A Guide to CubeSat Mission and Bus Design

A Guide to CubeSat Mission and

Bus Design

cloned version August 2023

Frances Zhu
A Guide to CubeSat Mission and Bus Design Copyright © by Frances Zhu is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1

Preface

Motivation
We’ve created this open-source, free, online textbook to bring
the love and knowledge of spacecraft mission engineering to as
many people as possible. This resource is free to you because the
creators were funded through the NASA Artemis program. The
cost of a textbook or access to a formal aerospace engineering
program should not be an obstacle to your pursuit of building
spacecraft. Let’s get rid of the silly notion that you need to
be a “rocket scientist” to work stuff that goes to space. We’re
seeing the educational barrier to building satellites drop lower
and lower; middle schoolers and high schoolers have sent
satellites to space [NASA]. By including as many people as
possible in our community, we are fostering the most diverse
and creative ideas. Inclusion pushes forward our community’s
boundary of knowledge, whether that community is in your
classroom or club, in your state, in your nation, or in your world.
We hope that you find other soon-to-be spacecraft engineers and
use this textbook to craft your own spacecraft.

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2 • FRANCES ZHU

Content
This textbook will guide you through the process of designing
a spacecraft and offer you a bounty of resources through
hyperlinks. We take full advantage of the web browser platform
in the following ways:

• Online resources in the public domain; fun fact, all

NASA documentation is, which is so fitting for this
textbook!

◦ Many smart people publish quality work

and post online, outside of a traditional
textbook or paper journal platform.

◦ In the realm of academic tradition, some

scholars go above and beyond and pay for
open access – creative commons licensing
in peer-reviewed journals, which can be
upwards of a few thousand dollars! So
thank you to everyone who participates in
open science.

◦ You’ll gain direct access to the sources that

we used to write this textbook if you want
to interpret the raw material yourself or
want to delve further into the details that we
didn’t include.

• Beautiful graphics that would otherwise be too big on

a textbook page or too colorful to print through a
textbook publisher within a reasonable price.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 3

• Video lectures that you would get in a lecture on a

university campus but watched at your own pace and
edited to lengths that are easily digestible.

• Interactive content assessments through the

Pressbooks platform. Tests of knowledge help engrain
knowledge so complete these even when no one is
watching. You could go one step further and see if
you really know the content by teaching it to someone
else.

• Lab modules and tutorials around the Artemis

CubeSat Kit. If you have the CubeSat Kit, you have a
very basic spacecraft that you can assemble and send
to space right now but we really want you to play
with the spacecraft, understand it, and make it better.
You’ll get hands-on experience with space-rated
hardware by following the lab modules. The tutorials
will step through the design, development, or
validation/verification processes we had to step
through to finish the CubeSat that you’ll also have to
do to launch the spacecraft.

• Best practices and lessons learned from experienced

engineers and students, offering more practical than a
pure theory textbook.

You may still download the textbook in static forms, like a PDF,
EPUB, MOBI, XHTML, etc., but you won’t get the advantages
that this technology platform could offer. Good to have a static
version saved if you’re in a pinch or without the internet!
4 • FRANCES ZHU

How to Interact with the Textbook

If you’re reading this textbook on a web browser, you’ll have
the ability to annotate text and verify your knowledge in the
interactive content assessments. Interactive content assessments
are directly embedded into the browser and you can directly
interact with these h5p elements. To annotate the textbook, like
adding a comment or asking a question associated with portions
of text, refer to this Hypothe.is Quick Start Guide!

Comparison with Other Courses and References

A spacecraft mission design course is commonly taught at
universities with an aerospace engineering degree program,
typically at the senior level. These courses have at least a lecture
component, a student project developed on “paper”, and
sometimes, a lab component. This course cannot offer you the
campus environment, the predefined cohort of aerospace
engineering students, or the lab benches and facilities but it can
offer you a prefabricated basic satellite and basic knowledge to
start your own class or club. Following the textbook chapter by
chapter is like taking a spacecraft mission design course from
start to finish without an instructor at the front of the room.

For the course syllabi and textbook chapters I’ve been able to
find online, I’ve attempted to include as many topics as I find
relevant to cube satellite development. SMAD is a wonderful
go-to reference for a more traditional approach to designing
spacecraft. A majority of chapters hold for all spacecraft but
some chapters are not suited for small satellite or cube satellite
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 5

design. I don’t think SMAD was designed for the newer,

younger generation of spacecraft, which is fine! After all, the
latest revision of the new SMAD was in 2011, as CubeSats
started to become more common and mainstream. We can’t
ask this one textbook to cover all relevant material, so we’ve
made this reference “book” to be more applicable to smallsat
development.

With respect to other online courses, this online course includes

a comprehensive amount of reference material.

You’ll notice that this course/textbook is a hybrid of an in-

person course, a textbook, and an online course. The educational
experiences are limited in scope but accessible to many more
people. The topics are also more focused on small satellites,
aligned with the capabilities of smaller, Do-It-Yourself
aerospace engineering groups.

Prerequisites
There are no required prerequisites for this course but any bit of
background knowledge and skills helps! The more knowledge
and skills you begin with, the more easily and faster you will get
through this course. The less knowledge and skills, the more you
will have to stop and learn foundational skills to catch you up.
The benefit to starting with a clean slate is targeted learning of
only the skills and knowledge you need for designing spacecraft;
you could say that you’re an efficient learner in that sense.

Programming languages: Python, C++, C, JSON

6 • FRANCES ZHU

Software Applications: Web Browser, Microsoft Excel,

OnShape, Eagle, KiCad, VirtualBox, Vagrant, QTCreator,
CMake, Anaconda, Google Collab (if working with others)

Mathematics:

• Algebra, Trigonometry, Pre-Calculus (vectors,

matrices, series & sequences)

• Calculus (derivatives, integrals, differentials)

• Differential equations (ordinary differential

equations…)

• Linear algebra (matrices and operations)

Physics:

• Mechanics & Motion, Newton’s Laws, Energy,

Momentum, Rotation, Equilibrium, Gravitation
(orbit, Earth rotation, spherical masses, Kepler’s
laws)

• Waves and Light

• Electromagnetism

• Orbital Mechanics

Engineering Principles:

• Thermodynamics, thermal properties, heat transfer

• Electrical Engineering (circuitry, current, voltage,

conduction, magnetic fields)

• Static Systems, Dynamical Systems

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 7

• Control Systems & Algorithms, propagation

Astronomy:

• The scale of the universe

• Characteristics of the solar system, Sun, and Earth

• Conditions in space (gravitation, orbit, motion,

thermodynamics, magnetism)

Spaceflight, Space Environment, Flight Project, Operations

Other experience:

• Conduct finite element analysis and stress/loading

simulations in SolidWorks

• Reading part drawings and specification sheets

• Navigating file directories through the terminal

• Prototyping using 3D printing methods

• Using basic shop/lab tools (such as measurement

devices, screwdrivers, soldering irons, other handheld
tools, data collection)

• Using COSMOS or COSMOS-web to receive and

send commands/data for space vehicles

• Handling basic circuitry, wires, and delicate

electronics

• Using safety precautions, culture, and PPE as

necessary if working with hardware

• Seeking help amongst peers, mentors, on online

8 • FRANCES ZHU

platforms/forums, and references

• Teamwork and communication

• (See surveys, development side — not too familiar
with if any of these don’t translate to using the kit)

Our Credentials

Technical Contributors
Dr. Frankie Zhu is an assistant research professor at the
University of Hawai’i at Manoa in the Hawaiʻi Institute of
Geophysics and Planetology. She is an Associate Director of
the Hawaiʻi Space Grant Consortium. She is an affiliate faculty
member of the Hawaiʻi Space Flight Laboratory, Mechanical
Engineering Department, and Earth Science Department. She
received her B.S. in mechanical engineering, Masters, and Ph.D.
in aerospace engineering with a minor in Computer Science at
Cornell University. During her undergraduate career, she was
the Attitude Dynamics, Control, and Sensing lead for the most
agile declassified small satellite at the time. During her graduate
career, she worked on novel mission concept architecture,
fabrication of chip satellites for the KickSat2 mission, and
technology development of a superconducting docking
interface. She was involved in every mission design review
across these various projects and mentored dozens of
undergraduates in her career. She is the Principal Investigator for
the Artemis CubeSat Kit project and wrote most of the content
in the textbook.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 9

Amber Imai-Hong is an Avionics Engineer and Outreach

Specialist for the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory (HSFL). She
graduated with her B.S. in Electrical Engineering with a focus
on Electrophysics in 2012 and has been working with the Hawaii
Space Flight Laboratory on spacecraft design, development,
testing, and community educational outreach. Over the past
13 years, Amber has worked on eight satellite projects, three
suborbital payloads, as well as mentored several student teams
who worked on the development of testing spacecraft systems
and components. During her undergraduate career, she gained
experience in the On-Board Computer, Electrical Power, and
Payload systems, and was the Assistant Project Manager for
UH Manoa’s NanoSat-6 Ho`oponopono team. At HSFL, she has
continued to do avionics work and environmental testing. She
also leads HSFL’s community and educational outreach projects
and is the Program Manager for the Artemis Kit. Amber was
the technical director of the Artemis CubeSat Kit in use for
this textbook and reviewed several chapters of the textbook,
including the electrical power system and command & data
handling chapters.

Dr. Trevor Sorensen is a specialist professor and project

manager in the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory. Born in
Brisbane, Australia, Dr. Sorensen received his BS. (1973), M.S.
(1976), and Doctor of Engineering (1979) degrees in Aerospace
Engineering from the University of Kansas (KU). He did his
doctoral project on Pioneer Venus at NASA Ames Research
Center. He then was a Space Shuttle guidance and control
engineer (STS-1 & 2), worked in Mission Control as an assistant
Flight Director, and finally was a software engineering manager
10 • FRANCES ZHU

supporting Shuttle missions. In 1990 he joined Bendix Field

Engineering (now Honeywell, Inc.) in Alexandria, Virginia, as
Observations Manager of the Department of Defense’s LACE
satellite. In 1994, Dr. Sorensen was the Lunar Mission Manager
for the DoD/NASA Clementine lunar mission for which he
received the NASA Medal for Exceptional Scientific
Achievement. Dr. Sorensen was the program manager for the
$23 million Space Systems Research & Development Contract
with the Naval Research Laboratory under which the USAF
MSTI-3 satellite was operated. He was then technical director
for Honeywell’s global satellite tracking and control system,
DataLynx. Dr. Sorensen was an associate professor in the KU
Aerospace Engineering Department from 2000-to 2007. In 2007
he joined the Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory at the University
of Hawaii at Manoa. Dr. Sorensen was the author of the Space
Mission Operations chapter in the highly regarded book, Space
Mission Engineering – The New SMAD (Microcosm Press,
2011). He became tenured faculty in 2012. He is a Fellow of
the American Astronautical Society, a Fellow of the American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and from
2008-to 2014 was on the AIAA Board of Directors as the
Director of the Space and Missiles Group, which consists of 14
technical committees. Dr. Sorensen has dual Australian and U.S.
citizenship. Dr. Sorensen reviewed the introduction and systems
engineering chapters, then wrote the space environment, orbital
mechanics, and propulsion sections of the textbook.

OER Specialists
Billy Meinke-Lau is the Open Educational Resources (OER)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 11

Technologist for the University of Hawaii, supporting a system-

wide effort to leverage OER for student success, equity, and cost
reduction. Billy completed an MEd in educational technology
from UH Manoa and worked for Creative Commons before
taking his current leadership role with UH. He is also a doctoral
student of Political Science, investigating the politics of
collaborative scholarship in higher education. He lives in
Honolulu with his family.

LynleyShimat Lys is a nonbinary queer disabled poet,

playwright, essayist, and educator of Indigenous and multiracial
heritage, working on a Ph.D. in Creative Writing at UH Mānoa.
Lynley holds an MFA in Poetry and Literary Translation from
Queens College CUNY, an MA in Palestinian Poetry from the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and a B.A. in Comparative
Literature (Hebrew, Russian and English) from UC Berkeley, as
well as having won the Emily Chamberlain Cook Poetry Prize
and read in the Lunchtime Poetry Series.

Students
Kalila Phillips was born and raised in Wailuku, Hawaiʻi. After
joining her middle school’s robotics team, she decided that she
wanted to pursue a career in STEM. She spent her high school
career participating in First Robotics (FRC), First Tech
Challenge (FTC), and Vex Robotics Competitions while also
playing basketball and track and field. Prior to graduating, she
won the Hawaii STEM Conference Coral Hackathon in 2019
and the Daniel K. Inouye Innovation award. Now, Kalila is
pursuing a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering and
12 • FRANCES ZHU

exploring different engineering pathways through various

internships such as Hawaiʻi Space Flight Laboratory, Bayer,
Brown, and Caldwell.

Katlynn Vicuña was born and raised in Boston Massachusetts.

Went to Universal Technical Institute in Rancho Cucamonga,
CA receiving a degree in automotive technologies with a
specialization in Mercedes-Benz. After about a decade of
working in the field decided it was time for a career change. She
started going to Kapi’olani Community college and received an
associate’s in pre-engineering and physics. Then furthering her
education at the University of Hawaii Manoa currently pursuing
a degree in mechanical engineering with an aerospace focus.
Where she was able to participate in a plethora of space-related
opportunities and experiences. NASA Community College
Aerospace Scholars (NCAS) which is a hybrid learning
experience that teaches online how to write a Preliminary
Design Review (PDR) is a technical assessment that establishes
the allocated baseline of a system to ensure a system is
operationally effective along with an in-person experience at
Ames Research Center that was focused around a mini rover
competition. Semester and summer internship with Hawaii
Space Flight Laboratory (HSFL) helped bring this very textbook
to life. Akamai Workforce Initiative Internship Program
Summer 2020 Acceptance at the Gemini Observatory Hilo, HI.
Vertically Integrated Project (VIP) is an ongoing research and
design project with fellow undergraduates at the University of
Hawaii Manoa on the engineering and design of a spacecraft
for the satellite design team. Additionally awarded the Frank
Der Yuen Aviation Scholarship for 2021 which is a competitive
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 13

program that supports female and underrepresented individuals

that are Hawaii residents who want to pursue aviation-related
education and training. Additionally, a Brooke Owens
Fellowship Finalist for the class of 2022 and has an ongoing
internship with Lockheed Martin in Littleton, Colorado focusing
on assisting in the lunar rover, propulsion analysis, and lunar
infrastructure.

Lee Danielle Young was born and raised in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi.

She earned a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering from
the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa in December 2020. Since
participating in her high school’s FIRST robotics team, she spent
her undergraduate career exploring various mechanical,
aerospace, and civil engineering projects while interning at the
Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory, Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope, and an engineering consulting firm. During her
studies, she also held various leadership roles in the Society
of Women Engineers (SWE), and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and was the Project Manager
for her senior capstone project to design the 1U CubeSat, Ke Ao.
Danielle contributed to the Artemis CubeSat Kit lab modules
and activities development as an educational accessibility intern
in her senior year and after graduating. In her free time, she
enjoys relaxing with her pet lovebirds, dog & cat sitting, rock
climbing, traveling, and volunteering in the SWE/K-12 STEM
community.
14 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 15

Introduction

authored by Dr. Frankie Zhu with contributions and edits from

Dr. Sorensen

Let’s answer key questions of who, what, when, why, and how
around spacecraft to give you context. Although not strictly
technical information, the context makes for a good engineer/
scientist. We’ll review an abbreviated history of spacecraft, the
major players in the aerospace sector, technology and science
that can only be conducted in space, the definition of spacecraft,
and how to generally build spacecraft (introduction for the rest
of the textbook).

Learning Objectives

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16 • FRANCES ZHU

• Answer key questions of who, what,

when, why, and how around spacecraft to
give you context. Although not strictly
technical information, the context makes
for a good engineer/scientist.
• Review an abbreviated history of
spacecraft, the major players in the
aerospace sector, technology and science
that can only be conducted in space, the
definition of spacecraft, and how to
generally build spacecraft (introduction
for the rest of the textbook).

Introduction Chapter Outline

Learning Objectives

1.1 When? (Past, Present, Future)

1.2 Who? (Major Players)

1.3 Why? (Applications)

1.4 What? (Spacecraft Definition)

1.5 How? (The General Design Process)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 17

1.1 When? (Past, Present,

Future)

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=5#oembed-1

17
18 • FRANCES ZHU

The launch of STS-1, the first orbital space flight. Photo credit: NASA
or National Aeronautics and Space Administration

History

The spacecraft design is riddled with space heritage: (1)

heritage related to the process of carrying out science in space;
(2) heritage related to manned space flight/exploration; and (3)
human cultural heritage that remains off the surface of ‘planet
Earth’ [ICOMOS-IAU Thematic Study no. 1 (2010)]. In this
course of designing satellites for space, the first connotation is
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 19

most relevant to us: “What has flown successfully before?” As

spacecraft engineers, a brief history of how aerospace became a
field of study, a symbol of military dominance, and the
commercial sector will help you understand how we got here
and where we are going. This sector now retains immense
inertia from its history, making future trends rather predictable.

Hypatia of Alexandria: A Classical Age Female Scholar by Mark Miller.

Image Courtesy of Historic Mysteries. A 1908 depiction of Hypatia by
Jules Maurice Gaspard. Image courtesy of Historic Mysteries

We, as a human species, have long dreamed of going to the

stars. Our longing to explore space is inextricably linked to
astronomical observations, documented famously by Ptolemy,
Aristotle, Copernicus, and Galileo. Historical female
20 • FRANCES ZHU

astronomers often worked under the name of their male family

members or mentors with little public recognition include
Theano of Crotone, Hypatia of Alexandria Egypt, nuns
Hildegard of Bingen and abbess Herrad de Landsberg, Sophia
Brahe, Maria Cunitz, Catherina Elisabetha Koopman, Maria
Margarethe Kirsch, Caroline Herschel, Madame Lepaute, Mary
Fairfax Somerville, Maria Mitchell, Williamina Fleming, and
Henrietta Swan Leavitt [Dobrosavljevic-Grujic]. International
events leading to space exploration pre-20th century include
telescope observations, theorizing the rocket equation, and
proposing the space elevator [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 21

Destination Moon: A 70th Anniversary Appreciation by Paul Gilster.

Image Courtesy of Centauri Dreams. This is the poster of the movie
“Destination Moon”

A golden age of science fiction played a huge role in

22 • FRANCES ZHU

inspiring and proposing innovative, sometimes scientifically

feasible, ideas to explore space [Questia]. “Science fiction
stories and films such as George Pal’s Destination Moon’
(written by Robert A. Heinlein) helped to convince the
taxpaying public that space flight was not only possible but
desirable from both a political and economic point of view”
[Moskowitz]. US’ Goddard (yes, the Goddard that NASA
Goddard Spaceflight Center is named after) filed US patents on
multistage and liquid-fueled rockets in 1914 [Wikipedia],
developed theoretical methods to reach extreme altitudes with
rockets [Goddard] in 1919, and launched his first liquid-fueled
rocket. Much of Goddard’s progress resided amidst the times of
World War I. In 1923, Germany’s Oberth self-published his
doctoral thesis “By Rocket into Planetary Space” with the
subsequent formation of the Society for Space Travel (Verein
für Raumschiffahrt) established in 1927, focused on space
travel with rockets. The USSR (current-day Russia) founded the
Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel in 1924, focused on
rocket and orbital mechanics.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 23

View from outer space of the sun rising over Earth, illuminating the
atmosphere in a ring of blue. Image Courtesy of NASA

World War II was a major catalyst in progressing rocket

technology as the US, German, and USSR governments pooled
their resources to develop missiles. The wealth and productivity
of a single inventor or group of scientists pale in comparison to
the wealth and urgency of a nation in wartime. The first
spaceflight (first crossing of the Kármán line) in history was
achieved on June 20th, 1944 by the V-2 rocket under the
direction of Nazi Germany and Dr. Wernher von Braun. Upon
the resolution of World War II, von Braun surrendered to the
Americans in Bavaria, and “for fifteen years after World War II,
Von Braun worked with the U.S. Army in the development of
ballistic missiles” [NASA]. With the strategic capture of the
leading rocket expert of the world (and many other German
specialists), the US began to dominate unprecedented aerospace
achievements from 1946 to 1956: first space research flight,
first pictures of Earth from 105 km, first animals in space (fruit
flies), the first two-stage liquid-fueled rocket with an altitude
24 • FRANCES ZHU

record, and the first rocket to pass the Thermopause and enter
the Exosphere [Wikipedia]. The US established the Redstone
Arsenal in Huntsville, AL, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in
Pasadena, CA under military pretenses, which ultimately
became the first centers of NASA.

Launch of V-2 May 10th, 1942. Image Courtesy of This Day in Aviation

The Cold War began in 1947, fostering an ideological tension

that led to the technological arena for competition: the Space
Race. Both the US and Soviet governments had prioritized the
development of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs),
which is another way of saying weaponized rockets, ultimately
won by the USSR with the R-7 mission. The demand for
intelligence gave rise to overhead reconnaissance programs,
which began as U-2 overflights but transitioned to
reconnaissance satellites. Thus began the race to send the first
satellite to space, which was ultimately won in 1957 by the
USSR in their launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 25

and the first biological spacecraft, Sputnik 2. In response, the

US formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
NASA, and just three months later, launched their first satellite,
Explorer I, into orbit.

Refer to the infographic to see an early history of satellites

that illustrate unprecedented missions and the entrance of other
nations in sending their first satellites to space.

The chart of cosmic exploration. Image by Info Grades.

The next obvious title to seize was the first human spaceflight,
won by the USSR for sending the first cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin
to space. Not even a month later, NASA sent Alan Shepherd to
space. The decade of 1960 saw the first solar and interplanetary
satellites and probes, the rise in geosynchronous
communications satellites, but prominently featured advances
in human spaceflight around the moon. The USSR had the Luna
missions and the US had the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo
26 • FRANCES ZHU

missions. Apollo 8 released the famous Earthrise photo. The

most famous lunar mission, Apollo 11, sent the first human to
the Moon’s surface and saw the first launch from a celestial body
other than the Earth. We also returned 22 kilograms of moon
samples, contributing heavily to the planetary science field. In
subsequent missions between 1969 and 1972, the Apollo
missions returned 382 kilograms of lunar rocks, core samples,
pebbles, sand, and dust from the lunar surface. For various
reasons, the USSR failed to dominate the race to the moon
despite its very early and promising progress [Zak]. US spending
(and arguably activity) peaked during the Apollo program
[Wikipedia] and although Roscosmos’ historical budget is
unavailable over time, the Soviet defense budget increased
steadily during this time to surpass the US defense spending
[Nintil].

In the 1970s, the narrow lunar focus broadened to

incorporate the other planets. First, to our nearest neighbors
Venus and Mars, then, to Jupiter and Mercury. In 1975, we saw
the formation of the European Space Agency and surprising
collaboration between the USSR and USA in the first
multinational manned mission, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project,
amidst the ongoing Cold War. NASA continued the attitude of
international collaboration with Germany’s DLR on Helios 2
and ESA and the UK’s SERC on the International Ultraviolet
Explorer toward the end of the decade. NASA also made an
unprecedented successful planetary surface landing on Mars,
sending back the first photos from the surface of Mars through
Viking Lander.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 27

First photos from the surface of Mars in 1976. Image courtesy of NASA

The 1980s saw the rise of persistent space structures (first

reusable crewed orbital spacecraft, first infrared and microwave
observatories, first consistently inhabited long-term research
space station), more sophisticated interplanetary missions (first
balloon on another planet Venus, first Uranus, comet, and
Neptune flyby), and the first spacewalks (first untethered
spacewalk and first spacewalk by a woman). The last Soviet
Union missions were flybys of Halley’s comet, Vega 1 and
Vega 2, in 1986 before the collapse of the USSR in 1991,
ending the Space Race definitively. In 1986, America suffered a
devastating loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger, a formative
memory of the US space program. Challenger hosted many
cultural firsts: first American female astronaut, Sally Ride, first
African American astronaut, Guion Bluford, and first Asian
American astronaut, Ellison Onizuka (from Kealakekua,
Hawaiʻi!). Although American attitudes shifted towards a net
positive assessment of the benefits and costs of space
exploration [Miller], the space shuttle program would change
drastically to reduce the effectiveness of the program by
exerting extreme caution: no more civilian launches, satellite
launches shifted from the space shuttle to reusable rockets, and
astronauts no longer tasked with risky spacewalks [Howell].
28 • FRANCES ZHU

An illustration of the trajectories of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. Image

credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Voyager 1 has left the solar system (Voyager exited the sun’s
influence in 2012) and with Voyager’s collected imagery, the
first photograph of the whole Solar System can be formed at the
start of 1990. As the result of a NASA/ESA collaboration, the
Hubble Space Telescope is installed and is still currently in
operation, well known both as a vital research tool and as a
public relations boon for astronomy. NASA injects the first
spacecraft into Jupiter’s orbit and successfully lands the first
operational rover on another planet, Mars. Japan contributes the
first orbital radio observatory. Although not the first detection
of an exoplanet, the first confirmed published discovery of an
exoplanet is in 1992 by Canadian and Polish scientists [A.
Wolszczan & D. A. Frail]. Russia reenters its efforts in space by
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 29

recording the longest duration of spaceflight. Russia, the USA,

Europe, Japan, and Canada participate in the first multinational
space station and largest artificial object built-in space to date,
the International Space Station; a terrific end to the millennium.

The Hubble Space Telescope. Launched in April 1990. Image courtesy

of NASA

Modern-day history, from 2000 onwards, does not break as

many technological records in quick succession as many
technological firsts have been accomplished in early history.
Russia seems not to participate in record-breaking, although
they continue to offer crewed space support for the ISS. NASA
and ESA capture the spacecraft firsts for the remaining major
celestial bodies: first orbiting of an asteroid, first orbit of
Saturn, first soft landing in the outer Solar System, the first
orbit of Mercury, the first orbit of dwarf planet Ceres, and first
flyby of the dwarf planet Pluto. The US starts prioritizing
30 • FRANCES ZHU

sample return missions, like solar wind particles and comet

samples, and the identification of exoplanets through the Kepler
space telescope. Japan contributes the first sample return of an
operational rover on an asteroid. Many innovative space
missions remain unmentioned, like instruments on the ISS or
the multiple missions to the Moon and Mars, as they do not
break records but generally, the recent trend for spacecraft
technology is to accommodate ambitious science missions and
payloads. We also see a rise in commercial space dominance
around rockets, distributing the responsibility of spacefaring
from governments to private companies. Finally, we see the
lightning-fast entrance of the Chinese government in sending
spacecraft to the far side of the moon with Chinese space
agency budget implications toward even more space
involvement.

Although most of the noted space history was achieved by a

handful of countries, citizens from over 41 countries have
flown in space. Many failed spacecraft and follow-on missions
were not listed due to precedence; a full list may be found on
Wikipedia. A Solar System exploration timeline organizes a
subset of the unprecedented missions that were specifically to
Solar System bodies while appending successor missions.
Although most missions are associated with the space agency
and country of origin, many aerospace businesses and
academics contributed to the overall progress of spaceflight,
which will be described in detail in the major players (who?)
section.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 31

Present and Future

The majority of American ongoing spacecraft missions are

Earth-observing satellites, payloads on the ISS, Solar System
spacecraft, solar missions, and universe observing
observatories. Many of the Solar System spacecraft are Mars-
centric but some noteworthy spacecraft outside Mars are Juno,
an orbiter around Jupiter that is the farthest spacecraft from the
sun to derive power solely from the sun, the Rosetta Orbiter,
OSIRIS-REx, and the still transmitting interstellar Voyager
missions. A particularly exciting form factor is the rise of small
satellites for real NASA missions, including but not limited to
MARCO, MinXSS, and RainCube.

Juno Missionentered the orbit of Jupiter on July 4, 2016. It was launched

to study the gas giant Jupiter. Image couresy of NASA/JPL

Satellites have been getting progressively smaller as

technology advances. The main trends include more capable
and reliable commercial-off-the-shelf microelectronics devices
32 • FRANCES ZHU

while miniaturizing the volume and minimizing mass

[Sweeting]. Although an iPhone is magnitudes more capable
than the Apollo command module [Kendall], small satellites are
not going to replace large satellites, rather complement and
open up new mission paradigms [Sweeting]. Instead of placing
state-of-the-art instrumentation on a large satellite that is
constrained to a single measurement at a specific place and
time, small satellite missions allow the deployment of a
multitude of spacecraft with less capable sensors but more
distributed observations over many places simultaneously. This
paradigm shift distributes capabilities, risk, and cost, resulting
in lower barriers to entering space.

