bearing material. Analysis of the particles for these metals was
accomplished by atomic absorption spectroscopy with a sensitivity at the parts per billion level. Copper
levels above 20 ppb are considered significant, and a wear problem is suggested as a possibility. Early
diagnosis of wear problems by the present techniques is a definite advantage over other methods which
detect such problems only at an advanced stage.

8.1.57 Mobile Substation

The following six papers were presented during the 1964 6-101 to
Symposium on Mobile Substation Maintenance Practice 6-601

Introduction to Symposium on Mobile Substation P. L. Bellaschi

Maintenance Practices

Mobile Substation Maintenance Program J. M. Upperman

Mobile Substation Maintenance Program H. E. Stockwell

Mobile Substation Maintenance Program A. J. Devereaux

Mobile Substation Maintenance Program M. F. Mason

Utilization and Maintenance Practices for Mobile W. E. Shoulders

Substations

Large Portable Spare Transformers for Present-Day P. L. Bellaschi 1977 6-901

EH/EHV Systems

This report presents and discusses the more recent technical developments in the design, testing, and
application of portable spare transformers for present-day high-voltage and extra-high-voltage systems.
Inasmuch as they provide the necessary spare requirements for the transmission-transformer banks of the
system, they are the largest portables built so far, attaining ratings of 50 MVA, 100 MVA, and more
recently even up to 400 MVA. Transportability and ease of installation are some of the prerequisites. The
thermal rating is 65°C rise with supplementary 75°C rise to attain additional load capacity. These and
other basic considerations and corresponding design-acceptance tests are presented and discussed in the
report.

8.1.58 Moisture - See Drying, Failure, Power Factor

8.1.59 Monitoring
Tennessee Valley Authority’s Application of the Hydran R. D. Sparks 1986 6-401
20IR On-Line Hydrogen Monitor to 500 kV Current J. H. Turney
Transformers

This paper includes a brief description of the test program undertaken to prove the applicability of the
technology to current transformers and an overview of the actual installations. The operation and
performance of the Hydran 201R instruments is also discussed.

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General Discussion 1986 6-401A

Online Monitoring of Freestanding Current B. W. Arp 1987 6-701

Transformers at Tennessee Valley Authority J. R. Boyle
H. B. Cummings

Continuous On-Line Hydrogen-in-Oil Monitoring D. H. Grant 1987 6-1201

W. McDermid
(A Progress Report) J. F. Millward

Papers concerning Manitoba Hydro’s experience with on-line hydrogen-in-oil monitoring were presented
at the 1983 and 1985 Conference. Since that time, data have been accumulated on the long-term stability
of these sensors based on annual end-to-end response tests. Some modifications have been necessary to
improve the durability of the sensor. In addition to the application previously described, the same
monitoring equipment is being retrofitted to a group of fault-prone power transformers. Some preliminary
data are available on these installations.

Discussion R. J. O’Brien 1987 6-1201A

Transformer Monitoring and Protective Devices D. F. McNulty 1988 6-9.1

For over 40 years, QualiTROL accessories have been used on transformer tanks and bushings, tap
changers, conservator systems, voltage regulators, etc. Many of the devices are physically and
functionally quite similar to their original concept while others have gone through several evolutionary
phases based on changing market needs and product improvement programs. This paper will trace
temperature, pressure, level, and flow devices from introduction to current configurations in addition to
taking a quick look at future directions.

The Development of an On-Line Transformer D. L. Johnson 1990 6-4.1

Performance Analysis System

This paper reports on the development of an instrumentation system to monitor, in an on-line mode, the
condition and performance of large power transformers. Basic research and development of sensors and
functional algorithms was done at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) between 1984 and 1988.
In 1988, the eight sponsoring utilities contracted with Harley to produce prototype and field
demonstration units for trials on operating transformers. These units monitor current, voltage,
temperature, water-in-oil, hydrogen-in-oil, and partial discharge. Measured values are compared to
predicted values, and deviations are analyzed with significant differences reported. The Transformer
Performance Analysis System can be interrogated, through a modem, from remote locations.