Small satellite missions became immensely popular with the

standardization of cube satellites [CubeSat 101]. ‘Professors
Jordi Puig-Suari of California Polytechnic State University and
Bob Twiggs of Stanford University proposed the CubeSat
reference design in 1999’ without the intention of setting a
standard [Wikipedia]. Instead, ‘Twiggs set out to find “how
much could you reduce the size and still have a practical
satellite”’ and formed a modified Orbiting Picosatellite
Automatic Launcher, called the Poly-Picosatellite Orbital
Deployer (P-POD). The reliability and wide adoption of the P-
POD and CubeSat standard along with Twiggs’ efforts on
CubeSats from educational institutions bring us to today’s
popularity of the CubeSat form for small business and
educational programs, like the Artemis Student Challenges
program that funds the development of this course. Although
cube satellite development was originally intended for graduate
students, this course lowers the barrier of entry to space even
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 33

lower to undergraduate level education. After prolonged

involvement with Mars, NASA is refocusing on building
infrastructure on the Moon to support future human exploration
and ultimately send the first woman to the surface of the moon
with the Artemis program.

The Discovery and Preparation of Cubesats. Image courtesy of

European Space Agency.

Future NASA missions include astronomical observatories

(Euclid, Webb, WFIRST), adventurous celestial body missions
(Dragonfly, Europa Clipper, JUICE, Lucy, Psyche), and more
ambitious CubeSat missions (TROPICS, SunRISE, Q-PACE,
LunaH-Map, CUPID). Every decade, the National Academy of
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducts surveys in the
field of Astrophysics, Planetary Science, Heliophysics, and
Earth Sciences. Typically, these surveys are accompanied by
strategies and foci moving forward to answer the highest
priority science investigations.
34 • FRANCES ZHU

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1.2 Who? (Major Players)

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Since the origin of spacecraft technology, the government has

had a huge role in funding technological progress for immense
nation-scale endeavors. The US government controls NASA
centers, government labs (civil and defense), and in part,
federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs).
The other entities that exist in the aerospace sector include
academic institutions and privately owned businesses.

NASA has ten centers distributed across the US to execute

NASA’s programmatic vision. The earliest centers were born
from aeronautical research, like Langley Research Center, Ames
Research Center, John Glenn Research Center, and Armstrong

35
36 • FRANCES ZHU

Flight Research Center. Briefly mentioned in the history section,

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory was started by a group of Caltech
students and initially funded by the Army to continue their
rocket research. The Marshall Space Flight Center was also
initially funded by the Army under the name of Redstone
Arsenal. Upon the creation of NASA, these centers were
absorbed into NASA. NASA created the Goddard Space Flight
Center, Stennis Space Center, Johnson Space Center, and
Kennedy Space Center. The larger organization also controls
minor facilities, like the Wallops Flight Facility, Deep Space
Network, White Sands Test Facility, and the Infrared Telescope
Facility. These centers interact the most with spacecraft (before,
during, and after launch), manage large contracts, and conduct
some in-house research. These centers include mission control
centers, launch facilities, huge experiment testbeds, and clean
rooms.

Location of NASA’s Centers and Facilities. Image courtesy of NASA.

Government agencies outside of NASA include a suite of

federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs),
military research centers, and intelligence agencies Department
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 37

of Defense, National Reconnaissance Office, National Oceanic,

and Atmospheric Administration, Department of Energy,
Federal Aviation Administration, National Science Foundation,
Federal Communications Commission, United States Geological
Survey [the balance]. FFRDCs are “public-private partnerships
which conduct research for the United States Government”, like
Sandia Labs, MIT Lincoln Labs, Lawrence Livermore. Their
involvement with space missions differs from NASA due to
their more limited involvement, developing technologies or
subsystems without integrating the whole system. Department
of Defense labs “are the foundation for research to support our
nation’s defense”; the most pertinent labs that do aerospace
research are the Air Force Office of Science Research, Air Force
Research Lab, Naval Research Lab. (Who knows what’s going
to happen with the Space Force?) Although the DoD does fund
research toward science objectives, the space missions are more
focused on defense applications and employers may require
varying levels of security clearance. Intelligence agencies
include the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, National
Reconnaissance Office, and National Security Agency. The
general sentiment of defense and intelligence agencies is that
they are well-funded and can progress technologies more
aggressively. An example of this gap in advancement is NRO’s
donation of Hubble-quality telescopes to NASA in 2012. The
general word-of-mouth without definitive validation is that the
defense side of aerospace is at least a decade ahead of civilian
aerospace (NASA).
38 • FRANCES ZHU

The role of academic institutions is to educate/train an aerospace

workforce and conduct research. Pictured are our partners at Maui CC.

The role of academic institutions is to educate/train an

aerospace workforce and conduct research. Aerospace
engineering as a field of study was first formalized in 1914 at
the University of Michigan. Much of the aerospace engineering
curriculum overlaps with the mechanical engineering
curriculum; “aerospace engineering is just high-speed, variable-
pressure, safety-critical mechanical engineering”. From the most
recent US News ranking, only 65 universities in the US list
aerospace programs, which include sub-space. There are 637
ABET-accredited US universities. In that intersection, 10
percent of ABET schools have aerospace programs. Many states
(24 out of 52 states and territories) do not have an aerospace
program in their state. With the rise in digital platforms, there are
several online courses or video series that delve into aerospace
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 39

engineering. Academic institutions do not have as advanced

facilities but retain experts in research fields that mature
technology and science at a more basic, foundational level. Work
is done at the university rarely sees spaceflight, as much work
is needed to mature technologies beyond basic research, but
university small satellite teams are ever more prevalent, some of
which do successfully reach space.

Aerospace companies in leaders in Countries & Companies Leading the

Aerospace Industry Into the Future. Image by Industry tap into the news.

Aerospace businesses often act as contractors or tiered levels

of subcontractors, where some larger businesses subcontract to
smaller businesses. These contracted activities include products
with established processes and rarely include research, although
some large companies host research and development groups.
The commercial sector of the aerospace industry is the most
volatile sector over time as the companies are heavily subject
to economic winds. This volatility is characterized by waves of
40 • FRANCES ZHU

company creation during wartime and economic prosperity, then

a succession of mergers during economic depressions, like any
industry.

In 1903 The Wright brothers “Wright Flyer” makes its first flight at
Kitty Hawk, NC, on December. 17, 1903. Image courtesy of
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.

American aerospace businesses began as aeronautical

businesses, originating from the Wright brothers’ licensing to
companies to build their airplanes. The title of the first aerospace
business is debatable, but a list of the first companies that have
persisted over time are Gallaudet (the ancestor of General
Dynamics), Burgess Company and Curtiss, Thomas Brothers,
Loening Aeronautical, Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company,
Glenn Martin Company, L-W-F Company (Lowe, Willard &
Fowler Engineering Company), Boeing, and Loughead
(Lockheed) [US Centennial of Flight Commission]. These
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 41

companies boomed during World War II built upon the VJ Day

resolution, but after the military canceled all orders on aircraft,
some aircraft companies tanked [Bugos]. Aerospace companies
had to adapt to the technological advances in World War II and
the needs of the Cold War, such as long-range strategic bombers
(Boeing B-47), high-speed high altitude experimental aircraft
(Bell X-1), guided missiles (Raytheon, Sperry, and Hughes), and
jet engines (McDonnell Aircraft and Lockheed). The Aerospace
Corporation, Space Technology Laboratories of TRW Inc., and
Lockheed Missiles and Space dominated the ICBM programs.
After the Cold War, the US Congress significantly decreased
defense spending, leading to many great aerospace business
mergers, particularly in the 1990s. The “Great Merge” produced
what is colloquially called the “Big Five” now: Lockheed
Martin, Boeing, Raytheon, Honeywell, and Northrop Grumman.
The modern aerospace business zeitgeist has been coined,
NewSpace, likely inspired by the Silicon Valley startup culture,
billionaire philanthropists, and monotonically decreasing low
barriers to space. Of the current players, the biggest private
companies are XPrize, Bigelow, Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin,
United Launch Alliance, and SpaceX. A majority of these
businesses focus on getting people and spacecraft into space, but
notable satellite or technology companies include Planet Labs,
Made in Space, Paragon, Tethers Unlimited, and Honeybee
Robotics.
42 • FRANCES ZHU

Sankey Diagram of Major Players in the Aerospace Field. Image

courtesy of Katlynn Vicuña with Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.

In 2020, the DoD received 14.1 billion USD to invest

specifically in the space domain and NASA as a whole received
22.6 billion USD. In 2018, Aerospace Corporation estimated
that the US industry output for space systems totaled 39 billion
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 43

USD and provided 148,700 jobs [2019 Facts and Figures].

Nearly all funding for these three sectors (government labs,
academia, and private businesses) derives their funding from
taxpayer dollars, typically funneled through NASA and the
DoD. Some aerospace companies bring in revenue by selling
satellite data (Planet Labs), relaying communications
(DirecTV), or exporting parts (Arconic). Most aerospace jobs
still reside in manufacturing with the least common aerospace
job in research [US Bureau of Labor Statistics].

To navigate your career in aerospace, my advisor once said

that the most influence/power flows down from the government
to academia and government labs, and finally to the different
levels of contractors. Mobility in career follows the same
trajectory in which an initial career in the government will set up
more opportunities to work in a government lab or contractor;
valid for any other institution upstream moving downstream.
The institutions downstream want to know how funding
decisions are made upstream so that they can secure the largest
chunk of money flowing down the tiers. Outside of a pure
government job, the same direction of flow holds for researchers
pursuing basic research moving more easily into more applied
research. Unfortunately, the money flows in the opposite
direction; contractors get paid the most and government
employees the least. If you’re curious, like me, about the
experience in each type of institution or want to have the most
options open through your career, aim upstream while you are
young and presumably don’t need the money as much.
44 • FRANCES ZHU

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1.3 Why? (Applications)

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“The stars are calling and we must go” ~ Michael Watkins

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46 • FRANCES ZHU

Nagin Cox systems engineer for National Aeronautics and Space

Administration. Image credit: NASA/Dan Goods

Space takes a lot of money and a lot of effort so the reasons

for going to space must be compelling. Let’s get the intangible
yet compelling justifications out of the way first. The notion of
space instills a sense of pride and curiosity at every scale of
our society, as an individual level, a country, a world. We have
been looking at the heavens since the beginning of time and have
wondered what’s out there. We want to be the best as individuals
and as societies, building upon the progress of our predecessors
while standing out from them [Griffin]. Some of the urge to
explore space is to scratch these emotional itches and inspire
the next generation. Regardless, there exist plenty of reasons to
justify spending a quarter of a penny of every US Congressional
budget dollar on space exploration [Hawking].

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“Why we should go to space” by Stephen Hawking. Video courtesy of NASA.

Humanity’s justifications for space exploration are rooted in

self-interest and in curiosity. If there’s one basic instinct that
persists throughout all life, it is survival. Humans will become
extinct at some point in the future, but by becoming a
spacefaring civilization, we can prolong the inevitable. By
staying on Earth, we are guaranteed extinction upon the Earth’s
expiration date. Still, even before leaving Earth, humans must
worry about the possibility of near-Earth objects (NEOs) that
enter our atmosphere and cause a premature mass extinction,
like the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. By progressing
space technology, we can deflect or redirect NEOs; NASA has
a planetary defense coordination office dedicated to this topic!
The final big-picture anthropocentric justification is the scarcity
of resources on Earth that may be augmented by space resources
[Wertheimer]. Asteroid mining is speculated to bring in trillions
of dollars by bringing in achondrites (precious metals), which
are rich in platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium,
palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum) used in high-
performance electronics [Glester]. Other space resources include
water and solar power.
48 • FRANCES ZHU

The Basics of Near Earth Objects (NEOs). Image courtesy of NASA/

JPL

Our curiosity leads us to use space as a medium to

demonstrate the technology and advance science otherwise
unachievable on Earth. Technological advancements may also
be mixed with self-serving goals, such as satellite
communications, direct broadcast, navigation, and surveillance
[SMAD]. Some technologies take the advantage of the gravity-
free environment, such as space manufacturing and hyper-
efficient propulsion. Science data from satellites help us monitor
the weather or combat climate change. Earth-observing satellites
must orbit in space to sweep over large expanses of Earth’s
surface and atmosphere (remote sensing) or collect in-situ
measurements of atmospheric gases. A partial list of space
system classifications includes communication, positioning and
navigation, weather, remote sensing, and launch [Weigel].
Astronomy, astrobiology, and planetary science are
predominantly sciences for the sake of knowledge. As we
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 49

mature into a spacefaring civilization, these sciences will

become more pragmatic.

The Submillimeter Array of radio telescopes at night. Located on Mauna

Kea. Image by Steven H. Keys with Keys Photography.

Astronomical questions are addressed with space-based

telescopes and observatories, which avoid atmospheric
aberrations to achieve the clearest view of planets, stars, and
galaxies. Clarity begets hypersensitive measurements that can
detect exoplanets. Earth’s atmosphere absorbs much infrared
and ultraviolet light so we must send telescopes into space to
specifically observe these wavelengths. Some observatories are
placed farther than just low-Earth orbit to escape the
atmosphere; the James Webb Space Telescope will orbit the sun,
a million miles away from Earth at the second Lagrange point to
use the Earth as a sun shield [NASA].
50 • FRANCES ZHU

Various satellites on space, Moon, and Mars missions (2020). Image

courtesy of NASA.

Planetary science missions strive to better understand the

history of our solar system and the distribution of life within it
[NASA]. These missions have visited every planet and a variety
of small bodies in our Solar System. The morphology these
spacecraft have taken includes orbiters, probes, and rovers, with
considerable efforts dedicated to Mars and future efforts
dedicated to returning to the Moon. “NASA’s robotic explorers
gather data to help scientists understand how the planets formed,
what triggered different evolutionary paths among planets, what
processes have occurred and are active, and how Earth among
the planets became habitable. In searching for evidence of life
beyond Earth, scientists use these data to map zones of
habitability, study the chemistry of unfamiliar worlds, and unveil
the processes that lead to conditions necessary for life. With
this knowledge, NASA is enabling safe and effective human
missions to destinations beyond low Earth orbit” [NASA].
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52 • FRANCES ZHU

1.4 What? (Spacecraft

Definition)

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A human and a spacecraft are similar in a lot of ways. The human

anatomical parts are compared with the spacecraft components. (Click
here for a larger image)

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 53

A spacecraft is a “vehicle or device designed for travel or

operation outside the Earth’s atmosphere” [Merriam-Webster].
Spacecraft are commonly separated into seven engineering
subsystems (Structure, Attitude Determination & Control,
Onboard Data Handling, Communication, Power, Thermal,
Propulsion) and a Payload.

The spacecraft bus supports the payload and may be broken down into
eight potential subsystems. Image courtesy of HSFL.

Structure & Mechanisms

◦ For large spacecraft, structures,

mechanisms, and/or ordnance are often
treated as separate subsystems.

◦ Provides structural support to spacecraft

components and spacecraft configuration.

◦ Provides mechanical support for moving

54 • FRANCES ZHU

spacecraft elements (e.g., deploying and

moving solar arrays, booms, or antennas).
◦ Provides ordnance for separating or
deploying movable components (usually,
ordnance is explosive in nature, e.g.,
explosive bolts)

The Soil Moisture Active Passive satellite has a large antenna boom that
supports a large antenna. Image courtesy of JPL/NASA

Electrical Power Subsystem

◦ Supplies the spacecraft with the power

required to sustain bus and payload
operations.

◦ Provides excess power that may be stored

(in batteries) for later use.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 55

◦ All spacecraft must at least generate and

distribute power.
◦ For most spacecraft that do not venture
beyond the orbit of Mars, power generation
is usually accomplished via solar cells.

Space Shuttle Electrical Power System System

Diagram. Image by Space Shuttle Guide.

Command, (Telemetry, &) Data Handling

◦ Receives, validates, decodes, and

distributes commands to spacecraft
systems.

◦ Gathers, processes, formats, and records

spacecraft housekeeping telemetry and
payload data for downlink and/or use by the
onboard computer (OBC).

◦ All spacecraft must handle commands and

data, even Sputnik, that had to send 1’s and
0’s across electronics to blink its light.
56 • FRANCES ZHU

Image courtesy of Trevor with HSFL

Communications/RF

◦ Receives command data transmitted from a

ground/space-based communications
antenna.

◦ Transmits telemetry data (containing

spacecraft health and payload data) to
ground/space-based receiving antennas.

◦ All spacecraft must communicate with its

operators; Sputnik blinked lights to know it
had survived in space.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 57

Artist’s concept of Voyager in flight. Image courtesy of NASA, JPL

Attitude, Determination, Control, and Sensing

◦ Senses changes in spacecraft orientation/

stability.

◦ Controls spacecraft or component (e.g.,

antenna or sensor) orientation as required to
support payload/spacecraft pointing
requirements.
58 • FRANCES ZHU

The layout of the Kepler Space Telescope, including its 4 reaction

wheels. Image courtesy of NASA Ames / Ball

Thermal (Monitoring &) Control

◦ Maintains satellite components within

required temperature limits by monitoring
and heating/cooling components as
required.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 59

Radiators on the ISS, shedding excess heat. Image Courtesy of NASA

Propulsion

◦ Stores and converts the potential energy of

onboard propellant(s) into the propulsive
energy needed to exert a required force(s)
on a satellite.
60 • FRANCES ZHU

An example of architecture from the mid-2010s

of a human spaceflight mission to Mars, as
envisioned by the United States space agency by
NASA. Image courtesy of NASA.

Environment Control & Life Support

◦ Provides control of the spacecraft

environment to support human and other
required life forms by supplying oxygen,
food, and potable water; maintaining
comfortable temperatures; and removing,
cleansing/ recycling waste products
(gaseous, liquid & solid).

◦ Thermal Control is sometimes included in

the ECLSS.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 61

The International Space Station water recovery component of the

Environmental Control and Life Support System. Image courtesy of
NASA.

“Space bus” is a visual comparison of components of a spacecraft to a

school bus. Image courtesy of Understanding Space: An Introduction to
Astronautics by Jerry Jon Sellers
62 • FRANCES ZHU

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1.5 How? (The General Design

Process)

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The verification and validation model is broken down into different

phases of the design cycle. Created by Dr. Frankie Zhu of HSFL.

A useful systems engineering model for the spacecraft

lifecycle is the “V-model” or “V&V process”. The process
begins on the top left with stakeholder analysis, then moves
down the definition and design process: system/mission
requirements definition, system architecture/subsystem
performance decomposition, tradespace exploration/
design solution, and component development. Along the design
process, the team must pass the system requirements review
(SRR), preliminary design review (PDR), and critical design
review (CDR) [NASA Systems Engineering Handbook]. When
verifying and validating that the design meets the requirements
and the stakeholders will be happy, the verification and
validation process includes component performance analysis,
subsystem performance analysis, system performance analysis,
and mission operations. Along the way, the team must pass the
system integration review (SIR) and flight readiness review
(FRR). Although this diagram looks very linear, the design
process is iterative and should include various loops returning
the design team to earlier stages of the design process when
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 65

incompatibilities are identified. This textbook will cover the

intricacies of the design process by describing spacecraft design
drivers, the role and design of each subsystem, and best
practices for the design process.
66 • FRANCES ZHU

Design Review Expectation

• System requirements have been

System
completely and properly identified and
Requirements
that a mutual understanding between
Review (SRR)
the government and contractor exists.

• Preliminary design meets all system

requirements with acceptable risk and
within cost & schedule restraints.
• This shows that correct design options
Preliminary have been selected & interfaces
Design Review identified
(PDR)
• ~10% of the detailed design has been
completed.
• Establishes a basis for proceeding
with detailed/final design.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 67

• Detailed design is expected to meet

requirements with adequate margins at
an acceptable level of risk.
• High confidence exists in the product
baseline & adequate documentation
exists (or will exist in a timely
manner) to allow proceeding with
Critical Design fabrication, assembly, integration, and
test.
Review (CDR)
• ~90% of the detailed design has been
completed.
• Does the design “close”?
• In plain language, the design is
essentially complete and ready to
move into the fabrication/assembly
phase.

• SIR is conducted at end of the final

design phase and before the systems
assembly, integration, and test phase
• SIR ensures the system is ready to be
integrated
• Interfaces have been verified against
System the interface control documentation
Integration • Segments, components, and
Review (SIR) subsystems are available & ready to be
integrated into the system
• Verify that all assembly & integration
facilities are ready & available
• Think in terms of, “Are we ready to
begin assembly & integration of the
vehicle?”
68 • FRANCES ZHU

• Examines tests, demonstrations,

analyses, and audits that determine the
Flight-Readiness overall system (all projects working
Review (FRR) – together) readiness for a safe and
successful flight/launch and for
subsequent flight operations.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 69

2. Systems Engineering

authored by Dr. Zhu

Learning Objectives

• Associate how the process of systems

engineering will relate to your own
process throughout the semester, in
program phases, and schedule milestones
• Analyze how the design drivers
become mission requirements to system
requirements to subsystem requirements
to component requirements
• Relate different project management
tools to the systems engineering process

69
70 • FRANCES ZHU

• Scheme how you could design a

mission around the Artemis CubeSat Kit

Systems Engineering Chapter Content

Learning Objectives

2.1 Program Phases (Context for the Design Phase)

◦ NASA’s Big Programs

◦ Cube Satellites

◦ The Scope of This Design Course

2.2 The Systems Engineer

2.3 Requirements

◦ Defining Requirements

◦ Artemis CubeSat Kit Requirements

Example

◦ Product Breakdown Structure

◦ Artemis CubeSat Kit Subsystem

Requirements Example

◦ Requirements Verification Matrix

2.4 Products of Design Reference Missions

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 71

◦ Concept of Operations

◦ Space Systems Architecture

2.5 Project Management Tools and Documents

◦ Technology Readiness Levels

◦ Interface Control Documents

◦ System Block Diagrams

◦ Work Breakdown Structure

◦ Gantt Charts

◦ PERT charts

◦ Mass and Power Estimation

◦ Cost Estimation

◦ Schedule Estimation

2.6 Decision Analysis Tools

2.7 Managing Risks

◦ Risk Tracking

◦ Hazard Analysis

Suggested Activity
72 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 73

2.1 Program Phases

Chapter written by Dr. Zhu

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
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epet302/?p=50#oembed-1

73
74 • FRANCES ZHU

NASA’s Big Programs

Suggested Reading

Suggested reading in NASA systems engineering

handbook is Chapter 3.0-3.9, NASA Program/Project
Life Cycle.

A spacecraft mission design course will prepare you for the

“formulation phase” of a NASA project life cycle. The whole
project life cycle gives a more informed understanding of the
subsequent implementation phases that might affect the
technical design outside of technical specifications, such as ease
to integrate or operate. A good systems engineer considers the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 75

entire life cycle in the seemingly short window of design

formulation. The figure below is comprehensive for a large
spaceflight mission, but a small satellite mission may reduce the
number of reviews to adjust for an abbreviated program cycle
with a quicker turnaround time. The formulation phase includes
Phase A: Concept and Technology Development and Phase B:
Preliminary Design and Technology Completion.

NASA Life Cycle overview. Space Systems Engineering Principles of

Space Systems Design. By the University of Maryland. Image Courtesy
of NASA.
76 • FRANCES ZHU

NASA Formulation Overview. Space Systems Engineering Principles of

Space Systems Design. By The University of Maryland. Image courtesy
of NASA.

From the previous EPET 301: Space Science Instrumentation

course, you should be familiar with potential science missions
that drive a space mission. The preliminary analysis includes
defining the payload, proof of concept analyses, and “build or
buy” decisions [Akin]. Pre-Phase A concept studies include a
“broad spectrum of ideas and alternatives for missions [for
which activities include] determining the feasibility of the
desired system, developing mission concepts, drafting system-
level requirements, assessing performance, cost, and schedule
feasibility, and identifying potential technology needs and
scope”. This phase may include a peer review, called the Mission
Concept Review. Assuming that the concept studies resulted
in a clear set of questions, methods, and solutions within a
feasible schedule and budget, we may begin Phase A: Concept
and Technology Development.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 77

An Overview of the Mission Design Process.The NASA Engineering

Management Council (EMC). By Dr. Michael G. Ryschkewitsch. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Phase A should produce a fully developed baseline mission

concept that responds to the program expectations,
requirements, and constraints. In this planning phase, we should
ensure that the “project justification and practicality are
sufficient to warrant a place in NASA’s [or your targeted funding
agency’s] budget”. To do so, refer to NASA’s decadal surveys,
strategic plans and roadmaps, and the taxonomy report. Detailed
products from this phase include a final mission concept,
system-level requirements, needed system technology
developments, and program/project technical management
plans. Typical activities include developing baseline top-level
requirements and constraints including internal and external
interfaces, developing engineering units for high-risk concepts,
allocating system requirements to functions and to the next
lower level, validating requirements, and identifying risks. The
design is peer-reviewed in separated or combined a system
78 • FRANCES ZHU

requirements review (SRR) and a mission design review (MDR)

for compliance, which results in returning to refine the baseline
concept or moving onto Phase B.

Phase B aims to “complete the technology development,

engineering prototyping, heritage hardware and software
assessments, and other risk-mitigation activities”. Detailed
products include a system structure and preliminary designs for
each system structure end product. Typical activities include
identifying one or more feasible preliminary designs including
internal and external interfaces, selecting a preliminary design
solution, developing an operation plan on matured ConOps,
improving fidelity or models and prototypes used in evaluations,
and developing preliminary plans (Orbital Debris,
Decommissioning, Disposal). The design is peer-reviewed in the
preliminary design review (PDR), which results in a return to the
preliminary design process or progression to Phase C.

Project Phase C establishes a final design for fabrication and

software development. These efforts refine the preliminary
design to an explicit definition of all the components with
compatible internal and external interfaces. Typical activities
include fully maturing preliminary designs, fully documenting
the final design and developing data package, defining
interfaces, developing baseline plans for later phases, and
fabricating the product. The design is peer-reviewed in stages at
the critical design review (CDR) and system integration review
(SIR), which results in refining the design, procedures, and plans
or progression to Phase D, the final phase before launch.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 79

Cube Satellites

NASA CubeSat Launch initiative. Image courtesy of NASA

Cube satellite projects are smaller than typical NASA

projects, require fewer team members, and follow compressed
timelines. From 2011, the NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative
“provides opportunities for small satellite payloads built by
universities, high schools, and non-profit organizations to fly on
upcoming launches” and wrote a stellar CubeSat 101 Handbook.
80 • FRANCES ZHU

CubeSat101 Basic Concepts and Processes first-Time CubeSat

Developers NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative For public release. Image
courtesy of NASA

The CubeSat project timeline “can vary depending on the

launch vehicle selected and what you are trying to accomplish
with your CubeSat” but generally follows:

1. Concept Development (1–6 months)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 81

2. Securing Funding (1–12 months)

3. Merit and Feasibility Reviews (1–2 months)

4. CubeSat Design (1–6 months)

5. Development and Submittal of Proposal in Response

to CSLI Call (3–4 months)

6. Selection and Manifesting (1–36 months)

7. Mission Coordination (9–18 months) – Once this

phase begins, a schedule will be provided by the
integrator that will dictate hardware and
documentation delivery dates, essentially providing
the completion dates for the subsequent phases.

8. Licensing (4–6 months)

9. Flight-Specific Documentation Development and

Submittal (10–12 months)

10. Ground Station Design, Development, and Testing

(2–12 months)

11. CubeSat Hardware Fabrication and Testing (2–12

months)

12. Mission Readiness Reviews (half-day)

13. CubeSat to Dispenser Integration and Testing (1 day)

14. Dispenser to Launch Vehicle Integration (1 day)

15. Launch (1 day)

16. Mission Operations (variable, up to 20 years)

82 • FRANCES ZHU

How the potential phases of a project come together. By CubeSat 101

Basic Concepts and Processes for First-Time CubeSat Developers.
NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative. Image courtesy of NASA.

The main difference between a large NASA mission and a

CubeSat mission is the proposal selection for full development
occurs after the spacecraft is significantly designed on paper.
The NASA programs assume that a launch is secured prior to
significant design work and only upon catastrophic program
failure along the way, a launch is lost. Cube satellite programs,
as a result, are commonly bootstrapped by self-motivated
engineers and don’t always make it to launch. Some cube
satellite programs are lucky enough to be funded upfront and
developed in-house by NASA or have venture capital funding
raised, like PlanetLabs. As of May 31st, 2018, 855 CubeSats had
been launched [Villela et al.]. CSLI has launched 66 CubeSats
and selected 162 CubeSats for free launches, a significant
portion of all CubeSat launches [Crusan & Galicia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 83

The Scope of This Design Course

Common cost associated with developing a CubeSat. By CubeSat 101

Basic Concepts and Processes for First-Time CubeSat Developers.
NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative. Image courtesy of NASA.