Transformer Performance Analysis System (TPAS) Abel J. Pereira 1992 6-15.1

TPAS is an on-line monitor developed by J. W. Harley, Inc. based on advanced technology of transformer
monitoring. A prototype unit was installed on a transformer at BPA’s Troutdale Substation. This paper
relates EPA’s experience with transformer monitoring.

Evaluation of Monitoring Methods Applied to Christopher Boisseau 1993 6-5

Pascal Tantin
Instrument Transformers

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Oil-filled paper-insulated instrument transformers on the high-voltage system of EDF have a

comparatively low failure rate, yet the violent nature of most failures presents risks to other apparatus,
and, more importantly, to personnel. This paper presents information on a joint investigation, conducted
by EDF and instrument transformer manufacturers, which sought to evaluate several methods of
continuous on-line monitoring that will detect insulation defects that could progress toward failure of the
transformer.

Monitoring of oil-dissolved hydrogen, the gas volume above the oil, internal pressure, power frequency
current through the insulation, loss factor, and partial discharges each can provide information on the
condition of the insulation system. A long duration, true scale experiment was performed on units in
which a dielectric fault had been created, and that were equipped with various monitoring devices. The
response of the different monitoring devices, and their ability to detect the evolution of the defects, are
analyzed and summarized in the paper.

Discussion Roger A. Sarkinen 1993 6-5A

Discussion David Train 1993 6-5B

General Discussion 1993 6-5C

8.1.60 Neutral Reactors

Neutral Reactors: A Means of Reducing the Risk of M. L. Johnson 1982 6-201
Transformer Short-Circuit Failure

This paper summarizes Consumer Power Company’s three year in-house study which: (1) identified
power transformers on the transmission system which were inherently vulnerable to short circuits and
most likely to fail, (2) evaluated possible solutions to the problem for both technical and economic
suitability, and (3) recommended neutral reactors for weak system transformers and generator step-up
units.

Since installation of neutral reactors, Consumers Power Company has experienced no short-circuit failure
of any large power transformer.

8.1.61 North American

Multiple Failures of North American 230-36.5 kV. 84 Ronald L. Barker 1991 6-11.1
MVA Transformers Due to a Generic Design Deficiency

Virginia Power purchased seven 84 MVA, 230/36.5 kV, North American transformers in 1987 on the
same order. Subsequently, four have failed and all seven units were returned to the factory to be rebuilt.
This paper describes the generic problem and the factory redesign.

Discussion William J. McNutt 1991 6-11.1A

8.1.62 No Load Tap Changers - See Tap Changers

8.1.63 Oil Processing - Also Refer to Drying, Dissolved Gas in Oil
Transformer Dry-Out and Oil Processing, Update L. B. Baranowski 1986 6-601
B. T. Baranowski

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Experiences of vacuum drying of transformers in plant and field are reported along with latest techniques,
including checking enclosures for vacuum integrity. Cryogenic cold traps and interstage traps are
discussed. Applications of fuller’s earth for mobile and stationary plants are described, as well as
instrumentation for total water and gas content.

8.1.64 Oil Pumps - Also Refer to Air Bubbles

Problems with Large Canadian General Electric W. J. Fernihough 1974 6-1001
Transformers at Churchill Falls

This paper will discuss the following problems encountered at Churchill Falls: (a) gassing because of
shipping pins, (b) gassing because of improper installation of flux shield, (c) circulating ground currents
in the core clamps, (d) explosion of a 735-kV CGE Type U bushing, and (e) failure of a cooling oil pump
bearing.

Unique Hazardous Operating Condition Revealed by J. L. Parker 1977 6-701

J. H. Sterling
Routine Doble Test

At Indiana and Michigan Electric Company’s Tanners Creek Generating Plant, a routine Doble test was
performed on a generator step-up transformer. This test alerted us to perform an immediate internal
inspection and cleaning as well as oil pump maintenance.

8.1.65 Overexcitation
Failure of a Transformer from Overexcitation M. D. Coughlin 1967 6-501

This paper describes failure of a generator transformer following overexcitation (30%) of the generator
for 45 minutes; the transformer failed approximately one day after the excitation had been reduced.

Overexcitation of a Large Generator Transformer A. H. Locke 1968 6-501

Upon opening a 240-MVA, 138-kV generator step-up transformer, evidence of overheating was
discovered. Investigation of possible causes revealed overexcitation during four startups. This is discussed
as well as resulting damage, malfunction of alarm indicators, and remedial measures.

8.1.66 Partial Discharge

Evaluation of Acoustic Sensors for Partial Discharge Pamela C. Odam 1991 6-8.1
Detection

As a result of three 500 kV current transformer failures, a method of identifying suspect units was
investigated. Partial discharge detection using acoustic sensors was believed to be one of the most
promising methods.

Three commercially available acoustic detector systems were evaluated for effectiveness in detecting
partial discharge in 500 kV current transformers. It was found that all three acoustic sensors to a greater
or lesser degree were capable of detecting partial discharge.

The paper presents the results of comparative tests on these units.

Partial Discharge Tests of Transformers in the Field Maurice Frydman 1992 6-17.1

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This paper describes the test techniques and results of two induced potential tests performed in the field
by the Bureau of Reclamation.

Discussion David Train 1992 6-17.1A

Use of DGA and Acoustic Devices to Detect and Locate Peter L. Austin 1992 6-18.1
Faults in a 588 MVA Generator Step-Up Transformer

A 588 MVA generator step-up transformer had been operating for a number of years with an incipient
fault which had been accepted as a nondeteriorating thermal fault. In 1989, a small but steady increase in
acetylene raised concern that a change had occurred or a new fault had developed. Ultrasonic discharge
detection and location equipment was used and some possible sources located. In 1989, before the unit
could be inspected, a gas alarm occurred which was subsequently found to be another fault; however,
through DGA monitoring, the transformer was safely operated at a reduced load until it could be taken out
of service for inspection. Three separate faults were found during the internal inspection.

Discussion Olivier Cohard 1992 6-18.1A

Michel Tudrej

Discussion Eugene Kallaur 1992 6-18.1B

Discussion William B. Wallace 1992 6-18.1C

8.1.67 PCBs
Retrofilling and Testing of PCB Containing T. Brown 1981 6-601
Transformers

This paper presents test results obtained following the retro-filling of transformers with Dow Corning
Silicone, RTE, RTEmp and mineral oil. Data is also presented following the use of RTE, EPAC-O and
EPAC-R.

Reclassification of PCB and PCB-Contaminated H. C. Manger 1985 10-101

Transformers

This paper defines under what conditions PCB and PCB-contaminated transformers may be reclassified.
It includes a listing of provisions included in approved EPA methods.

Fire Involving PCB Transformers - Further Regulations

- Managing the Risk

This paper includes a list of amendments proposed by the EPA to be added to the August, 1982, Electrical
Equipment Use Authorization for PCB Transformers.

Also included are: a listing of potential costs resulting from any fire involving PCBS, a listing of
suggested procedures or priorities to undertake if an incident occurs.

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Replacement of PCB Transformers R. K. Kump 1985 10-301

This paper deals with the fact that the Environmental Protection Agency presently does not require the
removal and replacement of PCB-filled electrical equipment before the end of its useful service life.
Many utility, industrial and commercial companies have initiated projects to replace all their PCB
equipment, primarily transformers and capacitors. A retrofit project becomes much more complicated and
more risky when the project involves high rise buildings located in the downtown areas of large cities.
Why and how projects of this scope have been approached and executed is discussed, and steps owners
and users of PCB equipment have taken are explained and studied.