Most spacecraft design courses expect students to design a

spacecraft from the NASA Pre-Phase A to Phase B, ending their
design at a preliminary design review phase. From the CSLI
phase list, the scope of most courses is to cover Steps 1 to 4.
We hope to push further into aspects of NASA Phase C or CSLI
Step 10 by offering hardware and software that demonstrate
spacecraft functionality in verification and validation through
lab modules.

The general process of designing a spacecraft from Pre-Phase A

to Phase B is listed in steps [the New SMAD]:

1. Defining Mission Objectives

In this class, we will assume that your team has come

up with mission objectives. This should be the case if
you took EPET 301: Space Science Instrumentation. If
84 • FRANCES ZHU

you haven’t come up with a mission yet, do take time

to explicitly define your goals before moving on. The
goal can be as simple as recreating the simplest satellite
possible: Sputnik, a spacecraft that beeps in space. If you
have access to space scientists, collaborate with them on
a more compelling mission! In the CSLI timeline, this is
the beginning of the concept development phase

2. Involving Principal Players

We will assume your principal players are with you; they

are your fellow classmates (engineering and science),
your faculty mentor, and interested volunteers. Be sure
you define roles in your team to be explicit about
responsibilities. We’ll review the role of a systems
engineer and program manager in the following section.

3. Evaluating Program Timescales

From the CSLI phase timeline, the concept development

and CubeSat design usually take 1-6 months for each
phase but are not strictly defined, unlike the larger NASA
programs. For this class at UH Manoa, we will constrain
CubeSat concept development and design phases to one
semester but for those at home, feel free to take your
time! You won’t have to adhere to a strict timeline until
after you secure a launch.

4. Estimating Preliminary Mission Needs,

Requirements, and Constraints

This part of the concept development and CubeSat design

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 85

is covered in the requirements and design reference

mission product sections.

5. Choosing Pieces of the Mission Architecture

A section of this chapter discusses the flow down of

requirements to other subsystems. The other chapters in
the textbook will delve into each subsystem’s roles,
designing to requirements, and choosing satisfactory
components. These chapters will be particularly useful to
subsystem specialists and leads.

6. Resolving Interfaces of Pieces in the Mission

Architecture

The project management tools section of this chapter

discusses interface control documents and system block
diagrams, which assist systems engineers in ensuring a
cohesive system between the subsystems. Each
subsystem chapter will discuss interconnectivity between
and impacts on the other subsystems.

7. Defining System Drivers and Critical Requirements

This part of the concept development and CubeSat design

is specifically covered in the requirements verification
matrix and managing risks section. Each subsystem
chapter will expand upon specific subsystem drivers and
critical requirements.

8. System Trade Studies and Performance Assessments

86 • FRANCES ZHU

This part of the concept development and CubeSat design

is covered in the decision analysis tools. Each subsystem
chapter will expand upon specific trade studies and the
rigorous analyses necessary to assess performance.

9. Evaluating Mission Utility and Figures of Merit

Outside the scope of this course, internal and external

reviewers will evaluate how well the design met the
mission (requirements verification matrix) and how
compelling your mission is (design reviews and CSLI
proposal selection). We will assist with the mission
design but selling your project to CSLI is outside the
scope of this course. To apply to CSLI, make sure to
find a mission that contributes to NASA’s strategic plan,
adhere to CSLI proposal guidelines and deadlines.

10. Defining the Baseline Mission Concepts, Revising

Requirements, and Evaluating Alternatives

This final step is essentially a regathering of the design

and reflection of which parts of the system design need
iteration. Requirements may be revisited. Alternative
components may be selected. The design process is
iterative so commonly, the team will return to step 4
to reassess requirements, component selection, and
reevaluate the design.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 87

Launch of ELaNa-II from Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA on December

6, 2013. Four CubeSat Missions were deployed. Image courtesy of
Corkery/ULA.

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epet302/?p=50
88 • FRANCES ZHU

2.2 The Systems Engineer

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from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=52#oembed-1

For projects that are too large for a single person to handle
in their head, the field of systems engineering is to formalize
the development of large, complex systems, typically run by
teams [Akin]. Systems engineering offers a rigorous, systematic
approach to organization and record-keeping, first introduced in
the 1950s for ICBM development for failure-critical missions.
As spacecraft missions are failure-critical, the spacecraft
program life cycle follows a rigorous and systematic timeline
with explicit definitions of progress.

NASA is an enormous entity with inertia, maintains central

organization, and publishes documents publicly, making NASA

88
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 89

standards widely adopted in spacecraft systems engineering.

NASA has created a reference handbook for systems
engineering, intended to “provide general guidance and
information on systems engineering that will be useful to the
NASA community”.
90 • FRANCES ZHU

Figure __: Difference and commonality in roles between systems

engineer and project manager.NASA Systems Engineering Handbook
by Steven R. Hirshorn Chief Engineer, Aeronautics Research Mission
Directorate (ARMD). Image courtesy of NASA. [NASA]

We will reference and even paraphrase this handbook heavily

and highly recommend a detailed reading of the handbook for
deeper discussions of the system engineering process. For the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 91

fundamentals in systems engineering, the suggested reading is

Chapter 2 of the NASA systems engineering handbook, only 14
pages long. The next paragraphs are a summary.

Systems engineering tasks include “design, realization, technical

management, operations, and retirement of a system”, or the
entire system’s life cycle [NASA]. A systems engineer is a
technical manager, who focuses on the interfaces between
subsystems, evaluates system-level performance, and makes
“big picture” decisions. The systems engineer interfaces with
the subsystem specialists, balancing technical needs against each
other, sometimes in the face of exactly opposing requirements or
constraints. In a team environment, the systems engineer must
often navigate tense social situations, from individual egos to
high-stress team dynamics. When interacting with lead scientists
or higher-level program management, the systems engineer
supports the development of the concept of operations (ConOps)
and system architecture.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=52#h5p-86

Stephen Cox is the Launch Control Center (LCC) Manager for Exploration
Ground Systems (EGS) at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Stephen discusses
lessons learned as a project manager. The full video can be found at Launch
Control Center Project Management by Stephen Cox Launch Control Manager.
Video courtesy of NASA.
92 • FRANCES ZHU

In overall project management, the counterpart to a systems

engineer is a program or project manager, who is a separate
person for larger projects but may be merged with the systems
engineer for smaller projects. As this textbook is geared towards
undergraduate projects typically smaller in scope, the latter case
is much more likely, so we will expand upon aspects of project
management in depth in this textbook as well.

Difference and commonality in roles between systems engineer and

project manager.NASA Systems Engineering Handbook by Steven R.
Hirshorn Chief Engineer, Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate
(ARMD). Image courtesy of NASA.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=52
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 93

2.3 Requirements

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epet302/?p=64#oembed-1

Defining Requirements

Suggested Reading

Suggested readings in the NASA systems

engineering handbook are chapter sections 4.2 and
6.2. The following text is for your convenience and
is heavily paraphrased from the NASA systems
engineering handbook, which offers a more detailed
discussion.

93
94 • FRANCES ZHU

A good design is derived from good requirements. The

requirements document is “the ‘bible’ of the design and
development process” [Akin]. Systems engineers work with
stakeholders (typically principal investigators) to generate a
clear, unambiguous, numerical list of validated technical
requirements that, if achieved, will complete the program. These
requirements take into account the baselined stakeholder
expectations, baselined concepts of operations, baselined
enabling support strategies, and measures of effectiveness.
Notice each input is prefaced with baselined, as requirements
may evolve in the design process if the requirement is
impossible to meet, adheres to overly imposing constraints on
the design, or is deemed irrelevant after a design change.
Enabling support strategies are the infrastructure or resources
needed to “develop, test, produce, operate, or dispose of the end
product”. This input is one method of injecting the subsequent
product life cycle phases into the design. For your system
design, make sure you are adhering to the most conservative
requirements in the program life cycle so there will be no
surprising redesigns, especially later in the process. Measures
of effectiveness are defined by stakeholders to evaluate the
project’s success, not only in the spaceflight mission but also
through development, and are translated to measures of
performance.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 95

Technical Requirements Definition Process. by NASA System

engineering handbook. Image courtesy of NASA

The process of generating requirements with the mentioned

inputs and outputs is given in the above flow diagram. Before
defining requirements, we must define constraints, functional
and behavioral expectations. The most stringent constraints are
considered first as these constraints typically cannot be changed
and/or are non-negotiable for mission success. Softer constraints
are derived from elements that are already under design control
and help narrow potential design solutions. Other constraints
include external and enabling systems that the system must
interface within the system’s life cycle. The final considerations
for requirements are not constraints but are generated from
functional and behavioral expectations. The resulting
requirements are a combination of internally (authored by the
96 • FRANCES ZHU

design team) and externally composed requirements (adhered to

by external agencies).

Requirements can be technical or non-technical. Nontechnical

requirements may reside at the program or project requirements
level, such as human needs for manned space, user intuition in
working with a cube satellite kit, or international collaboration
when sourcing major components. Allocated technical
requirements can be defined as functional requirements (what
functions need to be performed to accomplish the objective?),
performance requirements (how well does the system need to
perform the functions?), and interface requirements (what
connections must be made to the system to perform the
functions?). Crosscutting technical requirements originate from
the nature of the space environment (like radiation, thermal,
acoustic, mechanical loads, contamination, radiofrequency),
safety, reliability, human factors, and those that originate from
the “-ilities” and from Design and Construction (D&C)
standards [NASA]. Standards (or program expectations), even
within NASA, are not consistent from center to center so make
sure you are aware of the specific standards your project must
adhere to; Goddard (GSFC), for example, has publicly posted
their own General Environmental Verification Standard, specific
to GSFC payloads, subsystems, and components and describes
methods for implementing those requirements.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 97

Verification test report forms. GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL

VERIFICATION STANDARD (GEVS) For GSFC Flight Programs and
Projects. By Chief Engineer, Director of Applied Engineering and
Technology, Director of Flight Projects, and Director of Safety and
Mission Assurance at Goddard Space Flight Center. Image courtesy of
NASA.

A requirement definition is an art form and a science.

Appendix C of the NASA systems engineering handbook
contains a checklist on how to write good requirements and
Appendix E for validating requirements (requirements for
98 • FRANCES ZHU

requirements). Bad requirements cause misunderstanding and

miscommunication between team members, leading to more
rework, schedule delays, and overrun budgets. These
requirements are used by the stakeholders to establish the
absolute minimum expectation of system function and the
technical team to work toward meeting the requirements/flowing
down the requirements to subsystems or components. For
additional information on types of requirements, requirements
databases, and the use of technical standards, refer to the NASA
Expanded Guidance for Systems Engineering document.

Expanded Guidance for NASA Systems Engineering. By Hirshorn,

Steven R. Image courtesy of NASA.

Requirements specifically made for the CubeSat form factor

were written by CalPoly SLO [CubeSat Design Specification
Rev. 14]. For your convenience, their definition of requirement
terms is as follows:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 99

1.6.1 Shall is used to denote requirements that must be

met and will need formal verification.

1.6.2 Should is used to denote a strong recommendation

or a suggestion to make formal verification of another
requirement easier. In many cases, failure to adhere to
“should” statements will limit launch opportunities.

1.6.3 Will is used to denote a situation that is going to

happen regardless of inputs from the launch vehicle and/
or spacecraft developer. “Will” statements serve to
indicate events that the spacecraft developers should be
prepared for.

1.6.4 Note is used to denote a recommendation or advice

meant to aid the CubeSat Developer

Artemis CubeSat Kit Requirements Example

The Artemis CubeSat Kit mission statement is to create 1) a

low-cost satellite kit that can be used as a space flight mission,
suborbital payload, avionics on a rocket, or as a tabletop data
collector and 2) an online course that teaches undergraduates
with no prior aerospace engineering experience the
fundamentals to designing and building a small satellite. The
CubeSat kit’s highest-level program and project requirements
are:
100 • FRANCES ZHU

System Requirements

The CubeSat kit components shall be rated for spaceflight

1.
operations

The CubeSat kit shall be low-cost and accessible to universities

2.
and private individuals

The CubeSat kit shall function as a basic spacecraft with a

3.
payload in space.

The CubeSat kit components shall at least include components

4. in educational ground kits extended to spaceflight equivalents
when the budget allows.

The CubeSat kit shall include software that is intuitive for

5.
undergraduate students

The CubeSat kit shall be accompanied by an online course and

6.
tutorials for Spacecraft Mission Design

The CubeSat kit shall be tested to meet environmental

requirements set forth in NASA GEVS for spaceflight. The
7.
end-user will be responsible for doing final flight environmental
testing set forth by their launch provider.

Suggested Reading

Suggested reading in NASA systems engineering

handbook, Chapter 4.3
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 101

Example of the Flow down Requirements. By NASA System

Engineering Textbook. Image courtesy of NASA.
102 • FRANCES ZHU

Example of the Logical Decomposition Process. By NASA System

Engineering Textbook. Image courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 103

Allocation of flow down of science pointing requirements. Image

courtesy of NASA.

In the NASA systems engineering handbook, the act of

flowing down requirements toward component selection is
called the logical decomposition process, shown in Figure 4.3-1.
After the system performance requirements are set, the
functional and performance requirements of different
subsystems (structures, ADCS, etc.) may be derived, as in
Figures 4.2-3. An example of how science pointing requirements
at the mission level flow down detailed component requirements
are shown in Figures 4.2-5.

With the goal in mind, the process to flow down requirements

begins by establishing a system architecture model, which
partitions the system into subsystem elements and defines
relationships between partitioned subsystems. This system
architecture is then functionally analyzed to ensure that the
partitioned elements when recombined contribute to the whole
104 • FRANCES ZHU

system as the system requirements intended. Functional analysis

“identifies and links system functions, trade studies, interface
characteristics, and rationales to requirements, usually based
on the ConOps for the system of interest. Three key steps in
performing functional analysis are:

1. Translate top-level requirements into functions that

should be performed to accomplish the requirements.

2. Decompose and allocate the functions to lower levels

of the product breakdown structure.

3. Identify and describe functional and subsystem

interfaces.”

The hope is that the subsystems and subsystem relationships

are explicitly defined such that each subsystem may be
developed separately from the other. The handbook promotes
“a creative, recursive, collaborative, and iterative process that
combines an excellent understanding of the project’s end
objectives and constraints with an equally good knowledge of
various potential technical means of delivering the end
products”.

For additional information on product breakdown structure and

functional analysis techniques, refer to the NASA Expanded
Guidance for Systems Engineering document.

Artemis CubeSat Kit Subsystem Requirements Example

For each high-level requirement, more detailed requirements for
the CubeSat Kit are given:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 105

1. The CubeSat kit components shall be rated for Low

Earth Orbit operations, with the option of suborbital and
tabletop

1.1 The CubeSat kit shall meet the requirements

outlined in NASA’s Launch Services Program
Level Dispenser CubeSat Requirements Document
(LSP-REQ-317.01B)

1.2 The CubeSat kit shall meet the environmental

qualification testing requirements outlined in the
Program Level Dispenser CubeSat Requirements
Document (LSP-REQ-317.01B)

1.3 The CubeSat kit shall use components that are

rated for the space environment or components
that are tested and proven to be space worthy for at
least 18 months

2. The CubeSat kit shall be low-cost and accessible to

universities and private individuals

2.1 The CubeSat kit shall cost less than $5000

USD

2.2 The CubeSat kit shall be commercially

accessible through a public domain digital
platform (website)

3. The CubeSat kit shall function as a basic spacecraft with

a payload in space.
106 • FRANCES ZHU

3.1 The CubeSat power system shall generate

power in LEO and provide sufficient power to all
other bus components

3.2 The CubeSat thermal system shall verify or

regulate that all components are within an
acceptable thermally operational range

3.3 The CubeSat ADCS system shall estimate its

position to within 100 m and attitude to within 3
degrees

3.4 The CubeSat command and data handling

system stores, processes, and routes all data for the
predefined kit components while providing margin
for the data needs of a variety of undergraduate
payload missions

3.5 The CubeSat communications system shall

transmit telemetry from LEO

3.6 The CubeSat structure shall be contained

within 1U and offer flexibility in mounting
components internally

4. The CubeSat kit components shall at least include

components in educational ground kits

4.1 The kit’s EPS components shall include solar

panels, battery, battery sensors, and a distribution
(sub)board
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 107

4.2 The kit’s thermal components shall include

sensors for the temperature sensors for the solar
panels, batteries, and other thermally sensitive
boards

4.3 The kit’s ADCS components shall include

GPS, magnetometer, estimation algorithms, and
processing (sub)board.

4.4 The kit’s OBCS components shall include an

onboard processing board and memory.

4.5 The kit’s communication components shall

include a radio, antenna, and (sub)board.

4.6 The kit’s structure components shall include

chassis walls, base plate, cover plate, and board
mounting fixtures

4.7 The kit’s software shall include plug-and-play

capability for the kit hardware, real-time
monitoring and commanding, visuals for
numerical fields and plots, and be opensource

4.8 The kit’s ground support equipment shall

include components necessary to handle and
develop the kit into a CubeSat

4.9 The kit shall include safe assembly and

disassembly instructions that are easily accessible
online
108 • FRANCES ZHU

5. The CubeSat kit shall include software that is intuitive

for undergraduate students

5.1 The CubeSat kit shall be programmable by

undergraduate students at the junior level

5.2 The CubeSat kit shall be brought from an open

box to visual plots for at least one sensor in at most
one hour

6. The CubeSat kit shall be accompanied by an online

course and tutorials for Spacecraft Mission Design

6.1 The CubeSat kit shall include demos and

tutorials to step students through from open box to
fully functioning satellite

6.2 The CubeSat kit shall include lessons learned

and best practice guidance

6.3 The CubeSat kit shall host a forum for

engineering and community support

6.4 The CubeSat course shall offer the theory in

designing all subsystems in a small satellite

7. The CubeSat kit shall be tested to meet environmental

requirements set forth in NASA GEVS for spaceflight. The
end-user will be responsible for doing final flight
environmental testing set forth by their launch provider.

7.1 All components shall undergo a vibration test

that qualifies them for spaceflight
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 109

7.2 Lithium batteries shall undergo vibration and

vacuum testing, as detailed in the NanoRacks
Battery Test Procedures Document to qualify them
for Manned Flight

7.3 All components shall undergo a thermal

vacuum test that qualifies them for spaceflight

The hardware components and software are further

defined:

Hardware Component Requirements:

3. The CubeSat kit shall function as a basic

spacecraft with a payload in space.

3.1 The CubeSat power system shall generate

power in LEO and provide sufficient power to all
other bus components

3.1.1 The solar panels shall generate a

minimum of 2.5W to charge the battery

3.1.2 The power distribution system shall

supply sufficient power to all the other
subsystems

3.1.3 The battery shall have a capacity of at

least 10Wh

3.2 The CubeSat thermal system shall verify or

110 • FRANCES ZHU

regulate that all components are within an

acceptable thermally operational range

3.2.1 All components shall operate between

0 and 50 degrees Celsius

3.2.2 The CubeSat’s estimated thermal

profile shall not exceed the 0 to 50 degree
Celsius range for an ISS orbit

3.2.3 Heaters and thermal straps shall

provide thermal control of the sensitive
components

3.3 The CubeSat ADCNS system shall estimate its

position and attitude

3.3.1 The ADCNS sensors shall resolve

3DOF attitude to within 3 degrees in LEO

3.3.2 The ADCNS sensors shall resolve

3DOF position to within 100 m in LEO

3.4 The CubeSat command and data handling

system stores, processes, and routes all data for the
predefined kit components while providing margin
for the data needs of a variety of undergraduate
payload missions

3.4.1 Define minimum hard drive memory

needed for payload and other components
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 111

3.4.2 The onboard computer flash memory

shall have at least 32kB

3.4.3 The onboard computer CPU shall

have a clock speed of at least 16MHz

3.4.4 The onboard computer shall be the

centralized computer commanding all
daughterboards

3.4.5 The onboard computer shall have at

least 1 USB port available

3.5 The CubeSat communications system shall

transmit telemetry from LEO

3.5.1 The radio shall transmit detectable

telemetry in amateur radio frequency
(UHF)

3.5.2 The ground stations shall receive

UHF and process true telemetry

3.5.3 The link budget shall have a margin of

at least 5 dB

3.6 The CubeSat structure shall be contained

within 1U and offer flexibility in mounting
components internally

3.6.1 The CubeSat kit structure shall remain

inside a 10 x 10 x 11.35 cm +/- 0.1mm
volume while undeployed
112 • FRANCES ZHU

3.6.2 All four protruding corners on the top

and bottom of the main body of the CubeSat
shall not exceed a height of 6.75mm, shall
have a minimum length and width of 6mm,
and shall have a surface area of 6.5mm x
6.5mm, per NASA CLSI requirements

3.6.3 There shall be a minimum of 20mm

from the CubeSat surface to the top of the
corners along the Z direction per NASA
CSLI Requirements

3.6.4 The four edges of the CubeSat along

the Z direction shall have a hardness greater
than or equal to Rockwell C 65-70 per
NASA CSLI Requirements

3.6.5 The overall structure shall withstand

1200N between two XY planes applied in
the Z direction, per NASA CSLI
Requirements

3.6.6 The maximum mass of the entire

CubeSat Kit shall not exceed 1.33kg per
NASA CSLI Requirements

3.6.7 The center of gravity shall be within

2cm of its geometric center relative to the Z
direction, per NASA CSLI Requirements

3.6.8 The CubeSat kit shall be easy to

assemble with the provided instructions
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 113

Software Requirements
5. The CubeSat kit shall include software that is
intuitive for undergraduate students

5.1 The CubeSat kit shall be programmable by

undergraduate students at the junior level

5.1.1 The necessary programming

languages shall require little-to-no prior
coding experience

5.1.2 Documentation and tutorials shall be

detailed and easily accessible

5.1.3 A forum for users looking to

overcome issues shall be created

5.2 The CubeSat kit shall be brought from open

box to visual plots for at least one sensor in at most
one hour

5.2.1 The CubeSat kit shall be provided

with pre-installed software

5.2.2 A tutorial shall be provided which

details initial steps to test and demonstrate
sensor functionality, completable by most
students within one hour

5.2.3 A thumb drive with the necessary

development tools will be included to
minimize setup time
114 • FRANCES ZHU

Note that some requirements, especially in the hardware

components, have explicit numerical thresholds whereas the
software requirements are softer in definition to account for a
diversity of users. These softer requirements need more testing
and iteration later in the process to properly fulfill the
requirements.

Requirements Verification Matrix

Verification Matrix by NASA Systems Engineering Textbook. Image

courtesy of NASA

A master spreadsheet, called the requirements verification

matrix, that “tracks all requirements, sources, status, and
documentation” [Akin]. This document “ensures that nothing
gets overlooked and everything is done for a purpose”. A
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 115

template of the requirements verification matrix may be found in

the NASA Systems Engineering Handbook Appendices.

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2.4 Products of Design

Reference Missions

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 117

Cover photo of Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference

Architecture 5.0 by Mars Architecture Steering Group at NASA
Headquarters and Bret G. Drake, editor at NASA Johnson Space Center,
Houston, Texas

A design reference mission (DRM) “establishes an

operational context, descriptions of the environment and
situations in which solution concepts are expected to operate, an
operational narrative of expected behavior including a sequence
of operational activities and interactions between systems in an
environment, and sample measures for establishing goals for
mission success” [Giammarco and Shebalin].

DRMs are “critical tools at the mission level for evaluating

potential architectural concepts. Without a well-thought-out
DRM, a conceptual mission design is at risk for not optimizing
system trades, identifying necessary technology development,
118 • FRANCES ZHU

managing resources, and achieving a balanced design. The DRM

provides traceability from science objectives to engineering
requirements and can be used to examine options and
implications for observations; find “tall poles” and drivers and
identify the ultimate limits of performance. In this manner, it is
a crucial tool for recognizing and nourishing the major strengths
of the observatory and ranking design drivers. The DRM is used
as a guide and referee for major “big picture” trades such as
orbit selection, schedule availability and scheduling approaches
for operations, and time-to-complete the DRM as a metric for
observational efficiency” [Lightsey and Wilkinson].

The DRM could take the form of a narrative, storyboard,

pictogram, timeline, or combination thereof and is created by
eventual users of the system (“stakeholders”) very early in the
development cycle [Akin]. An immense DRM for reference is
the Human Exploration of Mars Design Reference Architecture
5.0 and addendum.

Quote by Ray Bradbury, Mars, and the Mind Man. Image courtesy of
NASA.

Concept of Operations

A concept of operations is a “description of how the proposed

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 119

system will accomplish the design reference mission(s) and will

appear to be similar to DRM but is a product of the design, rather
than a driving requirement” [Akin]. A concept of operations
is commonly shortened to ConOps, derived from DoD origins.
ConOps samples include a Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter,
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES-R),
Ice Home Mars Habitat, and Sentinel-1 Satellite. There exist
plenty of infographics of current and proposed ConOps by
sifting through a Google Image search. A concept of operations
that is feasible with the Artemis CubeSat Kit is a proposed Ke
Ao mission.

Phases of Ke Ao. Image courtesy of HSFL.

120 • FRANCES ZHU

Ke Ao CubeSat ConOps

• Ke Ao is a 1U CubeSat with a similar purpose as

the Artemis CubeSat Kit, designed by undergraduate
students from the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Its
mission is to take a picture of Hawaiʻi from space
and be the first iteration of the HiCubeSat Kit – an
educational and research kit with the goal of creating
and promoting aerospace workforce training and
education in Hawaii.

Exploded view of Ke Ao. Image courtesy of Hawaii Space

Flight Laboratory.

• Ke Ao’s Concept of Operations can be broken up into

four phases:

◦ Phase 1 (Launch Phase): Ke Ao will be

launched to the ISS, then get deployed into
orbit and powered on.

◦ Phase 2 (Charge Phase): Once Ke Ao is in

orbit, the batteries to power the Ke Ao
system will be charged via solar panels.

◦ Phase 3 (Alignment Phase): Ke Ao’s

Attitude Determination and Control System
will orient the satellite such that it is
pointing at Earth so that the Payload camera
can take a picture of Hawaii.

◦ Phase 4 (Viewing Phase): Ke Ao will take

a picture, then transfer data to its Ground
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 121

Station at Kauai Community College.

◦ Phase 5 (Transmit/Communication Phase)

The picture will be taken and stored, but
may not be sent until a later time. This is
where the radio sends the picture and other
data to the ground station.

• During Ke Ao’s lifetime, it will repeat Phases 2, 3, and

4 in space.

Space Systems Architecture

A space systems architecture is a “description of physical

hardware, processes, and operations to perform DRM” [Akin].
The space systems architecture “can be broken down into main
three physical parts: the space segment, the launch segment,
and the ground segment. The space segment can be either a
single satellite or a constellation of satellites in the same or
multiple orbits. The launch segment can be relatively simple
for a single satellite architecture, or very intricate for a many-
satellite architecture (like Iridium, or GPS). The ground segment
122 • FRANCES ZHU

often includes a choice of whether to use data downlink gateway

systems in space (i.e. TDRSS) or on the earth (i.e. the Deep
Space Network, or AFSCN) ” [Weigel].

Ground system examples. Image by Space Systems.

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2.5 Project Management Tools

and Documents

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Systems engineering and program management can generate

a lot of documentation. Useful documents include interface
control documents, system block diagrams, work breakdown
structures, Gantt charts, and PERT charts. Many tools exist,
like NASA’s Software Tools for Project Management which
bundles the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), budgeting, task
plans, and analysis. These tools can also be found separately,
individually, or created from scratch by the user.

123
124 • FRANCES ZHU

Technology Readiness Levels

Technology readiness levels (TRLs) are used to estimate the

maturity of technologies, first developed by NASA in the 1970s.
The Department of Defense and European Space Agency have
adopted this standard for their technology assessment as well.
There are nine different levels of TRL where TRL 1 is the lowest
maturity and TRL 9 is the highest maturity. I visit NASA’s
definition of the TRL website so often I may as well bookmark
the page. Although this standard is widely adopted and used,
multiple people may evaluate a technology at different TRLs
based upon their interpretation of maturity. TRLs may be
attached to any level of technology, from a component as small
as a bolt to the entire spacecraft system. Software may even be
attached with a TRL. This standard’s primary purpose is to help
make decisions concerning the development and transitioning of
technology [Wikipedia]. TRL definitions also help technologists
understand the capabilities necessary to mature the technology
toward spaceflight.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 125

Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) are a type of measurement system

used to assess the maturity level of a particular technology. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Interface Control Documents

Interface control documents specify interfaces between

mating systems, which include mechanical, electrical, and data
interfaces [Akin]. If the interfaces must be connected into a
cohesive system before the flight, these interfaces must be
checked and caught before it’s too late. But if the interfaces are
126 • FRANCES ZHU

disconnected until after flight and are expected to be assembled

in orbit, the interface errors would cause critical catastrophes
for an immensely expensive project that could have been fixed
with a simple check. Here’s an example of an interface control
document and all the ICDs of our kit can be found here.