Classification and Application of PCB Alternate Fluids - K. Linsley 1985 10-401

Confusion or Progress

With the introduction of less flammable askarel replacement fluids, there was a clear need for new safety
standards, listings, and codes. This paper discusses the overall reliability, safety. and performance
requirements for modern transformer installations and the practical use of standards, listings, and codes in
the selection, installation, and use of small power transformers. Areas of future work that could result in
improvements in these areas are discussed.

Artificial Intelligence Techniques Applied to R. I. Lowe 1985 10-601

Transformer Oil Dissolved Gas Analysis

This paper summarizes the use of computers for screening gas-in-oil measurements using a software
package where values or limits are present by experts. This Expert System was undertaken to improve
Hartford Steam Boiler’s loss prevention program and to enhance productivity and efficiency.

Simulating Building Fire Study Using Retrofilled W. H. Martin 1985 10-801

Transformer Dielectric Coolant

The potential for Dioxin and furan contamination from transformer dielectric coolant is discussed in this
paper.

EPA Update: Fire Rules R. K. Kump 1986 10-201

This paper presents a summary and update of the EPA rules regulating PCB transformers, especially the
impact of the new Fire Hazard Rule (July 1985). The EPA has determined that certain high risk
transformers must be removed by 1990 and that others must have fault protection by that date. Other
aspects of retro-filling and retrofits are also addressed by the author.

Reclassification of Askarel Transformer (PCB to Non- R. A. Letourneau, Jr. 1987 10-101

PCB) Employing Transformer Service, Inc.

This paper discusses Transformer Service, Incorporated’s method for reclassification of “Askarel”
transformers. This process, known as System 50sm was performed on several Public Service of New
Hampshire’s transformers located in generating stations. The paper focuses on the results of the process
rather than the actual process itself, although this also is covered.

Discussion M. J. Massey 1987 10-101A

Status of EPA’s Rules and Regulations Concerning H. C. Manger 1987 10-201

PCBS

This paper provides an update on the PCB regulations.

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General Electric’s Non-Sodium Process for Chemically C. L. Caccio 1987 10-301

C. W. Horneck
Decontaminating Mineral Oil Dielectric Fluid

The chemical destruction of PCB contaminated oil has been proven as a viable alternative to high
temperature incineration. General Electric Company has developed and patented a safe, economical,
nonsodium chemical destruction system utilizing potassium hydroxide and polyethylene glycol which
destroys PCBs in oil. This system is now being commercialized.

This paper describes GE’s new mobile chemical destruction system which is to be housed in a self-
contained, 48-foot trailer complete with all support and safety systems. GE’s new system will be made
available for commercial use in the second quarter of 1987.

EPA PCB Spill Cleanup Policy and Rule Update H. C. Manger 1988 10-10.1

PCB Transformer Scrapping R. K. Kump 1988 10-11.1

PCB transformers removed from service for disposal must be sent to a licensed chemical waste landfill
for burial. With the added cost of preparation and transportation, this is a very expensive proposition for
the transformer owner.

The landfilling requirement could be eliminated if a method of cleaning the transformer components
could be developed which consistently cleaned the metallic and nonmetallic parts to a prescribed EPA
cleanup standard.

This paper describes the development and testing of a transformer cleaning system which uses a
nonchlorinated, nonhazardous cleaning process to remove the PCBs from the internal parts of PCB
transformers.

EPA Rule Update and Review of EPRI PCB Projects H. C. Manger 1989 10-9.1

An Update of the Hazard Communication Standard G. J. Lepinski 1989 10-18.1

D. J. Kucharski

On November 5, 1985, the Hazard Communication Standard 29 CF 1910.1200 went into effect directed
primarily towards the manufacturing sector (SIC Codes 20-39), distributors, and importers of chemical
products. The scope of OSHA’s HCS was expanded in 1987 to include employers in the non-
manufacturing sector. The paper will present current interpretations from the side of OSHA and that of
actual nonmanufacturer as related to the 1987 OSHA HCS expansion.

1990 Update of EPA Rule Concerning PCBS H. C. Manger 1990 10-7.1

Update PCB Rules H. Carl Manger 1991 10-7.1

Why Not Retrofill PCB Transformers? Dana S. Myers 1991 10-8.1

Joseph J. Kelly

Discussion Michael F. Mattes 1991 10-8.1A

Mark N. DeDecker

Discussion Ronald K. Kump 1991 10-8.1B

Discussion Murray D. McMahon 1991 10-8.1C

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Discussion David W. Sundin 1991 10-8.1D

Discussion William H. Martin 1991 10-8.1E

Closure Dana S. Myers 1991 10-8.1F

Joseph J. Kelly

Update of PCB Rules and Regulations H. Carl Manger 1992 10-7.1

General Discussion 1992 10-7.1A

Device to Rapidly Determine the Outline of a Spill of Gilbert Addis 1992 10-8.1
PCB, Mineral Oil, or Their Mixtures

The EPA requires rapid response in PCB spill cleanup. This paper discusses a device based on UV
fluorescence developed by Battelle, Columbus Labs for EPRI. The device permits scanning a spill area
and rapidly determining the outline when it is not visible to the eye. This results in a rapid response time
and a saving of costly and time-consuming statistical sample analysis. Progress of the cleanup also can be
monitored minimizing removal and disposal of excess material.

PCB-Substitute Fluids: New Choices for an Old David W. Sundin 1993 10-6
Problem

Since the production of PCB-containing fluids was discontinued, several dielectric fluid options have
emerged. Each option has its own set of positive and negative characteristics, and it is up to the individual
user to weigh these differences and decide between the alternatives. Engineering practices as well as
regulations regarding PCB-containing dielectric fluids vary in different countries; these determine the
range of substitutes that are available. With the increasing globalization of the electric power industry,
however, most of these alternatives are available in any specific geographic region. This paper examines
the most popular options and discusses their relative characteristics with respect to electrical properties,
physical traits, and use with switching operations, maintenance, and environmental fate.

General Discussion 1993 10-6A

8.1.68 Partial Discharge

Partial Discharge Test Applied to Two 500 kV, 100 A. F. Teles 1986 6-101
MVA, Autotransformers Repaired at the Boa Esperanca E. L. S. Mello
Power Plant E. M. Cavalcanti

This paper describes the tests applied to two Hitachi, 500/3 - 230/3 - 13.8 kV, 100 MVA,
autotransformers which were repaired at the Boa Esperanca Power Plant. Those Units stopped operating
because the 13.8 kV windings were damaged by a short circuit during service.

After the repair, the manufacturer and CHESF agreed to make two tests at nominal voltage, partial
discharge, and no-load loss. The paper shows the arrangement made for the tests and describes the results
obtained.

Field Repair of Two 500 kV, 100 MVA, E. M. Cavalcanti 1986 6-201
R. J. Carmo
Hitachi Autotransformers

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This, paper describes the field repair of two single-phase 500 kV, 100 MVA, Hitachi autotransformers
which failed during operation due to an external short circuit on the delta connection of the 13.8 kV
tertiary of a 300 MVA bank. The repair consisted of a complete dismantling of the equipment in order to
replace the two damaged tertiary coils with new ones. Action was necessary to provide a proper
environment control in the field to guarantee the desired quality level in the operation and in the
application of materials. The two units were subjected to a drying process, and no-load partial-discharge
tests were performed with satisfactory results.

Investigation to Determine the Location of a Low T. W. Hayes 1986 6-301

Energy, Audible Electrical Arcing in a Power
Transformer

This paper recounts the procedures employed in locating the source of a low-energy, electrical arcing in a
30140150 MVA, OA/FOA/FOA 138 kV autotransformer. The diagnostic tools utilized were: gas-in-oil
analysis, electrical testing, acoustic emission instrumentation, and visual inspection.