Akin’s Laws of Spacecraft Design #15

(Shea’s Law) The ability to improve a design

occurs primarily at the interfaces. This is also the
prime location for screwing it up.

System Block Diagrams

System block diagrams are visual aids to show the

relationships between projects, systems, subsystems, and/or
components. These diagrams can help subsystem leads catch
interface errors or communicate the partitioning of
responsibilities. The following diagram is a spacecraft system
diagram, which does not include the larger picture of ground
stations to control centers. This diagram includes components
in each subsystem but not the individual constituents of each
component or interface connection. That level of detail can be
portrayed in a separate or embedded system block diagram.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 127

Artemis CubeSat Kit System Diagram. Image courtesy of

Amber with Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.

System block diagram for an interstellar spacecraft concept. This

mission is fictitious and should only serve as a way one can lay out a
system block diagram. Images courtesy of Mitch with Hawaii Space
Flight Laboratory.
128 • FRANCES ZHU

Work Breakdown Structure

“A [Work Breakdown Structure] is a product-oriented family

tree that identifies the hardware, software, services, and all other
deliverables required to achieve an end project objective. The
purpose of a WBS is to subdivide the project’s work content
into manageable segments to facilitate planning and control of
cost, schedule, and technical content” [NASA WBS]. In the
project development cycle of initiating, planning, executing,
controlling, and closing, the WBS occurs in the task of defining
the work during the planning phase.

Akin’s Laws of Spacecraft Design #24

It’s called a “Work Breakdown Structure” because

the Work remaining will grow until you have a
Breakdown unless you enforce some Structure on it.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 129

Project Development Cycles and Activities. Image courtesy of NASA.

However, at the lowest level, a WBS generally has tasks of

the form such as “test gizmo” rather than nouns. This helps
in one of the important tasks of the WBS, which is to track
costs during the project. The Agency’s Core Financial System
currently limits the ability to capture costs to a maximum of
seven levels. These seven levels of the WBS are defined below.

• Level 1 is the entire project.

• Level 2 elements are the major operational product

elements along with key common, enabling products
(as defined in NPR 7120.5, NPR 7120.7 (NID 7120.99
Interim Directive), and NPR 7120.8 standard WBS
templates).

• Level 3-7 contains further definable subdivisions of

the products contained in the level 2 elements (e.g.,
130 • FRANCES ZHU

subsystems, components, documents, functionality).

WBS Levels Illustration Partial WBS with Numbering System. Image

courtesy of NASA.

WBS elements should be identified by a clear, descriptive title

and by a numbering scheme as defined by the project that
performs the following functions:

• Identifies the level of the WBS element.

• Identifies the higher-level element into which the

element will be integrated
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 131

Gantt Charts

A Gantt chart is a “bar chart depicting start and finish dates

of activities and products in the WBS” [NASA SE Handbook].
This document aids systems engineers and project managers
in gauging the level of progress with respect to schedule and
milestones. Gantt charts can be made in Microsoft Excel or
with custom online tools, like Lucidchart, team gantt, canva, etc.
Gantt Charts can help track resources and show interdependency
between the WBS tasks (e.g., Task A must be completed before
Task B is started). This Gantt chart was made by our structures
lead over the summer to communicate his progress to our
systems engineer and program manager, Amber Imai-Hong.
132 • FRANCES ZHU

Gantt Chart Credit: Kevin Williams

PERT charts

Program Evaluation and Review Technique, PERT, Charts are

graphical representations of a project’s timeline. They reveal
task dependencies and the critical path for scheduling. A short
tutorial to find a critical path is given in Akin’s lecture slides.
Tools to create a PERT chart include SmartDraw and
LucidChart.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 133

PERT chart for a project with five milestones (10 through 50) and six
activities (A through F). The project has two critical paths: activities B
and C, or A, D, and F – giving a minimum project time of 7 months with
fast-tracking. Activity E is sub-critical and has a float of 1 month. Image
by Edwin Wiancko.

Mass and Power Estimation

Over the design process, the spacecraft’s estimated mass and

power will grow until those mass and power allocations
converge to the final design at delivery. The overall spacecraft
may be separated into the payload and the supporting spacecraft
subsystems. A study by NASA and the Aerospace Corporation
assessed the historical mass, power, cost, and schedule growth
for multiple NASA spacecraft buses from the last twenty years.
Generally, the modification of existing designs or the addition of
new designs naturally leads to greater overall uncertainty in the
design and potential for the growth of spacecraft resources over
time. The authors provided more nuance in that the instrument’s
134 • FRANCES ZHU

relative lack of maturity to spacecraft technology contributed to

larger growth of mass, cost, and schedule.

Image Source: Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for
NASA Instruments & Spacecraft

Contingencies are allocated at different design stages to

account for this growth. For mass and power, the NASA Green
Book, Goddard Gold Rules, JPL Design Principles, and AIAA
Standard guidelines are compared to the historical growth. For
instruments, “Historical Mass & Power growth percentage at
Phase B Start typically higher than guidelines while PDR &
CDR are more in line”. Whereas for the spacecraft, “guidelines
appear mostly adequate compared to historical mass & power
growth”. By subsystems in the spacecraft, “interconnected”
systems appear to have the highest growth: Thermal, EPDS
(Harness), SMS (Brackets/Support Structure), and “Box-like”
systems appear to have the lowest growth: C&DH, TT&C,
ADCS.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 135

Image Source: Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for
NASA Instruments & Spacecraft

For 1U cube satellites, the mass and volume standards are pre-
determined: 1.33 kg and 10 cm³.
136 • FRANCES ZHU

Cost Estimation

Space Science Outwards Programmatic Costs. Image by

Commercial Space Transportation Study

Cost is a huge driver in a space mission, as the funding

agency or customer will hold you accountable and may end
the program if the budget is overrun. Spacecraft missions are
typically very expensive, due to launch costs and labor costs in
the rigor of development/testing to meet critical requirements.
Funding agencies and customers will use cost to justify the value
of the mission and the expectation of rigor to execute a mission.
A linear depiction of the cost estimation process is given in the
figure below, although a note of application is that this process is
an iterative process with the incorporation of new data [NASA
Cost Estimating Handbook].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 137

NASA Cost Estimating Process. Image courtesy of NASA.

Much like mass and power, contingencies must be allocated

for cost. The same NASA and Aerospace Corporation study
found that instrument Historical Cost & Schedule growth
percentages are significantly higher than guidelines at most
milestones whereas the spacecraft recommendations were
adequate.

Image source: Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for
NASA Instruments & Spacecraft.

The NASA Cost Estimating Handbook is a detailed reference to

walk through the steps of cost estimation. Other tools include
138 • FRANCES ZHU

software packages, like PCEC, MOCET, CET, CDB, and NICM

(alphabet soup!):

• Project Cost Estimating Capability (PCEC) develops

cost estimates/models for space systems, created by
Marshall Space Flight Center. This technology
combines an Excel add-in with a simple, robust, and
transparent collection of NASA cost-estimating
relationships (CERs), statistics, work breakdown
structures, and cost-estimating algorithms.

• Mission Operations Cost Estimation Tool, MOCET,

provides a new capability to generate cost estimates
for the operational, or Phase E, a portion of NASA
science missions and was created by Ames.

• The Data Service Provider Cost Estimation Tool

(CET) and Comparables Database (CDB) package
provide NASA’s Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) the
ability to make lifecycle cost estimates for the
implementation and operation of the data service
providers that are required to support its science and
applications programs. The Data Service Provider
CET and CDB package were developed by Goddard
Space Flight Center.

• NASA Instrument Cost Model (NICM) is a

probabilistic cost and schedule estimating tool. NICM
has proven instrument cost and schedule modeling
capabilities that provide probabilistic estimates at both
the system and subsystem levels for many different
instrument types.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 139

• SMAD’s Mission Operations Cost Prediction

Spreadsheet

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140 • FRANCES ZHU

2.6 Decision Analysis Tools

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For decisions where no single clear analytical metric exists,

the following approaches allow the use of subjective rankings
between criteria to create numerical weightings [Akin]:

• Decision Matrices (aka Pugh Method) incorporate

evaluation criteria and the relative importance of each
criterion to narrow a list of options into one choice.
The American Society for Quality offers a procedure,
example, and considerations in developing a decision
matrix [ASQ]. Mogan et al. created a Pugh Matrix
highlighting various mission trade-offs for a Lunar
Extraction for Extraterrestrial Prospecting mission:

140
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 141

Image source: 2017 Caltech Space Challenge – Lunarport: Lunar

Extraction for Extraterrestrial Prospecting (LEEP)

• Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), created by Saaty,

is a method of ranking used to derive ratio scales
from both discrete and continuous paired
comparisons. The original paper talks through the
process through a couple of examples in a lengthy
format for which Akin gives a simple example in
slides 56-62. Guerra and Christian walk through an
incredibly thorough example of AHP that motivates
AHP use, the basic steps, and the evaluation metrics
around the 2007 Mars Design Reference Mission
Mars Surface Power System.
142 • FRANCES ZHU

Prioritization matrix. Image courtesy of NASA.

Analytical Hierarchy Process. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Quality Function Deployment (QFD) “was developed

by the Japanese in 1972 to improve quality and lower
costs in industrial and business-related fields, by
assuring all of a company’s operational decisions are
driven by customer needs. It uses a set of matrices to
relate customers wants and needs with project
specifications and requirements” [Dodd]. ASQ
provides a procedure in how to develop the initial
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 143

house of quality matrix and subsequent waterfall

relationship of QFD matrices. Zapata at Kennedy
Space Center used a QFD “to add definition and
insight to the development of long term Highly
Reusable Space Transportation (HRST)”.
144 • FRANCES ZHU

“House of Quality applied to the highly reusable space transportation”

Zapata, Edgar. “A quality function deployment method applied to highly
reusable space transportation.” AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 387.
No. 1. American Institute of Physics, 1997.

• Six Sigma (6σ) is” a set of techniques and tools for

process improvement. It was introduced by American
engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in
1986” [Wikipedia]. “Six Sigma quality” is a term
generally used to indicate a process is well controlled
(within process limits ±3s from the centerline in a
control chart, and requirements/tolerance limits ±6s
from the centerline)” [ASQ].

◦ Six Sigma is more of a best practices

methodology at an organizational level to
transform businesses than an individual
decision-making tool. The phases of
business transformation include defining,
measuring, analyzing, improving, control.

◦ Key Six Sigma techniques include

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 145

brainstorming, root cause analysis, the

voice of the customer, the 5 S system,
Kaizen (continuous improvement),
Benchmarking, Poka-yoke (mistake
proofing), and value stream mapping
[Kumar]. NASA Glenn Research Center
has generated its own root cause analysis
tool to facilitate the analysis of anomalies,
close calls, and accidents and also identify
the appropriate corrective actions to prevent
a recurrence.

◦ Six Sigma tools are statistical and data-

driven: Cause and Effect Analysis, Flow
Chart, Pareto Chart, Histogram, Check
Sheet, Scatter Plot, Control Chart

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146 • FRANCES ZHU

2.7 Managing Risks

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Risk Tracking

Risk management process cycle. Image courtesy of European Space

Agency.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 147

As space missions are extremely risk-averse, systems engineers

and program managers need to track technological risks to
evaluate an acceptable risk posture or decide to mitigate risk.
Risk management is an iterative process through the entire
project lifecycle, as seen by the figure above [Atkins ESA]. Risk
is an expected value composed of the likelihood of occurrence
and consequence of occurrence. Likelihood rating categories are
separated into:

1. Improbable (P<10-6)

2. Unlikely to occur (10 -3>P>10 -6)

3. May occur in time (10 -2>P>10 -3)

4. Probably will occur in time (10 -1>P>10 -2)

5. Likely to occur soon (P>10 -1)

Consequence rating categories are separated into:

1. Minimal or no impact
2. The additional effort required, no schedule impact,
<5% system budget impact

3. The substantial effort required, < 1-month schedule

slip, >2% program budget impact

4. The major effort required, critical path (> 1-month

slip), >5% program budget impact

5. No known mitigation approaches, breakthrough

required to resume schedule, >10% program budget
impact
148 • FRANCES ZHU

The magnitude of risk ranges between 1 – 25 and is binned into

the following categories:

Standard risk management. Image courtesy of ESA.

During the iterative process of monitoring and mitigating risk,

the goal is to move every risky scenario down or left along
with the risk matrix. The different zones require different levels
of action. Red zones require new processes or a change in the
baseline plan. The orange zone requires aggressive management
and the consideration of alternative processes. The yellow zone
requires some management actions. The green zone signifies
that the current approach is sufficient. The risky scenarios to
manage are a result of hazard analysis.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 149

Hazard Analysis
Hazard analysis results in the identification of risks and the
means of controlling or eliminating them. Hazard analysis also
quantifies the risk for the Program/Project Manager [NASA
Hazard Analysis Process]. The process of hazard analysis
includes the identification of the following:

◦ Hazardous conditions, events, or states

◦ The effect of the hazardous state

◦ The severity of the effect

◦ All potential causes of the hazardous states

◦ Controls for each of the hazard causes

◦ Likelihood of each cause

◦ Verification strategies for the controls.

The process closes by classifying, managing, and tracking the

risk of hazard. Generic hazards include:

◦ Collision or Impacts

◦ Loss of Control

◦ Contamination

◦ Corrosion

◦ Electrical Discharge/Shock

◦ Environmental/Weather
◦ Temperature Extremes

◦ Gravitational Forces
150 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Electromagnetic Interference

◦ Radiation
◦ Explosion

◦ Fire/Overheat

◦ Flight Termination Systems

◦ Implosion/Loss of Pressure

◦ High-Pressure Sources

◦ Loss of Structural Integrity

◦ Mechanical

◦ Loss of Critical Function

◦ Loss of Safe Return Capability

◦ Loss of Habitable Environment

◦ Pathological/Physiological/ Psychological

◦ Inadequate HF Engineering

◦ Lasers

◦ Utility Outages.

Another type of hazard analysis is a job hazard analysis. “A

job hazard analysis is a technique that focuses on job tasks as
a way to identify hazards before they occur. It focuses on the
relationship between the worker, the task, the tools, and the work
environment. Ideally, after you identify uncontrolled hazards,
you will take steps to eliminate or reduce them to an acceptable
risk level” [OSHA].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 151

Tools for hazard analysis include a Web-based, access-

controlled NASA Hazard Management System (HMS), which
provides a centralized repository for hazards regardless of origin
and offers the ability to report and manage real-time hazards and
controls. NASA HMS was created by Johnson Space Center.

Tools for hazard analysis include a Web-based, access-controlled NASA

Hazard Management System (HMS), which provides a centralized
repository for hazards regardless of origin and offers the ability to report
and manage real-time hazards and controls. NASA HMS was created by
Johnson Space Center. Image courtesy of NASA.

Suggested Activity

Given a few requirements from above,

– Compose a compelling science mission
around Earth for a 1U CubeSat
– Construct a fictitious Gantt chart including
program and development phases for the
senior design project spanning 1 semester
152 • FRANCES ZHU

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=276

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=276
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 153

3. Spacecraft Design
Drivers, Space and Orbit

Spacecraft Design Drivers authored by Dr. Zhu and Space

Environment and Orbits authored by Dr. Zhu and Dr. Sorensen

Learning Objectives

• Associate spacecraft design drivers

from various stages of the spacecraft life
cycle and evaluate how they affect the
spacecraft design
• Relate payload requirements to
spacecraft bus subsystems requirements
• Describe the various physical

153
154 • FRANCES ZHU

phenomena that affect spacecraft in outer

space
• Relate relevant parameters in
mathematical expressions and calculate
the magnitude of the effect
• Calculate and contrast the dominant
phenomena at different regimes
• Understand the equations of motion
for orbital mechanics and the variations
of orbits
• Identify the spacecraft parameters that
affect orbits and relate parameter change
to orbit change

Spacecraft Design Parameters and Drivers

Learning Objectives

3.1 Design Process Parameters

◦ Characteristics of the program

◦ Review Process

◦ Design Process
◦ Development Process

◦ Suggested Activity
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 155

3.2 Mission Components

◦ Subject and Payload

◦ Ground Segment

◦ Orbit and Launch

◦ Spacecraft Bus

◦ The CubeSat Specification [CubeSat

Design Specification Rev. 14]

3.3 Payload design

◦ Suggested Activity

3.4 The Space Environment

◦ Studying the Space Environment

◦ The Sun

◦ Electromagnetic Radiation

▪ Ultraviolet

▪ Damage Due to Ultraviolet

Radiation

▪ X-Rays

▪ Gamma Rays

▪ Radio Waves

▪ Solar Electromagnetic
Radiation Summary

▪ Solar Radiation
156 • FRANCES ZHU

Particles (Solar Wind)

▪ Solar
Radiation
Pressure

▪ Solar
Radiation
Torque

▪ Cosmic Rays

▪ Solar
Particles
Summary

◦ Physical Phenomena Definition

▪ Gravity

▪ Atmosphere

▪ Atmospheric Layers

▪ The Ionosphere

▪ Vacuum

▪ Electromagnetic Radiation

▪ Solar Radiation
Pressure

▪ Solar
Radiation
Torque

▪ Damage Due to
Ultraviolet Radiation
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 157

▪ Cosmic Rays and

Cosmic Radiation
▪ Solar Activity

▪ Spacecraft Charging

▪ Single Event Effects

▪ High-Velocity Impacts

▪ Space Debris

▪ Effects on the Spacecraft

▪ Suggested Activity

3.5 Orbital Mechanics

◦ History of Astrodynamics

▪ Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

▪ Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

▪ Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

◦ The Basics

▪ Newton’s Law of Motion

◦ The Two-Body Problem

▪ Assumptions

▪ Equation of Motion

▪ Center of Mass
▪ Canonical Units

▪ Constants of Motion
158 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Conservation of
Mechanical Energy
▪ Conservation of
Angular Momentum

▪ Trajectory Equation

▪ Elliptical Orbits

▪ Apses of an Eclipse

▪ The Geometry of the

Eclipse

▪ Orbital Energy

▪ Period of an Elliptical Orbit

▪ Non-Elliptical Orbits

▪ Circular Orbits

▪ Parabolic Trajectories

▪ Escape Speed

▪ Hyperbolic Trajectories

▪ Hyperbolic Excess
Speed

◦ Coordinate Systems

▪ Heliocentric-Ecliptic Coordinate
System

▪ Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate
System (GECS)

▪ Geographic Coordinate System

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 159

(GCS)

▪ Right Ascension-Declination
Coordinate System

▪ Perifocal Coordinate System

◦ Classical Orbital Elements

▪ Alternate COEs

▪ Orbital Inclination

▪ Effect of Launch Site on

Inclination

◦ Orbit Anomalies

▪ Mean Anomaly

▪ Eccentric Anomaly

◦ NORAD Two-Line Elements (TLEs)

◦ Orbit Types

▪ Low Earth Orbits

▪ Sun-Synchronous
Orbits

▪ Medium Earth Orbits

▪ Global Positioning
System (GPS)

▪ GLONASS Navigation
Constellation

▪ Galileo Navigation
Constellation
160 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Geosynchronous Orbits

▪ Highly Elliptical Orbits

▪ Molniya Orbit

▪ Tundra Orbit

▪ Recurrent and Sub-Recurrent

Orbits

◦ Ground Tracks

◦ Orbital Maneuvers

▪ In-Plane Orbit Transfers

▪ Apsidal Burns

▪ Effect of Non-Apsidal Burns in

Plane

◦ Hohmann Transfers
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 161

3.1 Design Process Parameters

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=253#oembed-1

Design parameters and drivers exist for both the systems

engineering process and the spacecraft bus product. Very briefly,
the systems engineering process is affected by nontechnical
parameters like current technology feasibility [NASA SmallSat
SoA Tech], needs vs. capabilities approach, funding availability,
and characteristics of the program [NASA Systems Engineering
Handbook].

161
162 • FRANCES ZHU

Characteristics of the Program

National space flight product tailoring process. Image courtesy of

NASA system Engineering Text Book.

Characteristics of a space program or project can be broken

down into the following parameters:

a. Type of mission. For example, the

requirements for a human space flight
mission are much more rigorous than those
for a small robotic mission.

b. The criticality of the mission in meeting the

Agency Strategic Plan. Critical missions
that absolutely must be successful may not
be able to get relief from NPR
requirements.

c. Acceptable risk level. If the Agency and the

customer are willing to accept a higher risk
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 163

of failure, some NPR requirements may be

waived.
d. National significance. A project that has
great national significance may not be able
to get relief from NPR requirements.

e. Complexity. Highly complex missions may

require more NPR requirements in order to
keep systems compatible, whereas simpler
ones may not require the same level of
rigor.

f. Mission lifetime. Missions with a longer

lifetime need to more strictly adhere to
NPR requirements than short-lived
programs/projects.

g. Cost of the mission. Higher-cost missions

may require stricter adherence to NPR
requirements to ensure proper program/
project control.

h. Launch constraints. If there are several

launch constraints, a project may need to be
more fully compliant with Agency
requirements.
164 • FRANCES ZHU

Example of program and project types. Image courtesy of NASA

System Engineering Textbook.

For this course, we are focusing on programs similar to Type D,

where programs are low priority, high risk, minimally complex,
and have low national significance, small budgets, short mission
lifetimes, significant alternative or re-flight opportunities. Cube
satellite missions are on the extreme end of Type D missions,
where student-led program costs rarely exceed tens of thousands
of USD, are primarily educational programs (low significance)
with little to no success, and finish within a few years. Cubesats
are a great way to demonstrate state-of-the-art technologies
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 165

cheaply or to launch a multitude of satellites to demonstrate

distributed sensing, which offers compelling missions. For
spacecraft bus components that are not the payload, there are
many commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) parts that can be
purchased. For funding availability, the NASA CSLI is probably
the best bet to get your CubeSat to space as a student
organization for which there are plenty of writing tips in the
CSLI handbook, like in the figure above. You can get potential
funding to purchase hardware or fund labor from the NASA
Space Grant Consortium in your state.

Logo for the NASA Hawaii Space Grant Consortium. Image

courtesy of NASA.

Crowdfunding is also an option, like LightSail or KickSat, or

166 • FRANCES ZHU

commercial funding through venture capital if you have a

profitable business plan, like Spire.

Light Sail 2 over India Light Sail 2 regularly transmits images from its
onboard cameras. These images help engineers track the condition of the
sail while providing stunning public outreach images. Image courtesy of
The Planetary Society

Review Process
During the reviews along the way, find a community that can
offer honest feedback on your ability to fulfill the mission design
and stay on track with cost and budget. You can find a CubeSat
community on slack, through this Pressbooks forum, or faculty
mentors at your university. You want reviewers “who have
knowledge/experience with your focus area (science, technology
and/or education), that can assess why a flight opportunity is
required, with knowledge of space flight and spacecraft, but
otherwise knowledgeable in various areas of hardware and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 167

project development and that can assess your team’s ability to

deliver your spacecraft on time and on budget” [CSLI]. Make
sure to include your customer in this review panel. You can
have a number of reviewers to fulfill the sum of reviewer
requirements.

CubeSat 101. Basic concepts and processes for first-time developers.

Image courtesy of NASA.

Design Process
During the design process, you will need a variety of software
applications that can save you time and achieve better results
than reinventing the wheel. We will only mention free software
as we want to reduce any financial barriers associated with
168 • FRANCES ZHU

this project. Mechanical structural design and analysis may be

achieved with OnShape or Autodesk Inventor. Electrical board
design and simulations may be achieved through Eagle, KiCAD,
PCB Artist, and PSpice. Thermal analysis may be achieved with
a thermal desktop. Orbit design and analysis may be achieved
through STK. Flight software may be written through NASA’s
open-source version of CFS, OpenSat Kit.

Artemis Kit Specific

HSFL’s very own COSMOS was provided to you

with the kit. Every lab module or tutorial in this
textbook will step through relevant satellite design
activities in which the relevant software and steps
will be explicitly defined.
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 169

Development Process
During the procurement and
fabrication process, you will
need to pay attention to how
you source your materials and
the equipment needed to bring
this hardware to spaceflight
readiness. The Artemis
CubeSat Kit should be
complete to launch unto itself
so if you want to demonstrate
a completely software-centric
mission, skip this section. But
let’s say you want to modify
170 • FRANCES ZHU

the parts or start from scratch.

The most important aspects of
hardware selection from
particular vendors are
spaceflight readiness and
export control.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit should be complete to

launch unto itself.

As CubeSat vendors are becoming more and more common,

the variety of commercial-off-the-shelf parts allows more
customization and direct fulfillment of your technical
component requirements. Outside of technical requirements,
component characteristics include space heritage, which
associates with cost, labor, and risk Typically, components that
have been rigorously tested and have flown in space (TRL 9)
reduce labor for rigorous testing and reduce mission operational
risk. The downside of space-rated components is that they are
typically very expensive to compensate for all the overhead
development, testing, and proof of operations in space. There are
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 171

several reasons why you may decide to buy a COTS component

from any electronics vendor and do the testing yourself: the
space-rated component is too expensive, the non-space-rated
component is better suited for the requirements, or a mission
goal is to gain space heritage for the component. The
disadvantage to maturing the technology in-house is the
additional cost of labor and testing equipment and the additional
risk that must be managed. The mentality for big projects is to
minimize risk as much as possible, using space-rated parts often,
which may manifest as using outdated technology.

Artemis Kit Specific

The mentality of small projects, like CubeSats, is

to accept and tolerate risk at a higher level, which
was the mentality that the Artemis CubeSat Kit
design team took.

HSFL had all the testing facilities (like a vibration table, thermal
vacuum chambers, dynamics testbed, and clean room) to support
verification testing of the Artemis CubeSat kit.

Artemis Kit Specific

172 • FRANCES ZHU

None of the components are space-rated, which is

the reason why we are able to get the kit to you at
such a low cost, but we’ve rigorously tested all the
components so that they theoretically will work in
space. If you add a payload or modify any of the
components, you will have to go through similar
testing procedures as we’ll lay out in later chapters
(HSFL is happy to do support).

U.S. export controls for the commercial space industry affect

the composition of the team as the ultimate consequence is the
ability or inability of team members of different nationalities
to work on controlled technologies. “The U.S. export control
system is designed to prevent the spread of sensitive
technologies to foreign actors that could threaten U.S. interests,
while at the same time allowing U.S. companies to engage in
legitimate commercial activity. Controlled technologies include
defense articles (e.g., missiles), defense services (e.g.,
integration of a spacecraft onto a launcher), and dual-use items
(e.g., commercial spacecraft and components)” [FAA]. There
are two sets of regulations: International Traffic in Arms
Regulations (ITAR) and Export Administration Regulations
(EAR). The ITAR process controls items, information, or
activities that could be used for threatening foreign military
purposes, whether actual products (defense articles) or
assistance (defense services). The EAR process controls items
and technologies considered to be “dual-use”, meaning
applicable to commercial or military use. The vast majority
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 173

of commercial spacecraft and components fall under the

jurisdiction of the EAR.

Artemis Kit Specific

We will dedicate a section to ITAR and EAR

regulations but for the Artemis CubeSat Kit, none of
the components are ITAR or EAR so anyone can
work with the technologies inside the kit.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=253
174 • FRANCES ZHU

3.2 Mission Components

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

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epet302/?p=281#oembed-1

The goal of the overall spacecraft mission engineering process

(from the last chapter) is to define a mission concept such that
the following components are defined [New SMAD]:

1. Subject

2. Payload

3. Spacecraft Bus

4. Ground Station

5. Mission Operations

6. Command, Control, and Communications Architecture

174
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 175

7. Orbit

8. Launch Segment

This course will center around the design of the spacecraft bus
but will briefly discuss how the other components affect the
spacecraft bus design.