General Discussion 1986 6-301A

Partial Discharge Tests of Transformers in the Field Maurice Frydman 1992 6-17.1

This paper describes the test techniques and results of two induced potential tests performed in the field
by the Bureau of Reclamation.

Discussion David Train 1992 6-17.1A

8.1.69 Potential Transformers

Also Refer to Instrument Transformers
Power-Factor Testing of General Electric Type JVS S. D. Darden 1987 6-801
Potential Transformers

Beginning in the late 1960s and into the early 1980s, Wisconsin Power and Light Company (WPL) has
used GE JVS-350 potential transformers designed for outdoor substation applications at 69 kV. They are
suitable for use with conventional metering, relaying, and control devices. Following several failures,
WPL began the process of power-factor testing these transformers in an effort to improve system
reliability. This paper describes the power-factor test program and the test results.

Frequency Response Determination of Current and E. L. S. DeMelo 1987 6-901

Potential Transformers

This paper describes a method for determining the transformer ratio variations versus frequency in a
range up to 5 kHz or more. The results from this information are used in harmonic and transient signal
measurements. The results of several on-site tests are shown. and CT, CVT, and PT frequency response
diagrams are provided.

8.1.70 Power Factor, Insulation Test

Also Refer to Askarel, Oil Pumps, Power Factor Versus Temperature, Shield Problems,
Carbonization
Step-Voltage Regulator Power-Factor Tests R. E. Clark 1962 6-501

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The purpose of this paper is twofold: to explore the need for special test procedures for tests on step-
voltage regulators and to present an up-to-date tabulation of power factors obtained from the results of
tests performed by the Client Group on units of this type.

The Reliability of Calculated CHL Versus Direct

Measured CHL

After many tests were made, it was concluded that the determination of CHL by calculation is more
desirable than by direct measurement.

Instrument Transformer Insulation Power Factors R. E. Clark 1969 6-1301

D. J. Kopaczynski
(A Progress Report)

This article presents the latest tabulations of power-factor results obtained on instrument transformers. It
includes data for many types of transformers not previously reported, and updates data from a previous
summary in the 1964 Doble Minutes. Included are approximately 22, 100 tests on approximately 770
different types of transformers. Procedures for testing cascade potential transformers are given.

Regulator Insulation Power Factors R. E. Clark 1970 6-1601

E. J. Marottoli

A summary of power factors obtained for approximately 4100 tests performed an induction and step-
voltage regulators. This will update summaries presented at the 1958 and 1962 Doble Client Conference.

Significance of Power-Factor Measurements of Dry- R. B. Stetson 1974 6-701

Type Instrument Transformers

There is increasing interest in power factor measurements on dry-type instrument transformers. The paper
discusses design characteristics which could affect the measured power factor and comments on the
historical significant of power factor measurements on dry types. The significance of ionization testing is
also discussed.

Transformer Insulation Power Factors A. L. Rickley 1974 6-801

Modern high-voltage power transformers, properly dried, should have insulation power factors lower than
0.5% at 20°C. A recent survey of initial field tests on approximately 1600 transformer produced since
1970 indicates that manufacturers have no difficulty meeting such a specification.

Instrument Transformer Insulation Power Factors R. E. Clark 1975 6-201

R. N. Moschella
(A Progress Report)

This paper presents the latest tabulations of insulation power factors obtained on instrument transformers.
It includes data not previously reported for many types of transformers, and updates data from the
previous summary in the 1969 Doble Minutes. Procedures for testing new instrument transformers for use
with EHV equipment also are included.

Askarel-Filled and Dry-Type Transformer Power G. W. Armstrong, Jr. 1976 6-1301

Factors

A review of Doble test technique and experience on transformers other than oil-filled units. This paper
consolidates and updates previous reports and also includes new tabulations of test data.

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Voltage Regulator Insulation Power Factors R. E. Clark 1977 6-1001

E. J. Marottoli

This report updates tabulation of insulation power factors for voltage regulators presented at the 1962 and
1970 Doble Client Conferences, and makes available, in one source, power factors for approximately
5000 tests on step and induction voltage regulators.

“Insulation Power-Factor Testing on Dry-Type Power G. W. Dolchak 1978 6-1201

Transformers

This paper presents some of the experiences of the Pennsylvania Power and Light Company with 18
General Electric Dry-Type Class AA/FA transformers operating at 4160/480 volts in a delta-wye system.

Elevated Power Factor Caused by Excessive Core R. F. Casey 1979 6-401

Lamination Insulation

A 5/6.25 MVA, 22.9/4.36-kV transformer exhibited high power factor at the time of receipt from the
manufacturer. Extensive drying did not appreciably lower the power factor. Thorough examination of this
transformer by the manufacturer revealed that excessive insulation of the core laminations did not permit
effective core grounding through conventional means. Alternative means of grounding the core was
effective and the power factor decreased to a normal level.

The Effects of LTC and Core Resistors on Transformer S. H. Osborn, Jr. 1984 6-701
M. Rivers
Power-Factor Measurements

Over the years, users of Doble equipment have experienced situations in which a normal operating
condition resulted in abnormally high insulation power factors. One such condition involves the use of
resistors in the load tap changer of a power transformer or regulator. These cases were reported at the
1957 and 1962 Doble Client Conferences. The intent of this paper is to expand upon this topic and to
discuss the influences of core ground resistors on power-factor measurements.

Power-Factor Testing of General Electric Type JVS S. D. Darden 1987 6-801

Potential Transformers

Beginning in the late 1960s and into the early 1980s, Wisconsin Power and Light Company (WPL) used
GE JVS-350 potential transformers designed for outdoor substation applications at 69 kV. They are
suitable for use with conventional metering, relaying, and control devices. Following several failures,
WPL began the process of power-factor- testing these transformers in an effort to improve system
reliability. This paper describes the power-factor test program and the test results.

Insulation Power-Factor Testing on Dry Type Power G. S. Dolchak 1989 6-10.1

Transformers (A Progress Report)

This is a follow-up report pertaining to Pennsylvania Power and Light Company experiences regarding
Doble power-factor testing of 18 GE 4.16/0.48 kV dry-type/FA-AA power transformers at two steam
electric generating stations. The original paper was published in the 1978 Doble Client Conference
Minutes, Section 6-1201.

Discussion E. J. Marottoli 1989 6-10.1A

Power Factor Testing of Dry-Type Power and E. J. Marottoli 1989 6-11.1

R. Levi

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Distribution Transformers

This paper includes an update of previously tabulated power factor data in a format that provides
additional information to assist test personnel in evaluating the condition of insulation associated with
dry-type transformers.

8.1.71 Power-Factor Versus Temperature

Power Factor Versus Temperature Characteristics for R. A. Bowman 1963 6-1001
M. L. Ferguson
345-kV Power Transformers

A discussion covering base temperature and conversion factor between test and base temperature.
Considerable data is included.

Power Factor Versus Temperature Characteristics of H. J. Weber 1966

Modern Power Transformers

This paper presents the theories of power factor, behavior of components in transformer insulation such as
solid insulation - cellulose, oil duct insulation, transformer oil, and the combination, and power-factor
variation of actual transformers.

Power Factor Versus Temperature Characteristics of R. B. Kaufman 1971 6-701

Modern Power Transformers

The search for power factor-temperature relationship, which might be applied to all transformers
regardless of manufacture or design, to correct a measured power factor back to a reference temperature is
examined with reference to the 1969 Conference paper on the subject. Data on the power factor-
temperature characteristics of various insulating materials used in power transformers is shown and the
effect of the proportions of each in the structure is studied, as is the influence of residual moisture. It is
concluded that each transformer has its own power factor-temperature characteristic and if it is desired, it
should be measured on the new transformer at the manufacturer’s factory.

118 72A-2011-01 Rev. B 7/04