Subject and Payload

The mission centers around the subject, which includes physical
phenomena or objects, that the spacecraft needs to observe,
discover, or manipulate; these subjects could include
gravitational waves [GRACE], broadband internet frequency
waves [Starlink], asteroids [OSIRIS-REx], or neutrons
[Neutron-1]. We will assume that you discussed this topic matter
outside the scope of this course, like in EPET 301: Space
Science Instrumentation, or with your fellow scientists/
technologists who are your customers. You may also find
compelling science or technology missions in NASA’s decadal
surveys, strategic plans and roadmaps, and the taxonomy report.
The subject drives the orbit requirement if the spacecraft must be
proximal to the subject source to detect the subject (like OSIRIS-
REx, GRACE, and Neutron-1). The payload is the hardware or
software that detects, measures, or interacts with the subject.
If the subject is what, the payload is the how. There can exist
different levels of payloads if we widen the scope of the system.
For example, the payload on the Neutron-1 mission is a neutron
detector but if we consider the rocket that launches Neutron-1 to
space, the rocket’s payload is the entire Neutron-1 satellite. We
176 • FRANCES ZHU

will strictly focus on the payload within the spacecraft bus for
which an entire section will be dedicated because the subject and
payload drive the spacecraft bus design.

Artemis Kit Specific

For the Artemis CubeSat kit, we’ve given you an

infrared and visible spectrum camera to promote
Earth and lunar missions with the option to take out
the camera and utilize ¼ of the CubeSat’s volume for
your own payload. We’ve tried to make the
spacecraft bus as amenable as possible to a variety of
electrical connectors, acceptable voltages, and power
needs.

Ground Segment
The ground segment consists of all the components that stay on
the ground: ground station, mission operations, and command,
control, and communications architecture.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 177

Examples of ground stations. Image Source: HSFL

A ground station is a “terrestrial radio station designed for

extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft”. These
ground stations communicate and control spacecraft by
receiving dim signals from the spacecraft and transmitting
powerful signals to the spacecraft. Large ground stations are
commonly characterized by their parabolic dish, which is an
antenna that offers high directivity. These large dishes, like
NASA’s Deep Space Network, may also detect sensitive radio
signals from astronomical radio sources; although today, the
state-of-the-art astronomical discoveries are made with specific
dishes that are significantly larger than dishes necessary for
spacecraft communications.
178 • FRANCES ZHU

Example of a large dish in NASA’s Deep Space Network. Image

courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 179

Example of an astronomical radio source. This is a schematic view of a

pulsar. The sphere in the middle represents the neutron star, the curves
indicate the magnetic field lines, the protruding cones represent the
emission beams and the green line represents the axis on which the star
rotates. Image by Roy Smits.

Small ground stations typically consist of an array of dipole

antennas, the most widely used class of antennas in everyday
life. These dipole antenna arrays are omnidirectional, require
less construction, and are more theoretically simple to
understand, which are characteristics that make them more
approachable for university teams. Both types of antennas may
either be fixed or rotate to track a satellite; the larger directional
antennas are less likely to dynamically track signals due to the
complexity of the dynamic system to support such an immense
mass. The construction of ground stations is outside the scope
of this course but you are welcome to reach out to HSFL to
support your mission, schedule access through AWS Ground
180 • FRANCES ZHU

Station services, or participate in the SatNOGS, an open-source

global network of satellite ground stations.

Animated diagram of a half-wave dipole antenna receiving a radio wave.

Image by Chet Vorno.

Mission Operations
The mission operations team can be separate specialists in a
big program, like the NASA Curiosity rover operators that had
to be specifically trained or can be the satellite design team
for small projects. If you’re a student on a small team, you
will most likely be one of the mission operators; who better
to operate the satellite than one of the engineers who created
the satellite? You will have the distinct advantage of knowing
precisely the capabilities of the spacecraft without having an
engineer to consult as that engineer is in your head! The mission
operations software allows the operators to monitor the state
of health of the spacecraft and relevant mission parameters,
whilst also commanding the spacecraft from a computer. NASA
has created Open MCT, a next-generation Web-based mission
operations data visualization framework for desktop and mobile.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 181

NASA Open MCT. Image courtesy of NASA.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat kit comes with COSMOS, a

software package that allows the development of
flight software and offers a mission operations
interface.

Command, Control, and Communication Architecture

The command, control, and communication architecture is the
interface between mission operations, your ground station, and
182 • FRANCES ZHU

the spacecraft. The architecture includes the telecommunications

link between the spacecraft and the ground station, then the
wires or wireless connections between the ground station and the
mission control center. Ideally, the signal path is as uninterrupted
as possible to provide real-time information and reaction with
your spacecraft, critical for high priority missions, but for low
priority missions, communications can be delayed. For example,
you may rely on amateur radio or ham radio enthusiasts to
pick up your signals and report them back to you. There is no
guarantee that anyone radio operator will be listening or that
they will send the packets to you if they pick them up.

Example of amateur radio. Image by Emil Neuerer.

Artemis Kit Specific

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 183

For the Artemis CubeSat kit, we recommend

working with HSFL as the satellite design
incorporates HSFL ground stations, missions
operations software, and the interfaces in between.

FCC Licensing. Image courtesy of US FCC.

A critical decision in the communication architecture is the

communication frequency and subsequent RF licensing to use
that frequency band [CSLI Chapter 9]. The Artemis CubeSat kit
can only get an amateur or experimental license and we will
certainly attempt to guide you through the documentation to gain
FCC licensing [FCC Guidance and Spectrum Guidance]. This
step is infamously difficult and bottlenecked; the government is
attempting to make this process easier from the top level down
184 • FRANCES ZHU

and we’re going to try to meet them in the middle by educating

you from the bottom up.

Spectrum certification process. Image courtesy of NASA.

Orbit and Launch

The orbit is the path of the spacecraft during its mission with
respect to planetary bodies and astronomical references. A
section is dedicated to describing various orbits and the
subsequent space environment so this paragraph will serve as
a brief, high-level overview. The orbit dictates the space
environment that the spacecraft must survive and the launch
vehicle that the spacecraft must interface with. Orbits’
characteristics vary the dominant physical phenomena in that
space environment, which impose different technical
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 185

requirements on the spacecraft subsystems to achieve the

mission objective. The space environment may even affect the
mission operations as there are time delays or blackouts in
communication. The distance or delta-V the launch vehicle must
provide to the spacecraft to achieve the desired orbit affects the
size of the rocket and thus the size of the fairing on top of the
rocket that the spacecraft must fit into.

Example of an orbital path of a spacecraft. Image courtesy of

Physics.org

Artemis Kit Specific

For the Artemis CubeSat kit, the as-delivered

hardware is designed to function in LEO, specifically
in ISS orbit as many CubeSats are deployed from the
ISS.
186 • FRANCES ZHU

The 1U CubeSats are typically “integrated into dispensers on

the ground, transported to the ISS in a pressurized cargo vessel
(e.g., SpaceX Dragon, Orbital ATK’s Cygnus, etc.), and hand-
carried onto the ISS from the cargo vessel. Astronauts aboard
the ISS are responsible for deploying the CubeSats from the ISS
typically 1–3 months after arrival” [CSLI Chapter 3.5].

Artemis Kit Specific

If the Artemis CubeSat is not softly stowed, we

have also tested the kit to the NASA CSLI standards
to survive ridesharing as auxiliary payloads mounted
directly to launch vehicles [NASA GEVS].

If you choose to launch outside of the CSLI ecosystem, like

UNP, you can find other launch providers with their own
environment testing standards that ideally are less rigorous than
CSLI standards so that you do not have to redo all the
environmental testing we did for you.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 187

Select a launch provider for your CubeSat. Image courtesy of

Spaceflight Industries.

Spacecraft Bus
Upon setting out on a preliminary design, the suggested mass
and power budgets to initially allocate for a non-propulsive
spacecraft are as follows. A systems engineer typically keeps
track of these budgets, along with budgets for pointing and
alignment for ADCS, propellant (for a propulsive spacecraft),
downlink and uplink for communications, and data usage for
command and data handling. These budgets will be described in-
depth in their respective subsystems.
188 • FRANCES ZHU

Ke Ao
(a
Subsystem (% SMAD Hermes Artemis
OreSat variant
of Dry Mass) suggestion CubeSat CubeSat
of
Artemis)

Allocated
Payload 41%
in T&C

Structure and
20% 32.3%
Mechanisms

Thermal
2% 0%
Control

Power
(including 19% 13.5%
harness)

Telemetry and
2% 22.5%
Control

Command
and Data 5% 3.6%
Handling

Attitude
Determination 8% 2.4%
and Control

Other
(balance + 3% 25.7%
launch)

Total 100% 100%

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 189

Subsystem (% of Total Power) SMAD suggestion (average power)

Payload 43%

Structure and Mechanisms 0%

Thermal Control 5%

Power (including harness) 10%

Telemetry and Control 11%

Command and Data Handling 13%

Attitude Determination and Control 18%

Total 100%

CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14

2.1 General Specifications

2.1.1 All parts shall remain attached
to the CubeSats during launch, ejection,
and operation.
2.1.2 Pyrotechnics shall conform to
AFSPCMAN 91-710, Volume 3.
2.1.3 Any propulsion systems shall be
designed, integrated, and tested in
accordance with AFSPCMAN 91-710
Volume 3.
2.1.4 Propulsion systems shall have at
least 3 inhibits to activation.
190 • FRANCES ZHU

2.1.5 Note: It is recommended to

consider the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) requirements for
Batteries Carried by Airline Passengers.
For example, the maximum allowed
capacity for consumer-sized lithium-ion
batteries in carry-on baggage is 100 Wh
per battery.
2.1.6 CubeSat hazardous materials
shall conform to AFSPCMAN 91-710,
Volume 3.
2.1.7 CubeSat materials shall satisfy
low out-gassing criteria, as defined in
2.1.7.1 and 2.1.7.2, to prevent
contamination of other spacecraft during
integration, testing, and launch. A list of
NASA-approved low out-gassing
materials can be found at:
http://outgassing.nasa.gov.
2.1.7.1 CubeSats materials shall
have a Total Mass Loss (TML) of
less than or equal to 1.0 %
2.1.7.2 CubeSat materials shall
have a Collected Volatile
Condensable Material (CVCM) of
less than or equal to 0.1%
2.1.8 The magnetic field of any
passive magnets shall be limited to 0.5
Gauss above Earth’s magnetic field,
outside the CubeSat static envelope.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 191

2.1.9 The CubeSat shall be designed

to accommodate ascent venting per
ventable volume/area of fewer of less
than 50.8 meters (2000 inches).

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192 • FRANCES ZHU

3.3 Payload Design

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The subject and payload are the most important design drivers
as they are the reason the mission exists. The subject drives
the location/orbit the spacecraft must go, the payload that must
be accommodated, and all the subsequent design requirements
that flow down into the spacecraft bus design. Classifications of
payloads include observation, communications or navigation, in-
situ, action at a distance, and human spaceflight [New SMAD].
The majority of CubeSat payloads are Earth observation,
communication, navigation, science, and technology [Alen];
human spaceflight payloads and action-at-a-distance payloads
are rarely accommodated on CubeSats. Observation payloads
are self-explanatory as payloads that observe, typically through
remote sensing. The subjects may be outward-facing toward
deep space (on exoplanets, astronomical features, or our sun’s

192
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 193

effect on space weather) and inward-facing toward Earth (on

climate, surveillance, land surface mapping, or water bodies).
These observational payloads function at different wavelength
bands.

NASA electromagnetic spectrum mapping to space phenomena. Image

courtesy of NASA.

Communication payloads may be separated into unidirectional

systems that gather information or two-way systems that gather
but also transmit information. Navigation payloads track and
transmit position information like the Global Positioning
System or Software Defined Radio platforms. In-situ payloads
measure signals in the environment directly that cannot be
remotely sensed, like a magnetic field, gravity, or sample
collection.

Artemis Kit Specific

We will focus on observational payloads as the

Artemis CubeSat kit comes with a visible-IR camera.
The Ke Ao team at UH Manoa wants to take a
194 • FRANCES ZHU

picture of Hawai’i (observation) from Low Earth

orbit and transmit the picture back to the mission
operators. The payload is a Raspberry Pi visible
spectrum camera.

Before seriously considering the spacecraft bus subsystem

design as a result of payload selection, look at the constraints
of the payload design. There are four types of constraints:
fundamental, technological, mission, and programmatic [NASA
& NOAA]. Fundamental constraints include diffraction limit,
photon noise, Nyquist limit, which all refer to laws of physics
that limit observation. Some missions are impossible because
of these fundamental limits, even if technology gets better over
time. Technological limits stem from the ability of state-of-the-
art detectors to measure the subject, capped by detector size and
performance; optical form, figure, fabrication, and alignment, or
processor speed. Outside the theoretical limits of observation,
the detectors or optics that we manufacture are bound to perform
less ideally. To constrain the technology further, the mission
constraints adhere to size, weight, and power constraints due
to spacecraft design and launch vehicle selection. Detectors or
payloads may not be miniaturized any further without significant
sacrifice to the mission performance. Finally, programmatic
constraints, like cost, schedule, risk, and regulatory
requirements, may break a mission that is fundamentally
feasible, technologically feasible and closes in mission design.
This sequence of constraints moves from the highest level of
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 195

science to the physical and societal reality of spaceflight

missions.

Artemis Kit Specific

For the Ke Ao project, the payload is not a past

state of the art. The Raspberry Pi camera is
technologically proven. The physical characteristics
of the camera are well within reason for a 1U
CubeSat mission and the program constraints are
quite lenient as it is a vertically integrated project
within a university environment.

The payload design process generates requirements for accommodating

the payload. Image courtesy of NASA and NAP

Say you’ve found a payload that fits within all those constraints.
Now you have the go-ahead to design the mission architecture.
We’ve discussed solutions for the mission components but for
196 • FRANCES ZHU

the concept of operations, we’ll focus on mission lifetime and

the sequence of events once the satellite reaches space.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat kit does not have a specific

expiration date or concept of operation as it depends
significantly on the mission objective and payload.
The Ke Ao mission, an instantiation of the Artemis
CubeSat kit, has an operational lifetime of 1 year and
has the following concept of operations:

With the mission architecture defined, we can design spacecraft

buses around the payload with the context of the operations
and mission components. Regardless of the type of payload, the
payload’s data, size, weight, and power (SWaP) requirements
must be accommodated by the spacecraft bus design. The
payload-spacecraft interface requirements for an observational
payload reside in mechanical, thermal, electrical, and subject-
specific accommodation requirements [NASA & NOAA]:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 197

Subject
Mechanical Thermal Electrical
Specific

Conducted
and Sensor
Size (Structures radiated Power orientation and
and Launch heat flux requirements clear fields of
Vehicle) to/from the (Power) view
payload (Structures)
(Thermal)

Thermal
gradients
Mass and
Output data rate Pointing
(Structures and baseplate
and storage stability, agility
Launch distortion
(CDH) (ADCS)
Vehicle) (Thermal
and
Structures)

Command,
Contamination:
control, and
Moments of particulates,
telemetry
inertia outgassing
(Communications
(Structures) (Environment
and Ground
Testing)
Segment)

Level of
Electromagnetic
Uncompensated autonomy and
interference
momentum operations
(Environment
(ADCS) (Mission
Testing)
Architecture)

Launch loads
(Environment
Testing and
Launch
Vehicle)

Disturbances
(Environment
Testing and
Orbit)
198 • FRANCES ZHU

Each spacecraft bus subsystem and peripheral mission

component is mentioned at least once in the payload
accommodation requirements table. The spacecraft bus
subsystems are affected by the payload in the following ways:

◦ Structures: the payload could require

▪ a certain orientation within the

spacecraft frame (facing away
from the spacecraft center)

▪ an unobstructed view into the

space environment (most optics)

▪ accommodation of specific size

and weight

▪ active mechanisms or deployable

(like an extendable boom)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 199

ASNARO-1 Satellite has many components that have unobstructed

views or access to the space environment, like the star tracker, camera,
imager, and antennas” Image Courtesy of NEC.

◦ Power: the payload could require

▪ an orbit average and peak power

on the power distribution (wire
harnessing, motherboard, and
daughterboard control)

▪ a specific amount of power

generated and/or stored (solar
array and battery size)

▪ voltage conversion and limits

200 • FRANCES ZHU

(circuit board design)

▪ current regulation or limits

(circuit board design)

Schematic view of the Wideband

Imaging Camera (WIC) instrument,
showing the placement of the power
supply with respect to the instrument.
Image courtesy ofUCB/SSL.

◦ Command and Data Handling: the payload

could require

▪ processing speed (on-board

computer processors; CPUs and
GPUs, RAM)

▪ data storage (on-board computer

memory; SD card or hard drive)

▪ specific data format (image,

frequency spectra)

▪ bandwidth or data rate to transfer

across the network (RAM and
software algorithm to prevent
bufferbloat)

▪ data resolution (the number of

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 201

significant figures in
measurements to retain)

◦ Communications: the payload could require

▪ a link budget that closes and has

margin (communication
reliability and two-way
transmission)

▪ Command uplink data rate

(critical operating modes during
mission sequence)

▪ Telemetry downlink data rate

(prevent onboard memory from
overflowing)

◦ Attitude Determination, Control,

Navigation, and Sensing: the payload could
require

▪ accuracy and precision pointing,

slewing, or tracking maneuvers
(momentum control systems)

▪ specific resolution of attitude or

position estimate (estimation
algorithms, sensors)

Suggested Reading
202 • FRANCES ZHU

Instrument Pointing Capabilities: Past, Present,

and Future

The primary mission objective of BRITE Constellation is to provide

milli-magnitude (0.1% error) differential photometry of bright stars.
On-orbit fine pointing performance of UniBRITE spacecraft (left) and
BRITE-Toronto spacecraft (right); the payload plate scale is 26″/pixel
(image credit: UTIAS/SFL).

◦ Thermal: the payload could require

▪ a specific thermal operating range

(optics like to be cold)

▪ structural stability due to

temperature (materials resistant to
thermal expansion or temperature
maintenance)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 203

A unique combination of meticulous old-world skills and high-tech

materials produced the finely sewn, super-strong, and extremely
lightweight thermal blankets that protected Cassini from the extreme hot
and cold of deep space. Image courtesy of NASA.

◦ Propulsion: the payload could require

▪ stationkeeping (intermittent
correction of the orbit)

▪ orbit changes (delta-V and

propellant budget)
204 • FRANCES ZHU

For payloads that require a certain inclined orbit, a spacecraft gets from
the initial orbit to the final, lower-inclination orbit, by providing a
downward thrust at one of the nodes. Image by Blog Spot.

For a list of other payloads, compiled by David

Doody:
• Deep Space 1
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 205

Artist rendition of Deep Space 1. Image courtesy of

NASA.

• Voyager Science Instruments

Voyager spacecraft equipment. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Galileo Science Experiments

Artist’s rendering of the Galileo science experiment. Image

courtesy of NASA.

• Cassini Science Instruments

206 • FRANCES ZHU

Cassini Orbiter mission instrument. Notice the humans for

size reference. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Huygens Science Instruments

The Huygens probe is a scale 1 replica. Image courtesy of

NASA

• Mars Global Surveyor Science Instruments

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 207

Mars Global surveyor. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Mars Express Science Instruments

Examples of Mars Express Science Instruments.Ultraviolet and Infrared

Atmospheric Spectrometer (SPICAM) on the left. A High-Resolution Stereo
Camera (HRSC) is pictured on the right. Images courtesy of NASA.
208 • FRANCES ZHU

• New Horizons Science Instruments

New Horizons Instruments. Image courtesy of NASA/Johns

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest
Research Institute

• Venus Express Science Instruments

Venus Express Science Instruments. Image courtesy of ESA

• Messenger Science Instruments

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 209

Messanger Science Equipment. Image courtesy of John

Hopkins Applies Physics Laboratory and NASA

• Ulysses Science Instruments

210 • FRANCES ZHU

Artist’s rendering of Ulysses spacecraft. Image courtesy of

NASA.

• Mars Exploration Rover (Spirit, Opportunity) Science

Instruments
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 211

An artist’s concept portrays a NASA Mars Exploration

Rover Opportunity. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Mars Pathfinder Science Instruments

Mars PathFinder Science Instrument. Image courtesy of

NASA

• Alpha-Particle X-ray Spectrometer

212 • FRANCES ZHU

Alpha-Particle X-ray Spectrometer. Image courtesy of NASA

• CRS (Cosmic Ray Subsystem)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 213

Cosmic Ray Subsystem. Image courtesy of NASA.

• EPD (Energetic Particles Detector

214 • FRANCES ZHU

Energetic Particles Detector (EPD). Image courtesy of

NASA.

• Heavy-ion counter
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 215

Heavy Ion Counter. Image courtesy of NASA and CAL.

• INMS (Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer)

216 • FRANCES ZHU

Ion and Neutra mass spectrometer as shown on the Cassini

mission. Image courtesy of NASA.

• GCMS (Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 217

Image courtesy of NASA.

• Wide-angle (Voyager’s Wide Angle Camera

218 • FRANCES ZHU

Voyager one. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Narrow-angle (Voyager’s Narrow-Angle Camera)

• MRO (Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter)

MARS Reconnaissance Orbiter. Image courtesy of NASA.

• MIMI (Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 219

Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI). Image courtesy

of NASA.

• MIMI’s view of Jupiter

MIMI’s view of Jupiter. Image courtesy of NASA.

• MIMI’s view of Saturn

220 • FRANCES ZHU

MIMI’s view of Saturn. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Photopolarimeter

Photopolarimeter and other various equipment as used on

Voyager. Image courtesy of NASA.

Photometer
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 221

The Double Helix Nebula was captured by Spitzer’s MIPS. Credit:

NASA/JPL-Caltech/M. Morris (UCLA)

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222 • FRANCES ZHU

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epet302/?p=283
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 223

3.4 The Space Environment

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223
224 • FRANCES ZHU

A close-up of an erupting prominence with Earth inset at the

approximate scale of the image. Taken on July 1, 2002. Image by
ESA&NASA/SOHO.

The environment on Earth’s surface has commonalities and

differences from the space environment, past Earth’s
atmosphere; this boundary is defined by the Karman line. The
Earth’s atmosphere protects us, ground dwellers, from an
immense amount of cosmic radiation, plasma, and
micrometeoroids. Earth’s magnetic field protects us from solar
wind particles, part of the phenomena of space weather [NASA].
In the space environment and common to our surface
environment, spacecraft have to interact with gravity,
electromagnetic radiation (in differing doses), atmospheric
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 225

particles (in differing density). Although the spacecraft does

technically interact with atmosphere particles past the Karman
line, the spacecraft functions in a near-vacuum, approaching a
truer vacuum farther into space. In this section, we will define
each physical phenomenon (with equations!), discuss how each
physical phenomenon affects the spacecraft subsystems, and
explore the dominance of each phenomenon in orbital regimes.

Similarities to our environment Unique to the space environment

Gravity Cosmic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation Plasma

Atmospheric particles Micrometeoroids

Solar wind particles

Vacuum

Planetary surface albedo

Studying the Space Environment

There are numerous satellites that collect data, assess, and report
on “Space Weather.” Here are a few:
226 • FRANCES ZHU

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). Image courtesy of

NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 227

Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE). Image courtesy of NASA.

228 • FRANCES ZHU

Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE). Image courtesy of

NASA and Lockheed Martin.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 229

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO). Image courtesy of NASA.

230 • FRANCES ZHU

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES). Image

courtesy of NOAA.

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). Image courtesy of NASA-MSFC.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 231

The Sun
The single largest influence on the space environment and space
weather is the Sun. Solar activity that affects the Earth and
spacecraft results from natural phenomena occurring within the
magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun. These
phenomena take many forms, including solar wind, radio wave
flux, energy bursts such as solar flares, coronal mass ejection
(CME) or solar eruptions, coronal heating, and sunspots. The
Sun’s activity goes through a regular 11-year cycle of solar
activity.

The structure of the sun. Image courtesy of NASA.

Some statistics about the Sun:

• Diameter: 1.4×106km
232 • FRANCES ZHU

• Mass: 2×1030 km

• Surface (Photosphere) Temperature: ~5.5×103 deg. C

• Mean Distance from Earth: 1.5×108 km

• Rotation Rate: ~30 days (longer at the poles, shorter

at the equator)

• Current Chemical Constituency:

◦ Hydrogen: 75%

◦ Helium: 25%

◦ Everything else: <1%

• Energy Conversion:

◦ Hydrogen fusion produces Helium (~5×109

kg/sec)

The Sun produces electromagnetic radiation and particles. This

solar output is the primary determinant of the space environment
that spacecraft encounter. The sun releases electromagnetic
(EM) energy across the electromagnetic spectrum from long-
wavelength radio waves to short-wavelength x-rays and gamma
rays. Increases in solar radiation can provide early warning of
solar events that have sent large quantities of particles into
space.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 233

Electromagnetic Spectrum. Image courtesy of Honeywell Technology

Solutions Corporation.

Electromagnetic radiation from the Sun travels at the speed of

light, reaching Earth’s orbit in ~8 minutes. Charged particles
emitted by the Sun travel much more slowly, arriving anywhere
from 30 minutes to 4 days after the electromagnetic radiation.

EM energy contained in either electromagnetic radiation or

charged particles can pose various hazards to spacecraft
including:

• Degradation of solar arrays, polymer materials, and

microelectronics

• Attitude perturbations (especially at GEO and greater

altitudes)

• Orbit decay through atmospheric heating (for LEO

satellites)

• Transmission signal interference

234 • FRANCES ZHU

Electromagnetic Radiation

Ultraviolet

Photons of UV light are more energetic than photons of visible

light. When this high-energy UV radiation reaches the Earth
it causes heating of the atmosphere. This heating drives an
expansion of the atmosphere and an increase in atmospheric
density for a given altitude. Large increases in solar UV
radiation are associated with solar flare activity.

Ultraviolet Image of Sun Taken by SOHO. Light regions are ~ 1×106

deg. C while dark regions are cooler. Image courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 235

Solar Output in the UV Portion of the Spectrum. Image courtesy of

NASA.

Correlation between solar UV output as measured by the SOHO

Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) and X-Ray output for a
strong solar flare that occurred in November of 1997. Image courtesy of
NASA.
236 • FRANCES ZHU

Damage Due to Ultraviolet Radiation

Long-term exposure to UV radiation has been shown to cause

significant changes in the optical and mechanical properties of
various materials (such as changes in color, thermal properties,
brittleness, and opaqueness). Most spacecraft use beta cloth as
the outer layer of multi-layer insulation (MLI), protecting
spacecraft components from the space environment.

Teflar samples exposed to long-term UV radiation. Image by Aerospace

Corporation.

X-Rays

X-rays are produced when electrons that have been accelerated

by solar activity make a close pass near a solar wind proton.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 237

The Production of X-rays in Solar Flares. Image courtesy of NASA.

Image of the Sun in X-Ray Spectrum. Image courtesy of NASA.

238 • FRANCES ZHU

Gamma Rays

Gamma Rays are produced when protons accelerated by solar

activity strike an atom in the solar wind.

The Production of Gamma Rays in Solar Flares. Image courtesy of

NASA.

Gamma rays, found at very low background levels when the sun
is ‘quiet,’ also provide early warning of solar flare activity.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 239

Gamma-ray imaging of a June 1991 solar flare by the CGRO

spacecraft showed that gamma-ray production can last up to an
hour after the initial flare is sighted. (Here CGRO was on the
night side of its orbit during the first 40 minutes after the flare
was detected.)

Gamma Ray Imagery of Solar Flare by CGRO Spacecraft. Image

courtesy of NASA.

Radio Waves

Measurement of solar electromagnetic radiation in the radio

region is useful in determining sunspot levels. Radio emission
from the sun at a wavelength of 10.7 cm (often called the “10
240 • FRANCES ZHU

cm flux”) has been found to correlate very closely with the level
of sunspot activity. Since this flux is easy to measure, it has
replaced the sunspot “count” in many cases as the indicator of
solar activity.

Sun Activity in the Radio Spectrum. Image courtesy of NASA.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 241

The correlation between the 10 cm flux (the solid line) and the number
of sunspots (the +’s) seen each day between 1950 and 1990 is shown
here. Image courtesy of NASA.
242 • FRANCES ZHU

This graph shows the 10 cm radio flux over 4 solar cycles. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Solar Electromagnetic Radiation Summary

• The sun produces energy across the electromagnetic

spectrum. This output varies, depending upon
whether the sun is ‘quiet’ or ‘active’ at a given time.

• Since electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of

light, identification of solar events that are depositing
large quantities of charged particles into the solar
wind can be made hours to days before such particles
reach Earth orbit.

• A number of wavelengths provide early warning of

increased solar activity:
◦ long-wavelength radio waves can indicate
an increase in sunspot activity
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 243

◦ short wavelength UV, x-rays, and gamma

rays can indicate an increase in solar
activity

• The other factor of solar electromagnetic energy that

is important to flight operations is the pressure that
radiation exerts on satellites. If not properly
counterbalanced, solar pressure can produce attitude
control anomalies.

Solar Radiation Particles (Solar Wind)

In addition to producing electromagnetic radiation, the Sun also

produces a variable stream of particles that can affect satellite
operations.
244 • FRANCES ZHU

This image from the SOHO spacecraft shows particles streaming from
the Sun, forming the Solar Wind. Image courtesy of NASA.

Composition:

• The solar wind is a plasma (an ~equal mixture of

positive and negative charged particles).

• Positively charged ions – hydrogen and helium nuclei

(~50%)

• Electrons (~50%)

Speed:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 245

• Nominal wind velocity fluctuates between 200 km/s

and 600 km/s (so the particles reach the Earth in 3-9
days).

Temperature:

• >100,000 C

Particle Density:

• Nominally ~10 ions & electrons per cubic

centimeter. (Typical atmospheric density at the
surface of the Earth is 1022 times larger than this
solar wind density.)

Variation:

• Increased solar activity can dramatically change the

density, speed, and temperature of the solar wind.

Spacecraft Hazards Due to Solar Wind Plasma:

• Electronic system ‘bitflips’ and more serious

component damage

• Spacecraft charging

• False sensor readings

Solar Radiation Pressure

For GEO satellites and interplanetary spacecraft, solar radiation

pressure dominates the ‘drag’ that a satellite experiences similar
to the way that atmospheric drag affects LEO satellites. Below
246 • FRANCES ZHU

800 km altitude, atmospheric drag accelerations are greater than

solar radiation pressure. Above 800 km, solar radiation pressure
is dominant. Satellite geometry and the surface area exposed
toward the Sun determine what effect solar radiation pressure
has on the satellite. Solar radiation pressure may result in
torques, rotation, and reorientation of GEO satellites.

Solar Radiation Torque

The solar radiation torque effect on the spacecraft is similar to

that of aerodynamic torque, but the collision occurs with photons
instead of air molecules. The mean momentum flux from the
Sun, P, is:

where Fe is the solar constant (energy flux from Sun), c is the

speed of light, and S is the unit vector from the spacecraft to
the Sun. Radiation from the Sun can be completely absorbed,
specularly reflected, or diffusely reflected, the probabilities of
which are called the coefficients of absorption, where Ca + Cs +
Cd = 1.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 247

Cosmic Rays

In addition to the solar wind, very high energy (MeV and GeV
range) ions are produced by our Sun (and by sources external
to our solar system). These high-energy ions are called Cosmic
Rays. Although the flux of cosmic rays is very low, these
particles are very dangerous because they include heavy,
energetic ions of elements such as iron moving at close to the
speed of light. Cosmic rays can cause intense ionization as they
pass through matter, are difficult to shield against, and therefore
constitute a significant hazard. Solar cosmic ray flux increases
correlate well with solar flare events.

Counts from Neutron Monitor in Colorado Showing Correlation

between Solar Cosmic Rays and Solar Cycles. Image courtesy of
NOAA.

As the sun becomes more quiescent nearing solar minimum,

there is less turbulence in the solar wind and in the magnetic
field which is embedded in it. Cosmic rays then find easier
access to the inner solar system, resulting in an increase in the
248 • FRANCES ZHU

number of cosmic rays seen both in Earth orbit and at the Earth’s
surface.

This plot shows how the flux of low-energy cosmic rays varies with
changes in solar activity. Image by HTSC.

Solar Particles Summary

• The solar wind is primarily composed of plasma (an

~equal mixture of positively and negatively charged
electrons).

• The density and composition of this plasma when it

reaches Earth orbit can be dramatically affected by
increases in solar activity.

• These charged particles are dangerous to satellites,

especially in GEO and higher orbits.

• Cosmic rays are the very high energy ions (from the
Sun and other sources outside the solar system) that
are repelled away from the Earth during periods of
high solar activity but can penetrate down to the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 249

upper fringes of the atmosphere during ‘quiet’ solar

periods.

Typical Effects of Radiation and Particles on Space Missions. Image

courtesy of NASA.

Variations in Solar Output

It is important for spacecraft operations personnel to monitor

variations in solar output since these variations have a
significant impact on the space environment and on the hazards
that spacecraft may encounter.

Solar output varies in predictable cycles known as solar cycles.

The length of solar cycles can vary; however, a TYPICAL solar
cycle is usually 11 years in duration. A typical solar cycle
includes a 4-year build-up in solar magnetic activity (at the peak
of which the Sun’s magnetic poles reverse) followed by a 7-year
decline in solar magnetic activity.
250 • FRANCES ZHU

These variations in solar magnetic activity are accompanied by

variations in solar output as illustrated above. Image courtesy of NASA.

Sunspots

Sunspots are sites of very intense magnetic fields in the Sun’s

photosphere (the visible surface of the Sun). Sunspots are ~
2,000 degrees cooler than the surrounding photosphere and can
be up to 50,000 km in diameter. Individual sunspots last from a
few hours to a few days. Solar flares and coronal mass ejections,
the two primary sources of solar output, are linked to sunspot
magnetic disturbances. The third source of solar output, coronal
holes, is discussed later in this chapter but is not believed to be
directly related to sunspots.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 251

The 11-Year Solar Cycle as indicated by Sun Spot Activity. Image

courtesy of NASA.

The solar cycle is evident in measurements of solar sunspot

numbers. Sunspot activity follows the solar cycle. In fact, the
terms solar cycle and sunspot cycle are often used
interchangeably.
252 • FRANCES ZHU

Annual Sunspot Numbers 1700-1995. Image courtesy of NASA.

Solar Flares

Solar flares are eruptions – sometimes spectacular eruptions –

in the Sun’s chromosphere that release built-up magnetic energy
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 253

and emit radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum. Solar

flare radiation heats and accelerates particles in the solar wind
(at temperatures from 10-30 x 106 °C). A visible brightening of
the sun near a sunspot is usually an indication that a solar flare
has occurred. Flares typically last from a few minutes to a few
hours. High energy protons from a flare can reach Earth within
30 minutes (~1/3 the speed of light) of the flare initiation. This
is called a Solar Proton Event.

The primary difference in the energy spectrum between the

‘quiet’ sun and solar flares is the dramatic increase in energy in
the short wavelengths (UV, X-rays, and gamma rays):

• X-rays result from the energizing of electrons during

the flare

• Gamma rays result from the energizing of high-

energy protons and heavier ions.
254 • FRANCES ZHU

A solar flare. Image courtesy of AURA/NOAO National Science

Foundation.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 255

Gamma-ray spectrum of a solar flare taken by the Compton Gamma Ray

Observatory. Image courtesy of NASA.

Solar Flare Profile

• Pre-flare Stage: X-ray and gamma-ray energies barely

detectable

• Impulsive Phase: High energy x-ray and gamma-ray

spectra show large fluctuating spikes while the low
energy x-ray spectrum gradually rises
• Gradual Phase: High energy x-ray and gamma-ray
levels begin to taper off as do low energy x-rays
256 • FRANCES ZHU

(although at a significantly slower rate)

This figure shows the x-ray and gamma-ray profiles for a large 1989
flare. Image courtesy of NASA.

Solar flares are classified according to x-ray output, specifically

according to the order of magnitude of the peak burst intensity
(I) measured at the earth in the 0.1 to 0.8 nanometer (x-ray)
wavelength band.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 257

Solar Flare Classifications. Image courtesy of NASA.

Solar flare activity (for 24 hour period) is rated in the following

categories:

• Very Low: X-ray events less than C-class

• Low: C-class x-ray events

• Moderate: Isolated (one to four) M-class x-ray events

• High: Several (5 or more) M-class x-ray events, or

isolated (one to four) M5 or greater x-ray events

• Very High: Several (5 or more) M5 or greater x-ray

events
258 • FRANCES ZHU

This plot shows that the average number of solar flares/year typically
peaks in the second and third years after a solar maximum. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Number of flares between 1991-1999 as detected by the Compton

Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO). Image courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 259

Coronal Mass Ejection

A Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) occurs when a solar

prominence – a bubble of trapped coronal gas – ruptures and the
trapped coronal gas is released into the solar wind.

CME photo was taken in the UV by the SMM Spacecraft. Image

courtesy of NASA.

CMEs are a daily occurrence but a large one typically only

occurs once or twice per year. Large CMEs can dump large
quantities (typically 1012 to 1013 kg) of high-energy ions and
electrons into the solar wind. The number of CMEs varies with
the solar cycle from 0.5/day during solar minimum to 2.5/day
during solar maximum. CMEs are usually associated with large
groupings of sunspots, however, they are NOT usually
associated with solar flares. CMEs can accelerate the solar wind
to between 400 and 2,000 km/s. It takes 2-4 days for the
energetic particles ejected by a CME into the solar wind to reach
Earth’s orbit.

Coronal Holes

Coronal Holes form in the Sun’s corona – most often near the
260 • FRANCES ZHU

Sun’s magnetic poles – as a result of broken magnetic field lines

and allow coronal material, particularly low-energy electrons, to
escape into the solar wind.

As seen here at x-ray wavelengths in this Yohkoh image, the coronal

holes at the Sun’s poles appear darker (cooler) than surrounding coronal
material. Image courtesy of NASA.

Coronal holes most often form near the Sun’s poles, however,
sometimes coronal holes also form at lower solar latitudes. This
seems to be more prevalent in the years following the solar
maximum.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 261

Where to Get Information

There are a few primary sources of information on variations in

the solar output:

• NOAA’s Space Environment Center in Boulder

(Colorado) is the “Nation’s official source of space
weather alerts and warnings for disturbances that can
affect people and equipment working in the space
environment.” This website provides information
(usually updating every ~15 minutes) on the solar
262 • FRANCES ZHU

wind and the solar EM output.

http://www.sec.noaa.gov/

• NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC)

provides predictions for the next 20 years on the 10
cm radio flux. These predictions are used by most
LEO satellite projects to estimate atmospheric drag
and orbit re-boost/tracking requirements.

http://envnet.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Upon first entering “Today’s Space Weather” at the NOAA

Space Environment Center website, you see a photo of the sun
in H-alpha (a good place to see solar flares, prominences, or
CMEs).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 263

Solar Output in H-Alpha (Visible). Image courtesy of NOAA.

264 • FRANCES ZHU

GOES X-ray Flux Data. Image courtesy of NOAA.

GOES Electron and Proton Flux Data. Image courtesy of NOAA.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 265

ACE Electron and Proton Flux data can also be viewed at the NOAA
Space Environment Center website. Image courtesy of NASA/NOAA.
266 • FRANCES ZHU

Hourly updated information on the density, speed, and temperature of

the solar wind collected by the ACE satellite can be found at
http://sec.noaa.gov/ace/ACErtsw_home.html. Image courtesy of NASA/
NOAA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 267

National Solar Observatory (NSO) Kitt Peak coronal hole

images can be found at:

http://www.nso.noao.edu/synoptic/synoptic.html
268 • FRANCES ZHU

Within 3 days of a flare, the Solar Data Analysis Center (SDAC) at

Goddard Space Flight Center releases gamma-ray output information
collected from the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory:
http://umbra.nascom.nasa.gov/batse/batse_years.html. Image courtesy of
NASA.

Cosmic ray flux at the Earth’s surface is measured by various neutron

monitoring stations. Near real-time data from the Moscow Neutron
Monitor is posted on the Internet at http://helios.izmiran.rssi.ru/cosray/
main.htm Image courtesy of Russian Academy of Sciences.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 269

Cosmic ray flux at Earth-Sun L1 as measured by the ACE satellite can

be found at: http://sec.noaa.gov/ace/ACErtsw_home.html Image
courtesy of NASA/NOAA.

Upon visiting this website you are asked to select the ACE
instrument from which you would like a plot. To see cosmic
ray data, select the Solar Isotope Spectrometer (SIS) and then
specify the period to be plotted. (A 7-day plot was specified in
the figure.)
270 • FRANCES ZHU

Daily updates of the 10cm solar flux can be found at the ESTEC
website: http://www.estec.esa.nl/wmwww/wma/noaa/10cm_plot.html
Image courtesy of NOAA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 271

Daily updates of the 10cm solar flux can be also be found

at the Canadian Solar Radio Monitoring website:
http://www.drao.nrc.ca/icarus/www/sol_home.shtml

10 cm Radio Flux Predictions

Predictions of future radio flux can provide insight into future

solar activity levels. GSFC provides predictions on 5-day centers
for the next ~20 years. This information is used to predict
atmospheric drag and determine when upcoming LEO
spacecraft to orbit adjustment maneuvers will be required. Any
variation of the measured flux from these predictions will affect
the frequency of maneuvers. GSFC EnviroNET
at Environmental Planning | National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (nasa.gov)
272 • FRANCES ZHU

Variations in Solar Output Summary

• Alerts of potentially dangerous changes in solar

output can be found at the NOAA Space Environment
Center website: http://www.sec.noaa.gov

• It is also possible to be put on SEC email distribution

lists to receive daily updates of space weather
automatically.

• The solar output information can be used to identify

potentially hazardous solar events as they are
occurring or, in some cases, before they occur.

• This information can also be used after a satellite

anomaly has been identified to assist in the root cause
analysis of the anomaly.

• Make sure when using space weather data to predict

the hazard to your spacecraft that you take into
account the location of the satellite collecting the data
vs. the location of your satellite.

The Earth’s Magnetic Field

The heating and cooling of liquid metals in the Earth’s core are
thought to be the driver behind the Earth’s magnetic field. Close
in (within ~56,000 km of the Earth’s surface) on the dayside
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 273

this field resembles a typical dipole magnetic field. Beyond

~56,000 km the magnetic field is compressed and elongated by
interaction with the solar wind. (This will be covered in the
next section.) 90% of the measurable field is located beneath the
Earth’s surface.

The Earth’s Magnetic Field. Image courtesy of NASA.

The Sun-Earth Connection

The solar wind, composed mainly of charged particles, has

difficulty penetrating the Earth’s magnetic field and so attempts
to flow around it. In the upwind direction (sunward) the
magnetic field is compressed and a bow shock is formed. In the
downwind direction (anti-sunward) the magnetic field elongates,
forming a magnetotail. The cavity formed around the Earth by
274 • FRANCES ZHU

the interaction between the solar wind and the Earth’s magnetic
field is known as the magnetosphere.

The Earth’s Magnetosphere. Image courtesy of NASA.

Solar wind particles can enter the Earth’s magnetosphere at two

locations:

• Through the polar cusps (producing the Aurora

effects)

• Through the ‘back door’ (resulting in particle

addition to the outer Van Allen radiation belt)

Van Allen Radiation Belts

The Van Allen radiation belts are doughnut-shaped regions of

high-energy particles encircling the Earth, held in place by the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 275

Earth’s magnetic field. (These radiation belts are named after

Dr. James Van Allen, the American physicist whose Geiger
counter on the first successful U.S. satellite, Explorer I, first
detected these belts in 1958. Dr. Van Allen was a professor at the
University of Iowa).

Inner Belt:

• Formed by cosmic radiation and solar wind

• Composed primarily of high energy protons (10-100

MeV)

• Very intense, compact, and fairly stable

• Increases in intensity during solar minimum.

Outer Belt:

• Composed of ‘trapped’ solar wind plasma (typically

<50 KeV)

• Greatly influenced by fluctuations in solar activity

276 • FRANCES ZHU

(e.g., solar storms); particle density can increase by a

factor of 10 to 1,000 over a short period (minutes)

South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA)

Although most of the inner Van Allen radiation belt stays above
500 km altitude, the belt does “dip” down to nearly 250 km in a
region known as the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). This “dip”
in the inner Van Allen belt occurs because the Earth’s magnetic
field is not centered on the Earth’s core but a few hundred miles
off the Earth’s core, away from the SAA. The boundaries of the
SAA vary with altitude (down to 250 km). At 500 km the SAA
ranges from -90 to +40 longitude and -50 to 0 latitude. When
low-earth orbiting satellites fly through this region of dense,
high-energy proton radiation in the SAA, electronic components
and instruments can be disrupted.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 277

This shows the proton flux of the inner Van Allen

radiation belt; the “off-center” pattern responsible for
the SAA is clearly visible. Image courtesy of ESA.
278 • FRANCES ZHU

The South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). Image courtesy of NASA.

Geomagnetic Storms

When solar energy input into the magnetosphere increases –

entering the magnetosphere at the polar cusps or the rear of
the magnetosphere – geomagnetic storms can result. A
geomagnetic storm will usually begin from one to four days after
a coronal mass ejection (CME) is first seen and may last from
a few hours to days. Also, solar flare storms will usually begin
from a few hours to a day after the flare is first seen and may last
from a few minutes to a few hours.

At Earth, geomagnetic storms can cause:

• Increases in auroral activity

• Power grid failures

• Communication blackouts

• Heating and expansion of the atmosphere

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 279

Spectacular view of the southern aurora behind Space Shuttle

Endeavor’s tail fin STS-68, October 1994. Image courtesy of NASA.

In 1997 particles from a large CME on January 6th reached

Earth on January 10th, striking and compressing the
magnetosphere so that the bow shock “pushed in” to ~36,000 km
– geosynchronous orbit – altitude. This resulted in:

• Great auroral displays

• Disruption in radio communications

• The loss of the geosynchronous Telstar 401 satellite

Within a ~1 day, the storm had passed.

280 • FRANCES ZHU

Geomagnetic Storm Impact on Geo Satellites in January 1997. Image

courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 281

Estimated Kp-Index. Image courtesy of NOAA.

The Kp-Index is a planet-wide average measurement of how

disturbed the Earth’s magnetic field is. (Measurements are taken
at numerous ground-based sites.) The Kp-Index is averaged over
3 hours. A Kp-Index of 4 or greater indicates that a geomagnetic
storm is occurring.
282 • FRANCES ZHU

This graph shows the relationship between the solar cycle and the
number of geomagnetic storms as measured by the Kp Index. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Magnetic Substorms

When kinetic energy from the solar wind is converted into

magnetic energy and stored in the Earth’s magnetotail, this
build-up of energy can be released as a Magnetic Substorm. A
magnetic substorm releases an energized plasma (5-50 keV) that
is injected toward the Earth (from the anti-sunward direction).
This hot plasma can extend into geosynchronous orbit where
satellites may see a hundred-fold increase in the particle
environment. Substorms occur predominantly during
geomagnetic storms.

Magnetic substorm phases include:

• Growth Phase: This phase usually lasts about 1 hour

during which an increase in solar wind kinetic energy
causes the storing of this energy as magnetic energy
in the Earth’s magnetic field.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 283

• Expansion Phase: Usually lasts 30 minutes (10

minutes to 2 hours). The beginning of this phase is
the onset of the substorm. Plasma release toward
Earth reaches geosynchronous orbits (10s of keVs).
In addition, auroral activity increases on the night
side.

• Recovery Phase: Usually lasts about 1 hour during

which time the magnetic field returns to normal and
the plasma flux abates.

Magnetic Substorm. Image courtesy of NASA.

284 • FRANCES ZHU

This graph records the electrons intercepted by the ATS-6 satellite

during a series of substorms on July 20, 1974. Each jagged peak marks
the arrival of particles from a new substorm. Image courtesy of NASA.

Sun-Earth Connection – Where to Get Information

K-Index data is updated every 15 minutes at the NOAA SEC

website: http://solar.sec.noaa.gov/rt_plots/kp_3d.cgi

In addition to the Kp-index, there are a number of measurements

of variations in other components of the Earth’s magnetic field
(known as the Ap-index, and the Hp-index). Information on the
Hp-index (as measured at GEO) can be found at the NOAA SEC
website: http://www.sec.noaa.gov/today.html
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 285

Physical Phenomena Definition

Gravity

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Apollo 15 feather and hammer drop. Video courtesy of NASA.

All things with mass or energy experience gravity, the

phenomenon that brings objects or light toward (or gravitates
toward) one another. For objects in space with a large enough
mass, the proximal smaller mass will be brought toward the
larger mass, like the sun attracting planets and like an apple
falling toward Earth. The larger mass moves toward the smaller
mass too but if the mass difference is large, the large mass’
movement is imperceivable. Discovered in 1687, Newton’s law
of gravitation related the “forces which keep the planets in their
orbs must [be] reciprocally as the squares of their distances from
the centers about which they revolve: and thereby compared the
force required to keep the Moon in her Orb with the force of
gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty
nearly.”

Where F is the force, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects

interacting, r is the distance between the centers of the masses
and G is the gravitational constant. For our interest in satellites,
286 • FRANCES ZHU

the force of gravity on a spacecraft from orbiting a planet is

related to the mass of the spacecraft, the mass of the planet, the
gravitational constant, and the distance between the center of
the spacecraft and the center of the planet. The mass to force
relationship is straightforward: the more massive the satellite,
the more gravitational force, and vice versa. The interesting
relationship in this equation is the inverse squared relationship
between force and distance. As the satellite moves farther away,
the force of gravity steeply drops off, which explains why we
need a rocket to get off the Earth’s surface but we only need
spacecraft thrusters once we’re in orbit. We care about gravity
in spacecraft design because we want to know how fast the
spacecraft is moving in its orbit or how fast the spacecraft needs
to move to be captured or escape a planet’s gravity. Let’s assume
for all cases, the mass of our satellite is significantly less than
the planet we’re orbiting, which is a very reasonable assumption.
For the simplest circular orbit of very little eccentricity, the
velocity may be approximated as:

Where is the orbit velocity, M is the planet’s mass, and the

other variables carry over from the gravity equation.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 287

For closed orbits, the spacecraft’s orbital period is given by the

formula: T = 2r3GM.

A direct analogy may be made to the satellite revisit period,

which is the time elapsed between observations of the same
point on earth by a satellite.

Fun history: astronomers couldn’t directly measure how far

away the other planets were but they could observe the time it
took for the same planet to complete an orbit around the sun by
observing the sky. Astronomers would use a reorganized version
of the orbital period formula r = (GMT242 )1/3 to calculate the
distance of the planet from the sun.

If we were to calculate the escape velocity of a spacecraft

leaving a planet’s surface, the escape velocity for that body, at a
given distance, is calculated by the formula:

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More generally for orbits of any eccentricity, the instantaneous

orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory takes
both the mean distance and the instantaneous distance into
account:
288 • FRANCES ZHU

Where μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the orbited

body, r is the distance at which the speed is to be calculated, and
a is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.

Now that we know how to calculate the instantaneous velocity

of a spacecraft, we can calculate satellite revisit time, apply
basic knowledge of orbits to propulsive systems, and calculate
the effects of other environmental phenomena that depend on
spacecraft velocity. Relevant parameters: altitude, eccentricity,
planet mass

Outputs: orbit velocity, orbital period

Atmosphere

Our atmosphere consists of a rich abundance of nitrogen,

oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, etc. [Wikipedia]. While we
humans may appreciate this fluid as a medium for life,
spacecraft view our atmosphere as more of a burden of particles
to push through (producing aerodynamic forces); think of
capsules, space shuttles, or rockets that must re-enter our
atmosphere.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 289

LDSD: Supersonic Test Flight. Video

courtesy of NASA/JPL

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Video of Space Shuttle Heat Protection – Last Flight of Spaceshuttle Columbia.

Video courtesy of BBC.

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Video of Falcon 9 First Stage Reentry Footage from Plane. Video by SpaceX.

Significant heat builds up from the spacecraft hitting many,

many, many atmospheric particles at high speed.

Atmospheric Layers

The atmosphere varies in air pressure and density, decreasing

with altitude. The atmosphere may be broken into different
layers corresponding to temperature behavior:
290 • FRANCES ZHU

Different layers of the Atmosphere. Image by Trevor Sorensen with

HSFL.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 291

Earth’s atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in 3 dimensions as

292 • FRANCES ZHU

seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects
within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown here at the bottom of
the thermosphere can actually form at any altitude in this atmospheric
layer. Image by Kevin Song.

• Troposphere

◦ 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)

◦ 80% of the atmosphere’s mass

◦ this is where weather occurs

• Stratosphere

◦ 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)

◦ 19% of the atmosphere’s mass, including

the ozone layer

◦ this is where commercial airliners like to fly

• Mesosphere

◦ 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)

◦ This is where meteors burn up

• Thermosphere

◦ 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)

◦ This is where the ISS flies

◦ solar activity plays a major role in the

temperature and density of this region

• Exosphere

◦ 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

◦ The upper limit of the atmosphere where it

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 293

merges into space

We care about the region past the Karman line, starting at 100
km, which includes the Thermosphere and Exosphere. Past the
Exosphere’s altitude of influence at about 10,000 km, “the
influence of solar radiation pressure on atomic hydrogen
exceeds that of Earth’s gravitational pull” [Wikipedia].

The Thermosphere and Exosphere are the layers that primarily

impact satellite operations.

Thermosphere

• Temperature increases with altitude up to 700-1200º

C. This increase in temperature is due to the
absorption of solar radiation by the limited amount of
remaining molecular oxygen. Small changes in solar
radiation can greatly affect the temperature in this
region.
• The major atmospheric components in this region are
still nitrogen and oxygen. At this extreme altitude,
gas molecules are widely separated (density at 300
km of 109 /cm3 compared to 1019 /cm3 at sea level).

• In the majority of the thermosphere, spacecraft

experience increased drag that causes orbital
velocities to increase, altitude to decrease, and
eventual re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere.
• https://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/RoR_WWW/SWREDI/
2015/SatDrag_YZheng_060415.pdf
294 • FRANCES ZHU

Exosphere

• The exosphere is the transitional zone between

Earth’s atmosphere and interplanetary space.

• At exospheric heights, molecular escape from the

earth’s atmosphere is significant. Lighter atoms and
molecules can escape at lower altitudes than heavier
ones.

• Solar winds start stripping away the exosphere. As

this layer’s atoms and molecules are so far apart, the
spacecraft experiences near-vacuum and is not
significantly affected by atmospheric drag. This layer
is very cold, affecting the spacecraft bus subsystem
survivability.

Relevant parameters: pressure, density, temperature, orbital

velocity, spacecraft area

Outputs: orbital velocity

The Ionosphere

You’ll notice that the Ionosphere is not one of the atmospheric

layers shown or mentioned so far, even though it is probably the
best known. That is because, unlike the other layers, it is not
based on molecular density or temperature. Beginning at about
90 km, there is a significant quantity of ions and electrons in
the atmosphere (mainly created by interaction with solar x-ray
and UV radiation). This atmospheric region of charged particles,
overlapping with the Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and
Exosphere, is called the Ionosphere.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 295

The Ionosphere includes the Thermosphere and parts of the Mesosphere

and Exosphere. Image by Trevor Sorensen with HSFL.

The motion of ions and electrons in the ionosphere produces

an electrical current that heats and increases the density of the
atmosphere. As shown below, the peak density of the ionosphere
is between 200 and 600 km (the F2 region).

Charged particles in the ionosphere are also able to reflect radio

waves, allowing RF transmission ‘over the horizon.’

• The highest frequency that can be reflected varies as

the amount of charged particles in the Ionosphere
varies – with the typical maximum reflective
frequency as low as 2Mhz during the night and as
high as 10 to 15 Mhz during the day when ionization
is greatest.

Charged particles from the sun in the ionosphere cause auroral

activity and LEO spacecraft hazards.
296 • FRANCES ZHU

Image courtesy of NASA.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 297

Measures of the maximum signal frequency that can be reflected from

the F2 region of the ionosphere can be found at the NOAA SEC website:
http://www.sec.noaa.gov/ (under ‘Data & Products’ – ‘Lists of Solar
Geophysical Data’ – ‘Ionospheric Data’) Image courtesy of NOAA.

Vacuum

There are three main problems for spacecraft caused by the near-
vacuum of space:

• Out-gassing

◦ Tiny bubbles of gas trapped in materials

under atmospheric pressure are released in
a vacuum. Not a problem for materials, but
can create a film of dirt over the lens and
sensors.

• Cold welding

◦ In space, there is no longer a tiny cushion

provided by air between surfaces. As a
consequence, the raw materials may weld
together. The process is usually reversible,
but it is better to avoid it with surface
treatments (anodization).
298 • FRANCES ZHU

• Heat transfer

◦ No conduction or convection, only

radiation.

There are advantages of operating in the near-vacuum of space:

• RF Signal Attenuation

◦ Radiofrequency (RD) signals transmitted

through the atmosphere suffer degradation
of signal (called attenuation). The amount
of attenuation depends on the frequency
band and some bands are also adversely
affected by atmospheric conditions such as
rain or snow. RF signals traveling in the
near-vacuum of space do not suffer from
this attenuation.

• Drag
◦ In the near-vacuum of space, the
distribution of molecules is very sparse
resulting in little or no effects of drag on the
spacecraft caused by collisions with the gas
molecules. The lower the orbit, the less
perfect is the vacuum, and the greater the
drag on the spacecraft.

Even the remote areas of interplanetary or interstellar space,

far from any planets, are not true vacuums and have widely
dispersed particles, molecules, and photons, known as the
interplanetary or interstellar medium.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 299

Space Radiation and Particles

Electromagnetic radiation and particles both have an effect on

spacecraft in both Earth orbit and deep space. The figure shows
the typical radiation and particles with their dimensions that
affect spacecraft.

Shows the electromagnetic spectrum and particles that affect spacecraft.

Note that there is an error in this figure. “Micrometeorites” should be
“Micrometeoroids” – see below.

Single Event Effects

When a single, high-energy proton/ion penetrates a satellite

surface and encounters an electronic device, it may decelerate
and lose energy through an ionization process. This results in a
short pulse of current in the impacted device, known as a Single
Event Effect (SEE). The SEE experienced by the satellite will
depend on:

• The energy of the impacting proton/ion

300 • FRANCES ZHU

• Path length over which the charge was deposited

• The sensitivity of the impacted circuit to the pulse of

current

Older spacecraft were not as prone to Single Event Upsets since

only large ions had the energy/mass to damage the robust
electronics. In the past 30 years, the miniaturization of
spacecraft electronics has resulted in vulnerability to disabling
by single protons (which are much more prevalent in the space
environment than heavier ions).

The SEE can cause either a hard error or a soft error:

Soft Errors

The damage is temporary and non-destructive. This includes:

• Single Event Upset (SEU or “bit flip”) – a change of

state or transient induced by an ionizing particle
impacting a device. This may occur in digital, analog,
and optical components or may have effects in
surrounding circuitry. These are “soft” bit errors in
that a reset/rewriting/re-powering of the device
normally restores the device to normal operations.
Multiple SEUs occurring ‘simultaneously’ in a byte/
word are referred to as Multi-Bit Errors.

• Single Event Latchup (SEL) – a potentially

destructive condition where the component draws
excessive current (basic shorts to ground). In
traditional SEL, the device current may exceed the
device’s maximum specification (typically hundreds
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 301

of milliamps) and destroy the device if not current-

limited. A “micro latch” is a subset of SEL where the
device current remains below the maximum specified
for the device. Removal of power to the device is
required in all non-catastrophic SEL conditions in
order to recover device operations.

Hard Errors

The damage is permanent and functional in nature. This

includes:

• Single Hard Error (SEE) – an SEU that causes a

permanent state change such as a ‘stuck bit’ in a
memory device.

• Single Event Burnout – non-reversible device failure

due to a high current state in a power transistor.

• Single Event Gate Rupture- a destructive rupture of a

gate insulator.

What Causes SEEs?

Van Allen Belt Trapped Protons (including the SAA)

Proton density in the inner Van Allen belt is cyclic with the
maximum density coming at solar minimum and minimum
density at solar maximum. At the outer edge of the inner belt
(7,000 km to 14,000 km), there is an area where high-energy
protons from solar flare/geomagnetic storms can become
302 • FRANCES ZHU

trapped for periods of 6-8 months. This is most likely to occur

when the inner belt is at its weakest levels.

Cosmic Ray Ions

The very high energies of these particles make them a risk even
though their flux is very low. Flux density for these particles
within the magnetosphere varies with the solar cycle, reaching
a peak during solar minimum. Polar orbits are especially at risk
from these high-energy particles.

Solar Flare Ions

The probability of occurrence of these events follows the

11-year solar cycle. Solar flare events can last from hours to
days and the high-energy protons they emit can reach Earth
within ~30 minutes of the flare occurrence. Solar flare ions
typically do not have enough energy to penetrate farther into the
magnetosphere than the outer Van Allen belt.

Danger to LEO Satellites

The inner Van Allen belt poses the greatest high-energy proton
risk to LEO satellites (with peak proton density during solar
cycle minimums). The inner Van Allen belt reaches from ~500
km to 5,500 km with a maximum proton density occurring at
~5,000 km. Many low-Earth orbiting missions are exposed to
high-energy protons in each orbit when passing through the
South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). At polar latitudes the cusps in
the magnetosphere allow solar flare and cosmic ray protons to
reach down to LEO.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 303

This shows the correlation between SAMPEX satellite SAA passage and
SEU occurrences. Image courtesy of NASA.

These plots of COBE data show the correlation between SEU

occurrences and SAA passage at a mission altitude of 890 km. Image
courtesy of NASA.
304 • FRANCES ZHU

This plot of SEUs measured on the polar-orbiting UoSat-3 spacecraft

shows a strong correlation between the number of SEUs recorded and
passage through the SAA (proton density) and polar latitudes (cosmic
rays and/or solar protons). Image courtesy of NASA.

Danger to Geosynchronous Satellites

Geosynchronous satellites are at risk from high energy protons/

ions from the solar wind (with peak density during solar flare
periods) and from cosmic rays during solar minimum. During
periods of very high solar activity, the magnetosphere may
become compressed on the sunward side, placing GEO satellites
in this area outside of the magnetosphere and directly in the path
of high-energy solar protons.

Outside of the magnetosphere, the risk from cosmic rays remains

constant (and > than the risk to GEO satellites during solar
minimum) while the risk from solar protons varies with the solar
cycle and with distance from the Sun. In addition, other planets
such as Jupiter, have radiation belts that can present a SEE threat
for satellites in orbit around them.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 305

This plot of SEUs in the attitude control system random access memory
(RAM) of NASA’s first geosynchronous Tracking and Data Relay
Satellite (TDRS) shows a correlation between SEUs and high-energy
galactic cosmic ray counts. Additional shielding on future TDRS
satellites reduced this problem. Image courtesy of NASA.
306 • FRANCES ZHU

The March 1991 solar storm resulted in numerous Earth and space
disruptions. Image courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 307

This plot of Single Event Upsets in NOAA’s GOES-7 satellite shows a

definitive correlation between SEUs and one of the largest flares of the
satellite era (an X13!). This solar flare occurred in October 1989. Image
courtesy of NASA.

SEE Mitigations

By Design

Single event effects vary based on the type of devices that

are impacted (e.g., power converter, memory storage). During
the spacecraft design process, a determination is made of the
number of SEEs that can be tolerated by each spacecraft
component that is at risk for single event effects. Designers can
308 • FRANCES ZHU

partially protect the satellite against SEEs by shielding and other

satellite design features (error detection/correction, watchdog
timers, redundancy).

Shielding

Although not providing total protection, increased shielding (at

the expense of increased overall spacecraft mass) will reduce the
number of SEEs encountered by a spacecraft. SEU vulnerability
on TDRS-1 resulted in shielding design improvements on
subsequent Tracking and Data Relay Satellites.

Error Detection and Correction (EDAC)

Spacecraft solid-state memory devices typically incorporate

some type of scheme for detecting and correcting SEUs.
Sometimes the rate of this memory ‘scrubbing’ can be adjusted
to minimize the chance that a multiple-bit error will occur prior
to the initial SEU being corrected by the EDAC software. There
are a number of EDAC methods employed including:

Watchdog Timers

Many spacecraft have “I’m OK” timers that are reset within a
given timeframe as long as the ‘sender’ is healthy. If disabled
by a SEE, the “I’m OK” signal is not sent and the spacecraft
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 309

is reconfigured automatically as necessary to remain safe within

the context of the identified anomaly.

Redundancy

Redundant components can provide backup capability in case

a destructive SEE occurs. In addition, redundant components
run in parallel may provide a ‘voting’ capability where polling
and comparison are performed to determine if components are
working properly.

Example of SEE Mitigation

The Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment (sensitive

to energies from 50 keV to 10MeV) on CGRO carries a separate
charged particle monitor (CPM) detector. The event rates in
the CPM detector provide a monitor of the high-energy charged
particle environment for OSSE.
310 • FRANCES ZHU

NASA Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) Image courtesy of

NASA.

Additionally, the CPM provides detection of the spacecraft entry

into the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). The spacecraft is
designed to turn off the OSSE detectors during traversals of
the SAA; this charged particle monitor, however, remains on
to provide integral charged particle dose monitoring for
background modeling.

High-Velocity Impacts

One danger that faces all spacecraft, especially in Earth orbit, is

the possibility of a high-velocity impact with a piece of matter,
which can be either of artificial origin (e.g., space debris) or
natural (meteoroids). If a satellite is unlucky enough to be in the
wrong place at the wrong time, the damage that will be done
will depend on the impact velocity, size/mass of the particle, the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 311

angle of strike, and the material composition. We’ll examine the

nature and likelihood of these threats, then look at the damage
that the impact can cause.

Space Debris

Space debris, also called space junk, is an artificial material

that is orbiting Earth but is no longer functional. The source is
usually from spent rocket boosters, defunct satellites, or pieces
of these objects after an explosion or break-up, as well as pieces
discarded (intentionally or unintentionally) by spacecraft during
missions. Satellite collisions (either unintentional or as a result
of an anti-satellite test) can produce hundreds or thousands of
pieces of space debris.

Distribution of space debris around Earth. Image courtesy of ESA.

312 • FRANCES ZHU

The U.S. Combined Space Operations Center (CSpOC) tracks ~23,000

large objects and catalogs most of their orbits. Image courtesy of NASA.

The material mass in Earth’s orbit continues to increase and has

exceeded 8000 metric tons. Image courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 313

How much orbital debris is up there? The image is courtesy of NASA.

Due to high impact speed in space (~10 km/sec in LEO), even

sub-millimeter

debris pose a realistic threat to human spaceflight and robotic

missions

10 km/sec = 22,000 miles per hour (the speed of a bullet ~1,500

miles per hour)

• The mission-ending threat is dominated by small

(mm-to-cm sized) debris impacts

• Total mass: >8000 tons LEO-to-GEO (~3000 tons in

LEO)
314 • FRANCES ZHU

Image courtesy of NASA.

Image courtesy of NASA.

Damage Caused by Impacts

Debris can cause a range of damage. Man-made particles less

than 1mm in diameter will not penetrate a spacecraft’s skin but
may damage the surface they impact. Natural particles even
below 1 mm in diameter may penetrate into a spacecraft,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 315

creating a plasma that can result in charge/discharge phenomena.

The different types of impacting debris damage are:

• Spallation

• Cratering

• Penetration

• Cracking

• Arcing

• Fragmentation

• Erosion

• Catastrophic

Examples of Impact Damage on Spacecraft. Images Courtesy of NASA

316 • FRANCES ZHU

Spallation

In addition to the damage that can be done by impacting debris

itself, spacecraft are also susceptible to particles created by
spallation. Spallation is the process of material from the satellite
itself being flaked/chipped off and energized by the impacting
object. Spallation is more prevalent in impacts from
micrometeoroids where the high impact velocities bring the
particle in with a great deal of energy. These ‘secondary’
particles can spread out and cause additional damage.

Spallation particles can be created by:

• Cratering: In this case, the impacting particle does

not break through the surface but does knock loose
and energize spacecraft material on the inside surface
of the impact zone.

• Penetration: In this case, the impacting particles pass

through the material but some of the energy is
transferred to surrounding spacecraft material (which
flakes/chips off).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 317

An impact site on the LDEF spacecraft shows the

“peeling” associated with spallation. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Cratering

Typically seen when LEO satellites are impacted at low impact

velocities by small (<1mm) man-made debris particles
Although the impact may not damage the structural integrity
of the impacted surface, it may spall off secondary particles
and shock waves which can then damage internal spacecraft
components. The impact may also change the properties of the
impacted surface:

• Thermal Changes: Debris may cause de-lamination

318 • FRANCES ZHU

and removal of surface coatings well beyond the

initial impact sight. (Approximately 5% of the LDEF
thermal control coatings were removed over the
6-year mission.)

• Optical Changes: Debris in the 10 to 100-micron

range can significantly alter optical properties.

A crater in the Space Shuttle window was

caused by an impact with a paint flake.
Image courtesy of NASA.

Penetration

If a particle is able to penetrate the exterior skin of a satellite, it

will probably enter the satellite in a fragmented or liquified state
over an area much larger than the original penetration sight.

For example, if a 1 cm diameter aluminum sphere strikes a

typical 0.5 cm thick aluminum spacecraft wall at 10 km/s, the
impact would fully melt and partially vaporize the impactor and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 319

create a 2.7 cm diameter hole. Once inside the spacecraft, this

material would apply enough pressure on interior components
to destroy almost everything within 15 cm of the surface. Even
particles down to 0.75mm in diameter impacting at 10 km/s on
a solar array or high gain antenna drive housing could cause
spallation that could potentially jam the motor.

After passing through this beta cloth on the Space Shuttle radiator
manifold, the impacting object went 1/2 way through the aluminum
underneath, producing a crater and associated internal spall. Full
penetration would have resulted in a coolant leak and probably an early
termination of the mission. Image courtesy of NASA.

Cracking

Impacts on optical surfaces can result in cracking. Solar cell

cover glass is particularly susceptible to this type of damage
since it provides a large potential impact area. Cover glass
cracking can significantly reduce the transmission capability of
320 • FRANCES ZHU

the glass, resulting in reduced power generation capability. Man-

made objects (nuts, bolts, paint chips, etc.) are usually the cause
of this kind of damage.

Arcing

Small particles that either penetrate or crater (with spallation

created) the surface of a spacecraft may generate plasmas that
can cause internal spacecraft component charging and arc
discharge phenomena. This phenomenon may be seen with
particles penetrating the spacecraft body or with particles
impacting the solar array surfaces. The high impact velocities
associated with natural debris are the primary cause of this
anomaly. In fact, this is the most significant risk posed by
meteor shower particles.

Fragmentation (and Catastrophic Impact)

Through modeling and impact tests it has been estimated that if

the ratio of the kinetic energy of the impacting debris to the mass
of the target satellite is 40 J/g, the impacted satellite will totally
break apart.

For example, a 0.1 kg piece of debris impacting at 10 km/s

would probably not completely break apart a 400 kg spacecraft,
BUT, a 0.5 kg piece of debris at the same impact velocity or
the 0.1 kg debris impacting at 13 km/s probably would (break
apart the spacecraft). Complete fragmentation is also dependent
on where the debris strikes the spacecraft. If, for example, the
debris strikes a solar array, probably only the array would be
destroyed.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 321

This plot shows the number of impact craters on the Hubble Space
Telescope as measured during the second servicing mission (after 7
years in orbit). Image courtesy of NASA.

Tracking the Debris

NASA’s primary method for identifying orbital debris between

1 and 30 cm in diameter is by using ground-based radar and
optical telescopes. Inspection of spacecraft components returned
to Earth (or photographs taken in space) can provide some idea
of the population of even smaller debris particles.
322 • FRANCES ZHU

The Haystack radar run by the USAF is NASA’s primary

radar for orbital debris environment characterization. Image
by NASA/USAF.

Other Sources for High-Velocity Impacts

The other main source of spacecraft impacts is meteoroids.

Interesting Fact:

What is the difference between a “meteoroid”, “meteor”, and

“meteorite”? Many people think they are just interchangeable
words for the same thing, but they are wrong. Here are the
definitions:

A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space

that is significantly smaller than an asteroid and varies in size
from a few millimeters to about a meteor. Smaller than this they
are known as “micrometeoroids.”

A meteor is a meteoroid that has entered and is passing through

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 323

the Earth’s atmosphere that leaves a trail as it burns up and is

commonly known as a “shooting star.”

A meteorite is the remains of a meteor that has landed on the

Earth and is now a special type of rock. Most of the meteors burn
up before they reach the Earth’s surface, but the larger ones can
survive to become the rock known as a meteorite. By analyzing
these rocks, scientists can tell if they are of Earth origin or from
outer space, even from another planetary body such as the Moon
or Mars. With the latter, sometimes they will find small pockets
of Martian gases trapped inside the meteorite.

The difference between a meteoroid, meteorite, and a meteor. Gif by A

Hitchhikers Guide to Space and Plasma Physics on Tumblr.

Meteroids and Micrometeoroids

• Average Velocity: 20-40 km/s

324 • FRANCES ZHU

• Average Impact Velocity: 70+ km/s

• Average Size: <1 cm diameter (therefore the term

“micrometeoroid”)

• Location: scattered through space – they begin to

burn up as they enter the Earth’s atmosphere at
~80-110 km altitude

Meteor Showers

The meteoroids that pose the greatest risk to satellite operations

are ‘shower’ meteoroids since they have a much higher flux
density (compared to sporadic meteoroids) although this
increased density only persists for the duration of the ‘shower’
(hours/days). These small, high-velocity meteoroids are the
debris left behind by a comet as it passed near the Sun. The
meteor ‘shower’ (or ‘storm’ if the density is very high) results
from the Earth passing through one of these cometary ‘trails’.
Meteor showers occur each year with yearly variations in
intensity based on the location of the Earth in comparison to
previously deposited trails.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 325

This photo of Comet Hale-Bopp shows its spectacular tail of dust, gas,
and rocky debris. The straight, blue ion tail is caused by the solar wind
and the curved dust tail is caused by solar radiation pressure. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Yearly meteor showers that usually provide a significant

meteoroid flux at Earth orbit (with 1999 peak flux data) include:
326 • FRANCES ZHU

Leonids

During a meteor shower, the perceived focal point where the

meteors seem to be emanating from is in the constellation that
gives the shower its name. The meteor shower that has received
a great deal of publicity over the past few years is the Leonids.
Leonid showers are caused each year by the passage of the
Earth through the area in space where the comet Temple-Tuttle
deposited debris during one of its passes through the solar
system.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 327

Every 33 years as the Temple-Tuttle comet passes in toward the sun, it

leaves a trail of debris. (Last approach: February 1998). Image courtesy
of NASA.

The ‘clumpy’ nature of the cometary debris makes shower flux

estimates difficult. Image courtesy of NASA.
328 • FRANCES ZHU

These debris trails start out fairly dense and compact, but over a
period of years, they broaden out and diffuse as they are affected
by the gravitational pull of the sun and planets (particularly
Jupiter). A Leonid meteor ‘storm’ can occur every ~33 years
as the Earth’s trajectory takes it through a close approach with
recently deposited debris trails.

Zenith Hourly Rate

The term Zenith Hourly Rate (ZHR) refers to how many light
trails a viewer would see if they were looking directly at the
zenith for one hour. (A meteor ‘storm’ is defined as a shower
with a ZHR of >1,000.) During the Leonid storm of 1966, the
flux of meteors entering Earth’s atmosphere was estimated to
have peaked at ~200 meteors/second.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 329

In 1999, the Leonids reached storm level for an extremely brief period
on 11/18 at 02:04 UT ±5 minutes (close to most predictions). Image
courtesy of NASA.

Where to Get Information About Meteor Showers and Orbital

Debris

To calculate the expected Leonid flux in your satellite’s orbit,

you can use the Leonid fluence calculator located at NASA’s
Marshall Space Flight Center Space Environments and Effects
office at http://see.msfc.nasa.gov/

You will need to fill out a form to be given access to the

downloadable version of the fluence calculator. (The form
ensures that the user is working within the United States for a
U.S. company/federal agency.)

Given a spacecraft’s orbital parameters and skin thickness, the

330 • FRANCES ZHU

Leonid fluence calculator provides information on exposure

time (per orbit) and the flux rate of Leonids large enough to
penetrate the spacecraft (during the peak flux period).

NASA Leonids Fluence (Flux) Calculator. Image courtesy of NASA.

Information on changes in the orbital debris environment can be

found at the website of NASA’s Orbital Debris Program Office
at https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 331

Designing Your Spacecraft for High-Velocity Impacts

Modeling is done prelaunch to determine the primary spacecraft

risk areas to determine where shielding or other measures might
be employed to reduce overall risk.

To reduce the risk of orbital debris damage to the Space Shuttle

front windows and thermal radiators, the orbiter flies as often
as possible with the tail forward and the payload bay doors
partially closed. This configuration does not protect against
micrometeoroids (perceived to be a much smaller risk) that may
impact the orbiter from any direction.

Mission Design Considerations for Orbital Debris and Impacts:

332 • FRANCES ZHU

Step Notes

Define Different orbits (LEO, MEO, GEO, and deep space)

Operational have different space environments, effects,
Regime concerns.

Identify
Government (e.g., NASA, NOAA, DOD),
Applicable
commercial, and international spacecraft come
under different regulations (e.g., prevention of
Regulations
orbital debris)
and Policies

Various models are available for analyzing,

Determine predicting, and testing mitigations for space
Suitable environment problems but vary in focus and
Models capability depending on the organization, policies,
and needs

Extensive resources are available from various US

Review and international government organizations,
Resources especially members of the Interagency Debris
Committee. Many references are publicly available.

Lessons Review papers and reports on lessons learned from

Learned other space missions – many available

Determine
your
Mission’s Based on the information reviewed from the
Hazard and previous steps
Policy
Compliance

Spacecraft Charging

‘In-space charging effects are caused by interactions between

the in-flight plasma environment and spacecraft materials and
electronic subsystems. Possible detrimental effects of spacecraft
charging include disruption of or damage to subsystems (such as
power, navigation, communications, or instrumentation) because
of field buildup and electrostatic discharge (ESD) as a result
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 333

of the spacecraft’s passage through the space plasma and high-

energy particle environments. Charges can also attract
contaminants, affecting thermal properties, optical instruments,
and solar arrays; and they can change particle trajectories, thus
affecting plasma-measuring instruments.’ [Yuen]

Absolute Charging

The spacecraft has an electric potential that is at a different level

than the potential of the plasma through which the spacecraft is
traveling. Effects can include:

• Enhance surface contamination which can degrade

thermal properties

• Compromise scientific instruments trying to

‘measure’ properties of the space environment

Differential Charging

Different surfaces of the spacecraft are at different potential

levels. This may result in an electrostatic discharge (ESD)
‘arcing’ between areas of different potential. Arcing may result
in:

• Physical material damage

• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

• Long-term degradation of exterior surface coatings

• Vehicle torquing/wobble

Spacecraft charging is a predominant factor for:

334 • FRANCES ZHU

• Satellites outside the Earth’s magnetosphere where

charged particles from the sun arrive at the spacecraft
unimpeded

• GEO satellites where magnetic substorm particles can

easily reach these altitudes. (Remember, in some
cases the magnetosphere can be pushed toward Earth
by magnetic storms, exposing GEO satellites to the
full solar particle flux and greatly increasing the
potential for spacecraft charging.)

Although less significant of an issue, LEO spacecraft can also be

charged by ions trapped in the ionosphere or by collision with
micrometeoroids.

Sources of Spacecraft Charging

The charged particles that cause spacecraft charging are

typically lower in energy than the particles that cause SEEs
(from a few 10s of keV to ~3 MeV). Primary sources of
spacecraft charging include:

• Magnetic Substorms: Inject large quantities of 5-50

keV electrons into geosynchronous orbit

• Coronal Mass Ejections: Some of the electron flux

that arrives a few days after a CME is low enough in
energy to produce charging

• Coronal Holes: Produce large quantities of low-

energy electrons
• Micrometeoroids: Small, high-energy particles create
plasma when they strike a spacecraft. (This will be
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 335

covered in the ‘Debris Impact’ section.)

As shown in this diagram, the quantity of free electrons in the

ionosphere is greatly influenced by variations in solar activity. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Categories of Spacecraft Charging

Spacecraft Charging Can Be Divided Into Three Categories:

• Surface Charging

• Internal Charging

• Low Altitude Charging

Surface Charging

Surface charging is caused by:

336 • FRANCES ZHU

• Low Energy Plasma

• Geomagnetic substorm electrons 1 – 100 KeV

• Photo Emission electrons resulting from
impingement of Solar EUV and x-ray radiation

Surface Charging Risk Locations/Periods

• During/after geomagnetic substorms causing injection

of 1-100 KeV electrons into the magnetosphere

• LEO (low risk): Orbit midnight through orbit dawn

• Polar orbits <1,000 km

• Primarily a concern in GEO orbit

• Spacecraft that have periods with large amounts of

self-shadowing

• Spacecraft that pass near one of the large outer

planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 337

While in eclipse, the spacecraft may charge to tens of kilovolts

as electrons ‘stick’ to the surface

In sunlight, illumination of the vehicle’s skin dislodges electrons

from the surface (photoemission) and the skin develops a
relative positive charge. The electrons may form a negative
plasma cloud around the vehicle. If the spacecraft surface is
well-grounded then absolute charging will result.

If the spacecraft surface is not well-grounded (it may have

started out grounded – but – something like a protective blanket
may have become detached from the grounding system while
in orbit) and if some areas of the spacecraft are in shadow then
differential charging will result. In either case, a discharge may
338 • FRANCES ZHU

be initiated by either a change in solar illumination, a change in

the particle environment, or onboard electrical activity.

This shows the surface potential for the FUSE spacecraft in full sunlight.
Image courtesy of NASA.

Internal Charging

High energy electrons are very dangerous to satellite operations

since they can be extremely energetic (> 1 MeV) and can bury
themselves deep inside a spacecraft in the dielectric materials
that compose much of a satellite’s electronic components. If the
electron-induced charge on these dielectric materials builds up
faster than the charge can dissipate, differential charging of the
material versus its surroundings can result in a discharge.

Electrical activity on the satellite (which may, in many cases,

result from commanding) may provide the trigger to initiate a
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 339

discharge. High energy electrons are very dangerous to satellite

operations since they can be extremely energetic (> 1 MeV) and
can bury themselves deep inside a spacecraft in the dielectric
materials that compose much of a satellite’s electronic
components. If the electron-induced charge on these dielectric
materials builds up faster than the charge can dissipate,
differential charging of the material versus its surroundings can
result in a discharge.

Electrical activity on the satellite (which may, in many cases,

result from commanding) may provide the trigger to initiate a
discharge.

Internal Charging Examples

In January of 1994, two Canadian comms satellites, Anik E-1

and Anik E-2 experienced problems within a day of each other
after having been exposed to high-velocity electron flow. Both
satellites suffered momentum wheel control circuitry anomalies.

Anik E-1 was recovered in 8 hours but it took six months to

recover Anik E-2. Investigations attributed the spacecraft
anomalies to spacecraft internal charging/discharging.
340 • FRANCES ZHU

Solar wind speed data collected by Imp-8 and 1 MeV electron data
collected by SAMPEX show increased solar activity leading up to the
Anik E-1, Anik E-2 anomalies. Image courtesy of NASA.

In May of 1998, NASA’s SAMPEX and POLAR satellites

identified a large increase in solar wind electrons produced by
a number of CMEs. There were a number of anomalies (dates
shown in the following figure). The loss of attitude control on
the GEO Galaxy 4 communication satellite (knocking out 90%
of all US pagers) occurred during this electron flux event.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 341

Low Altitude Charging

Although spacecraft orbiting at low altitudes must also be

concerned with charging, the plasma they move-in has been
historically more difficult to characterize analytically than the
GEO environment. Analysis of limited spacecraft data points to
spacecraft charging of between ~200 and 500 V (the minimum
thought to be required for arcing to occur) being fairly common
in LEO polar-orbiting spacecraft. This charging of polar-orbiting
spacecraft is also tied to increases in solar activity (specifically,
increased auroral activity and increased ionospheric density).
342 • FRANCES ZHU

The charging that occurs is the same type of surface charging

that occurs in GEO satellites (predominantly differential
charging between areas in/out of shadow). There has also been
some analysis of differential internal charging in LEO satellites
at all latitudes where high voltage power sources (>40kV) were
used.

Spacecraft Charging Mitigation

Although there is seldom much-advanced warning of

geomagnetic substorms, it is possible to get advanced
information on CMEs and Coronal Holes that may be pumping
low-energy particles into the solar wind. (Remember, surface
charging is predominant when the particle energies are <100
keV, while internal charging occurs at the 100 keV to ~3MeV
particle energy levels.). It is also a good idea to assess the
susceptibility of your spacecraft to surface charging resulting
from the spacecraft design and operational profile (orbit/
shadowing). If large geomagnetic storms are occurring/
predicted, it may be a good idea to turn down/off high voltage
devices (>100V) to reduce the risk of discharge arcing
(especially in polar & GEO orbits).

For polar-orbiting satellites, operations engineers should

monitor solar activity, ionospheric activity, and auroral activity.
Constantly updating plots of auroral activity for both poles (in
ergs/cm2/s) is available at the NOAA Space Weather website:
https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 343

Auroral Activity Plot. Image courtesy of NASA.

Spacecraft charging, arcing

http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9500.pdf

https://www.spenvis.oma.be/help/background/charging/
charging.html#SPI
344 • FRANCES ZHU

Satellite Design Lifecycle for Space Environment Assessment. Image by

Microcosm.

From Akin:

Planetary environments – deep space?

• Temperature
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 345

• Electromagnetic radiation

• Gravitation
• Atmospheric particles

• Newtonian flow

• Solar wind particles

• Ionizing radiation

• Micrometeoroids/orbital debris

• Spacecraft charging

From space environment implications for spacecraft design:

346 • FRANCES ZHU

Effects on the Spacecraft

Besides the physical effects that the space environment has on

the spacecraft as we have discussed, most of the factors we have
mentioned impart a force on the spacecraft, which is usually
free to rotate, so the forces are normally experienced as torques
on the spacecraft and are called disturbance torques. This is
a measure of how much the spacecraft is affected by the
environmental factor. The effect of the factors depends on the
altitude at which the spacecraft is flying. Some factors, such
as atmospheric molecules, have the strongest effect at low
altitudes, while at higher altitudes, solar pressure becomes
predominant. The figure shows the relative magnitudes of the
disturbance torques at different altitudes.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 347

Disturbance Torques on the Spacecraft from Environmental Factors as a

Function of Altitude. Image source unknown.

Suggested Activity

Assign each group with a regime. Each group has

to calculate the percent dominance of each physical
phenomenon and report the breakdown back to the
group. Is this intuitive? Anything surprising?”
348 • FRANCES ZHU

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1200
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 349

3.5 Orbital Mechanics

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1230#oembed-1

The most brilliant scientific minds of ancient times had radically

different views of the motion and nature of the planets, sun,
and stars. They accepted their view as a certainty – the nature
of the universe as they believed it. Some ancient scientists and
astronomers did experiments that threw some of these beliefs
into question. It is important to the student to understand how
our current understanding evolved, who were the scientists that
led us to our current understanding, how they did it, and the
difficulties they encountered when they presented their radical
ideas. For the evolution of astronomy, we should really start with
the ancient Babylonians, Chaldeans, and Chinese, but we are
concentrating on the evolution of orbital mechanics. From the

349
350 • FRANCES ZHU

first century A.D., the prevailing theory of the solar system was
the Ptolemaic System (developed by Roman citizen Claudius
Ptolemaeus) in which the Sun and planets rotated around the
Earth, although not centered on the Earth, using a complex
system of epicycles. This system was very complicated but did
match the observed movements fairly closely. The current sun-
centered (heliocentric) system was introduced by Copernicus,
and that’s where we’ll start.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 351

History of Astrodynamic

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

352 • FRANCES ZHU

Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance-era mathematician, astronomer,

and Catholic canon who formulated a model of the universe that placed
the Sun rather than Earth at the center of the universe. Image from the
town hall in Torun in 1580.

• Roman Catholic cleric

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 353

• Developed a heliocentric model of the solar system

and published it in the book On the Revolution of the
Celestial Spheres which he dedicated to Pope Paul III
in 1543.

• Martin Luther said, “This fool wishes us to reverse

the entire science of astronomy…sacred scriptures
tell us that Joshua commanded the Sun to stand still
and not the Earth!”

• The book was put on the forbidden list by the Church

in 1616 and not removed until 1835.

• Copernican model of the solar system was

heliocentric with Earth rotating on its axis

◦ simpler than the Ptolemy model and better

able to explain the observed behavior of
heavenly bodies (rising and setting caused
by rotation on-axis)

◦ seasons explained by annual revolution

around the sun

• Deficiencies in the Copernican model:

◦ kept planets in perfectly circular orbits

◦ could not prove Earth moved

◦ kept stars in a crystalline shell

354 • FRANCES ZHU

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 355

Galileo has been called the “father of observational astronomy”, the

“father of modern physics”, the “father of the scientific method”, and the
“father of modern science”. Image by Justus Sustermans.

• Built the first telescope used for astronomy in 1609 –

magnification was 20x

• Dutchman, Zacharias Janssen, the first known

telescope maker, made a copy of an earlier Italian
specimen of unknown origin in 1608

• Made first detailed maps of the Moon (determined it

356 • FRANCES ZHU

was a solid world with mountains & craters)

• Discovered moons around Jupiter

• In 1610 published Messenger of the Stars, which
presented a formidable array of observational
evidence to disprove the Ptolemaic system

• “Wandering stars” (planets) apparent retrograde and

wandering motion was explained by Galileo
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 357
358 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 359

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Tycho Brahe was a Danish nobleman, astronomer, and writer known for
his accurate and comprehensive astronomical observations. Image by
Edward Ender.
360 • FRANCES ZHU

• Danish nobleman who studied astronomy & built

observatory castle
• Lost his nose in a duel and had it reconstructed of
gold, silver, & wax

• Tenacious astronomical observer

• Pushed instruments to limit (Brahe’s quadrant) with

observation precision of 4-5 arc minutes

• Observation of supernovas & comets led to the

conclusion that solid crystalline spheres did not exist
in space since things were not supposed to change in
the superlunar realm

• Did not accept the Copernican system

• Died at the dinner table in the court of King Rudolf II

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 361
362 • FRANCES ZHU

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer, mathematician, and

astrologer. Image by an unknown artist in 1610.

• German mathematician from a poor former noble

family

• Started working in 1600 for Tycho Brahe, who died

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 363

in 1601

• Challenged by Brahe to calculate the orbit of Mars,

which Kepler did for over five years (1601-1606)

• Kepler couldn’t reconcile circular motion to Brahe’s

data – consistently had 8 minutes of arc discrepancy
between theory and data

• Finally fit the data when an ellipse was used with the
Sun at one focus

• Kepler was so confident in Brahe’s data and his fit, he

made it into a law of motion

• This became Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion:

◦ The orbits of the planets are ellipses with

the Sun at one focus

• He noticed that the line between the Sun and Mars

swept out equal areas in equal times, thus a planet
364 • FRANCES ZHU

must move faster as it approaches the Sun – this

resulted in Kepler’s Second Law:
◦ The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal times

• Kepler published these two laws in 1609 in the book

Astronomia Nova … De Motu Stellae Mars (New
Astronomy…On the Motion of Mars)

• Ten years later he added his third law, i.e., Kepler’s

Third Law:

◦ The square of the period of a planet is

proportional to the cube of its mean
distance from the Sun.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 365

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer,

theologian, and author. Image by Godfrey Kneller.

• In 1665, while a student at Trinity College in

Cambridge, the plague caused the university to close
for two years

• During these two years, which he spent at his home

village in the country, he formulated the three laws of
366 • FRANCES ZHU

motion, conceived the law of gravitation, developed

the concept of differential calculus, and worked with
optics (discovered spectrum)

• His law of gravitation resulted from his observation

of a falling apple – however, due to an erroneous
value for Earth’s radius, he discounted his gravity
work

• At age 27 he was appointed to the Chair of

Mathematics at Cambridge and at 30 was elected to
the Royal Society

• In 1684 Robert Hooke boasted to Christopher Wren

and Edmond Halley that he had worked out the laws
of motion governing the heavenly bodies. Wren was
unimpressed with Hooke’s solution and so put up a
prize (40/-) for the correct answer. Halley took the
problem to Newton who had solved the problem in
1665.

• At the urging of Halley, Newton recalculated his

formulations and with the correct radius of the Earth,
came up with the exact answer that matched
observations.

• Newton published his laws and discoveries in 1687 in

the book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, better known today simply as Principia.

• Newton was:

◦ elected to Parliament in 1689

◦ appointed Warden of the Mint in 1696

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 367

◦ elected president of the Royal Society in

1703
◦ knighted in 1705

• Newton’s Laws of Motion:

◦ LAW 1

▪ Everybody continues in its state

of rest, or of uniform motion in a
right line unless it is compelled to
change that state by forces
impressed upon it.

◦ LAW 2

▪ The change of motion is

proportional to the motive force
impressed and is made in the
direction of the right line in
which that force is impressed.

◦ LAW 3

▪ To every action there is always

opposed an equal reaction; or, the
mutual actions of two bodies
upon each other are always equal,
and directed to contrary parts.

• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

◦ The force of gravity between two bodies is

directly proportional to the product of their
two masses and inversely proportional to
368 • FRANCES ZHU

the square of the distance between them.

The Basics

Kepler’s three Laws of Planetary Motion, Newton’s Law of

Universal Gravitation, and Newton’s three Laws of Motion
provide the building blocks upon which orbital mechanics are
built. We will use these principles to develop the equations and
parameters we need to describe orbital motion and to see how
satellites work and the different types of orbits that are available.
We will later even have a brief look at interplanetary trajectories,
but let’s start with the basics.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

To show how we get from these seven laws to what we know as

orbital mechanics, let’s start with Newton’s laws of motion. For
convenience, we have reworded Newton’s Laws to the modern
English form.

To show how we get from these seven laws to what we know as

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 369

orbital mechanics, let’s start with Newton’s laws of motion. For

convenience, we have reworded Newton’s Laws to the modern
English form.

Image by Trevor Sorensen with HSFL.

FIRST LAW

Every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a

straight line unless compelled to change its state by the action
of an external force. This is normally taken as the definition of
inertia. The key point here is that if there is no net force acting
on an object (if all the external forces cancel each other out),
then the object will maintain a constant velocity. If that velocity
is zero, then the object remains at rest. If an external force is
applied, the velocity will change because of the force.
370 • FRANCES ZHU

SECOND LAW

The time rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal in

both magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it. This
law defines a force to be equal to a change in momentum (mass
times velocity) per change in time. The linear momentum and
angular momentum are given by the following equations:

Linear Momentum: p = mv

Angular Momentum:

Where p is the angular momentum vector, m is the mass of the

body, and v is the velocity vector. In the second equation, h is
the angular momentum vector, I is the moment of inertia of the
body, is the angular velocity or rate, R is the position vector from
the origin of the cartesian coordinate system.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 371

This is the famous equation that Force = mass times acceleration

(assuming the mass stays constant).

THIRD LAW

For every force, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This law
is the basis for rocket propulsion, and releasing a filled balloon
with the mouth open and seeing it fly around is an example of
this law in work. Mathematically it looks like this:

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

The force of gravity between two bodies is directly proportional

to the product of their two masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation is expressed

mathematically. It includes a universal constant, G, whose value
was determined by Henry Cavendish in 1798.
372 • FRANCES ZHU

Image by Trevor Sorensen with HSFL.

previous figure courtesy of Honeywell Technology Solutions Inc.

(HTSI)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 373

We just showed the application of Newton’s Law of Universal

Gravitation for two bodies, such as a satellite orbiting the Earth.
However, the law actually takes into account all bodies with
mass as shown in the following figure. Consider a system in
which there are n masses (m1, m2, m3,…mn). Applying
Newton’s Gravitational Law, each mass exerts an attractive
force on all the other masses along lines connecting the pair of
masses. The body (mass) of interest is .
374 • FRANCES ZHU

Applying Newton’s Gravitational Law, the force on mi by all n

masses is the vector sum of all gravitational forces acting on it:

is the resultant force of all non-gravitational forces

acting on the body:

+…

Applying Newton’s Second Law of Motion and assuming

=0

A closed-form solution does not exist for n>2.

Assume m1 is Earth and m2 is a satellite orbiting Earth, then

it can be shown that the acceleration of the satellite relative to
Earth is:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 375

2-body gravity. Perturbing effects due to other bodies

The perturbing effects of other bodies are shown in the table.

Effect of Other Bodies on Gravitational Acceleration for a
Satellite at an Altitude of 370 km.

Attracting Body Acceleration in g’s on

Satellite

The Two-Body Problem

The equation shown for Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

for n bodies is unsolvable in a closed-form solution. However,
the equation is solvable for two bodies, and as seen from the
376 • FRANCES ZHU

table the effects of the other planetary bodies are relatively small
for a satellite orbiting the Earth, so we will ignore the external
effects and consider two-body orbital mechanics. If you want
precise solutions, then the other bodies have to be included and
numerical methods used.

Satellite Flight Near to Earth is Approximated as a Two-Body Problem.

Assumptions

To treat the spacecraft motion as a two-body problem, we have

to make the following four important assumptions:

1. The mass of the satellite (m2) is negligible compared

to that of the attracting primary body (m1).
2. The coordinate system chosen for a particular
problem is inertial. This assumption removes
derivatives of the coordinate system itself when
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 377

differentiating vectors. Assume Earth-orbiting

satellites use the geocentric equatorial coordinate
system and interplanetary probes use the heliocentric
system.

3. The bodies of the satellite and attracting primary

body are spherically symmetrical with uniform
density. This allows us to treat each as a point mass.

4. No other forces act on the system except for

gravitational forces that act along a line joining the
centers of the two bodies. This also means the masses
are constant (i.e., no change in mass).

Equation of Motion

Assume two constant masses interact by a force that is a function

only of the relative distance between the two masses and that is
directed along with the position m2 with respect to m1.

The geometry of Two Bodies in an inertial reference frame (coordinate

system).
378 • FRANCES ZHU

The differential equation of motion for the two-body problem is:

where:

Center of Mass

Moment of a mass mi about a point P is the vector with

magnitude |• and direction where goes from to
P. Moment of mass of the system about P for n masses is thus:

The Center of Mass (CM) is that point at which the total moment
of mass = 0.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 379

Moments of Masses about a Point P.

In a two-body system we can locate the CM (P’):

Now consider a coordinate system with the origin at m2 and

x-axis along the line between m1 and m2, the y-axis in the
plane formed by r1 and r2, and the z-axis completing the RH
coordinate system.
380 • FRANCES ZHU

The center of mass will be located on the line connecting the two
masses. Its exact location is defined by:

Distance of CM from mass m2 along the line between m1 and

m2 is:

Assuming origin is at m2 (i.e., = 0):

Where R = , the distance between and

Assuming origin is at m1 (i.e., r1 = 0):

Example Problem
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 381

What is the center of mass of the Earth-Moon pair?

Given:

Canonical Units

Canonical units are dimensionless units used by astronomers

to remove uncertainties. They are also sometimes used in
spacecraft orbital mechanics. Canonical units are based on
hypothetical circular reference orbits:
382 • FRANCES ZHU

One obvious advantage of using Canonical Units is when you

have to calculate orbital mechanic equations by hand that us the
gravimetric parameter, which is Canonical Units is simply:

Constants of Motion

Because spacecraft operate in a conservative gravitational field,

they conserve mechanical energy and angular momentum. Using
these two principles, we are able to easily determine and predict
the motion of spacecraft.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 383

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Since the gravitational field is “conservative” an object moving

under the influence of the gravitational field alone does not lose
or gain total mechanical energy. Although mechanical energy
remains constant, it exchanges one form, “kinetic energy” for
another, “potential energy.” The total mechanical energy (E) is
often used in orbital mechanics with a constant mass, so we
usually use a simplified term, the total mechanical energy per
unit mass called the total specific mechanical energy:

But the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy, so we can express the specific mechanical
energy in the form:

This equation is known as the Vis-Viva Equation and is one of

the most important equations in orbital mechanics. The Vis-Viva
384 • FRANCES ZHU

Equation shows the total mechanical energy per unit mass of the
satellite converses. The specific potential energy is also equal
to the gravitational potential function (V) per unit mass. One
thing to note is that potential energy (PE) is zero at an altitude of
infinity, and is increasingly negative between zero and the origin
at r=0, i.e., PE<<0.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

Since the gravitational field is always directed radially towards

the center of the large mass the angular momentum of the object
about the large mass does not change, the angular momentum
per unit mass, called the specific angular momentum (h), can be
derived as:

h is always perpendicular to the plane containing r and v. Since

h is constant, r and v must remain in the same plane, which is
called the orbital plane. In the figure, we see some of the terms
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 385

we use in describing the satellite motion and orientation in the

orbital plane.

Definition of Terms for Satellite in Orbit.

Note that satellites that want to keep one face always pointing
towardXZ the Earth, use what is called an LVLH attitude hold,
where LV is the Local Vertical and LH is the Local Horizontal
as defined in the figure. In orbit, the terms “up” and “down” are
386 • FRANCES ZHU

generally in reference to the LV vector, which is the vector from

the center of the primary mass (m1) to the satellite (m2).

In the figure the following angles are defined:

From which we get the following:

Example Problem:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 387

Trajectory Equation

From geometry, we know that the polar form of the equation for
a conic section is:
388 • FRANCES ZHU

Conic Sections and Corresponding Trajectories. Image by Microcosm

Inc.

The family of curves called “conic sections” (i.e., circle, ellipse,

parabola, hyperbola) represent the only possible paths for an
orbiting object in the two-body problem. The circle and ellipse
are closed-loop conics, while the parabola and hyperbola are
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 389

open conics. The focus of the conic orbit must be located at the
center of the central body. The specific mechanical energy (ε) of
a satellite (which is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies)
does not change as the satellite moves along its conic orbit.
However, there is an exchange of energy between the two forms
(P.E. and K.E.) which means that the satellite must slow down as
it gains altitude (i.e., r increases) and speed up as r decreases so
that ε remains constant. The orbital motion takes place in a plane
fixed in inertial space. The specific angular momentum (h) of a
satellite remains constant. As r and v change along the orbit, the
flight path angle () must change so as to keep h constant.

Elliptical Orbits

The most common type of conic section used in Earth-orbiting

satellites is the ellipse. To understand these orbits, we must first
be familiar with the geometry and characteristics of ellipses.

The characteristics of the ellipse.

390 • FRANCES ZHU

Apses of an Ellipse

Extreme end-points of the major axis of an ellipse are known as

apses (singular apsis). The point closest to the primary focus is
the periapsis (rp) and the point farthest from the primary focus is
the apoapsis (ra). “Peri-” means near and “apo-” means far.

Tables: The Apses Names for Planetary and Other Bodies

The Geometry of the Ellipse

Equation of an ellipse in rectangular coordinates:

where a is the semi-major axis, and b is the semi-minor axis

Equation of an ellipse in polar coordinates (which was defined

previously):
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 391

Construction of the Ellipse.

Eccentricity, e, defines the shape of the ellipse by comparing

the ratio of the distance between the two foci and the length of
the major axis:

except for parabola

392 • FRANCES ZHU

Following are some other useful equations derived from the

geometry of the ellipse that is useful in orbital mechanics.

Semi-Major Axis:

Distance Between Foci:

Eccentricity:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 393

Apsides:

From the conic equation

At periapsis ( ), the true anomaly, v=0 and the cos v =1.

At apoapsis ( ), the true anomaly, v=180deg and the cos v=-1.

From the construction of the ellipse, shown in Figure:

394 • FRANCES ZHU

Semi-Latus Rectum:

Rewriting the trajectory equation, substituting for p:

Orbital Energy

The equation for the specific mechanical energy (Vis-Viva

Equation) is important for determining orbital characteristics,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 395

but there is another form that is also very useful, and this is
known as the Orbital Energy Equation.

We start with the equation for angular momentum:

applying this equation at periapsis where the flight path angle

=0,

Using the equation for specific mechanical energy () and noting

energy is constant everywhere on the orbit:

From this you can obtain the Orbital Energy Equation, which is
true for all conics:

The Orbital Energy Equation shows that the specific mechanical

energy is inversely proportional to the orbit’s semi-major axis,
i.e., a only depends on ε, which depends only on r and v. The
396 • FRANCES ZHU

energy of a satellite along the orbit determines which type of

orbit it is in.

For example, firing a cannon horizontally from a high mountain:

In two-body motion, the shape of an orbit is determined by the

speed of the object.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 397

Relationship of Speed to Trajectory Type.

However, if h = 0 regardless of ε then e = 1 (degenerate conic

– point or line, but not parabola). All parabolas have e=1, but
an orbit with e=1 does not have to be a parabola – it could be a
degenerate conic (point or line).

Period of an Elliptical Orbit

Kepler’s Second Law of Planetary Motion states “Equal areas

are swept out by the radius vector in equal time intervals.”
398 • FRANCES ZHU

It can also be shown that:

When we combine these equations we obtain:

Since h is constant this proves Kepler’s Second Law. Integrating

this equation through one cycle (time period, P) noting that area
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 399

of an ellipse is = ab gives the equation for the total

period of an orbit, which is the equation of Kepler’s Third Law
of Planetary Motion, “The square of the period of a planet is
proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.”

Therefore, the period of an elliptical orbit depends only on the

size of the semi-major axis, a.

Non-Elliptical Orbits

Although most Earth orbits are elliptical, some of them have

such a low eccentricity that they can be considered to first
order as circular. When you want to escape from the Earth’s
gravitational field, then you must use parabolic or elliptical
trajectories, so it is important to examine the characteristics of
these other trajectory types.

Circular Orbits

Circular orbits are really a special type of elliptical orbit, but

with an eccentricity e=0, which means that the periapsis and
apoapsis radii are equal to the semi-major axis and the radius of
the circular orbit.
400 • FRANCES ZHU

Parabolic Trajectories

A parabolic trajectory is the lowest energy open-loop trajectory,

in which a spacecraft can just escape the gravitational field of
the central body.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 401

or
402 • FRANCES ZHU

Thus, at any value of r, the specific KE ( /2) will be equal to

the specific PE (-/r). The satellite will have just enough KE to
follow the parabolic trajectory to ∞ where both KE and PE will
be zero.

Escape Speed

The speed at which a probe can coast to an infinite distance

without falling back is called the escape speed. Probe with
escape speed in any direction travels on a parabolic trajectory.
The escape speed is calculated using two points on a trajectory:
(1) at a distance r where escape speed is , and (2) at infinity
(r=∞).

Escape Speed:

If the probe starts in a circular orbit, then the escape speed from
a circular orbit is:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 403

HyperbolicTrajectories

A parabolic trajectory produces the minimum v for escape from

a central body in a gravitational field. If excess v is desired after
an escape, then the trajectory must be hyperbolic.

The angle between asymptotes is δ, which is called the turning

or scattering angle. This is the change in direction of v approach
to v departure.

Turning Angle:

Hyperbolic Excess Speed

If ε > 0, then a is negative, e >1, and trajectory is hyperbolic.

404 • FRANCES ZHU

If > where is burnout speed and is minimum

escape speed, then the probe approaches finite speed at infinity
that is greater than zero. This speed can be calculated given
v and r since the specific mechanical energy is constant
everywhere on the trajectory.

Using the energy equation you can calculate the Hyperbolic

Excess Speed:

The magnitude of the burn to reach the required excess speed

(called the Oberth Maneuver) is:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 405

The value of a can be found from:

Coordinate Systems

Orbital mechanics uses many different coordinate systems to

express the spacecraft trajectories in terms that are meaningful
for the current mission or application. It depends on whether
the spacecraft is in Earth orbit, a cis-lunar (Earth to Moon)
trajectory, interplanetary trajectory, or orbiting another
gravitational body. We will introduce the most commonly used
coordinate systems. To start with we will explain the
fundamental elements of a cartesian (orthogonal ) coordinate
system and how to specify such a coordinate system.

There are five steps in specifying a coordinate system:

1. Pick the origin.

2. Pick the fundamental plane.

3. Pick a perpendicular to it.

4. Pick the principal direction.

406 • FRANCES ZHU

5. Add the third axis using the Right-Hand Rule (RHR).

Specifying a Coordinate System.

Heliocentric-Ecliptic Coordinate System

Figure from “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics” by Bate, Mueller &

White, Dover books.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 407

1. Origin is the Sun.

2. The fundamental plane is the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital

plane).

3. Perpendicular is in the direction using RHR with the

direction of Earth around the Sun.

4. The principal direction is the vernal equinox.

5. Y-axis according to RHR.

Note: Earth’s rotation axis precesses with a period of 26,000

years.

Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System (GECS)

Figure from “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics” by Bate, Mueller &

White, Dover books.
408 • FRANCES ZHU

Also known as Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) or IJK Coordinate

System

1. Origin is the center of the Earth-mass (geocenter).

2. The fundamental plane is the equatorial plane.

3. Perpendicular is in the spin axis in the northerly

direction.

4. The principal direction is the vernal equinox.

5. Y-axis according to RHR.

Note: Axes do not rotate with the Earth.

Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

Figure from “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics” by Bate, Mueller &

White, Dover books.

1. Origin is the center of the Earth-mass (geocenter).

2. The fundamental plane is the equatorial plane.

3. Perpendicular is in the spin axis in the northerly

direction.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 409

4. The principal direction is in the fundamental plane

and points to the Greenwich meridian.
5. Y-axis according to RHR.

Note: GCS rotates with the Earth.

Right Ascension-Declination Coordinate System

Figure from “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics” by Bate, Mueller &

White, Dover books.

1. Origin is the geocenter or any point.

2. The fundamental plane is the celestial equatorial
(Earth’s equator extended to a celestial sphere).
410 • FRANCES ZHU

3. The principal direction is to the vernal equinox.

Learning Objectives

Objects located by (RA) measured eastward from I

in the equatorial plane and measured northward from
the equatorial plane. This coordinate system is used
in astronomy.

Perifocal Coordinate System

Figure from “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics” by Bate, Mueller &

White, Dover books.

1. Origin is the primary focus of the orbit.

2. The fundamental plane is the orbital plane of the

satellite.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 411

3. The principal direction (X-axis) points to periapsis.

4. Y-axis is rotated 90o in the direction of orbital motion

and lies in the orbital plane.

5. Z-axis is along angular momentum vector (h) and

completes the RH system.

Classical Orbital Elements

An orbit follows the laws of Newton and Kepler around its

central gravitational body (primary focus) and its motion is very
predictable without major outside disturbances (e.g., drag) or
internal disturbances (e.g., thrust). It orbits in a basically inertial
plane with respect to the center, and there are six parameters that
define the orbit and the position of the satellite in the orbit. These
parameters are called the Classical Orbital Elements (COEs).
Five of the COEs define the orbit, and the sixth defines the
position of the satellite in the orbit at the given time. We will
define the six primary COEs and their alternatives.

1. Semi-Major Axis (a)

This defines the size of the orbit.

2. Eccentricity (e)

Defines the shape of the conic orbit,

412 • FRANCES ZHU

3. Inclination (i) 0º ≤ i ≤180º

Defines the tilt of the orbital plane with respect to the

fundamental plane. i is equal to the angle between the orbital
and equatorial planes, although mathematically, it is the angle
between the spin axis (Z) and the angular momentum angle (h)
of the orbital plane.

4. Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (Ω)

Defines the swivel of the conic orbit wrt the fundamental plane.
Ω is the angle, in the fundamental plane, between the X-axis and
the ascending node, which is the point where the satellite passes
through the fundamental plane in a northerly direction and is
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 413

measured counterclockwise (easterly) when viewed from above.

UNDEFINED IN EQUATORIAL ORBITS! aka Longitude of
the Ascending Node

5. Argument of Periapsis/Perigee (ω)

Defines the orientation of the orbit with the orbital plane. is the
angle between the ascending node and periapsis in the orbital
plane and measured in the direction of satellite motion (0° ≤
ω ≤ 360°). UNDEFINED IN EQUATORIAL OR CIRCULAR
ORBITS!

6. Time of Periapsis/Perigee Passage ( or T)

Defines the starting time of the orbit and is the time that the
satellite was at periapsis/perigee. Standard practice replaces it
with True Anomaly or epoch (νo) which defines the position
of the satellite in the orbit at a given time (epoch). (0° ≤ νo ≤
360°) UNDEFINED FOR CIRCULAR ORBITS! Note: ν, θ, and
f are used to denote true anomaly. The first five COEs define
the orbit, and the sixth COE defines where the satellite is in the
orbit.

Alternate COEs

Most of the COEs have certain orbits for which they are
undefined or there might be another parameter that provides the
same information about a particular characteristic of the orbit.
The set of parameters that are available to define the orbit when
one of the original COEs is not possible is called the Alternate
COEs.
414 • FRANCES ZHU

1. Sem-Latus Rectum (p)

Alternate for semi-major axis.

2. Longitude of Perigee (II)

The angle between X-axis (i) and perigee measured eastward

to ascending node than in the orbital plane to perigee i.e., II
= Ω + ω. Replaces ω for equatorial orbits. UNDEFINED FOR
CIRCULAR ORBITS!

3. Argument of Latitude at Epoch ( )

Angle in orbital plane between the ascending node and the radius
vector to the satellite at time i.e., = ω+ Replaces o
for circular orbits. UNDEFINED FOR EQUATORIAL ORBITS

4. True Longitude at Epoch ( )

The angle between X-axis and radius vector to the satellite at

to measured eastward to ascending node and then in the orbital
plane to satellite:

Orbital Inclination

Inclination can range from 0 to 180 degrees, where a 90-degree

inclination is called a polar orbit. 180 degrees of inclination
is also an equatorial orbit but the satellite orbital direction is
the opposite of the 0-degree equatorial orbit. As 0 to 90-degree
inclination looks symmetric to the 90 to 180-degree inclination,
the inclination of orbits may be broken further down into the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 415

direction of the orbit: prograde (0 to 90) and retrograde (90 to

180). “The satellite’s inclination depends on what the satellite
was launched to monitor. Many of the satellites in NASA’s
Earth Observing System have a nearly polar orbit. In this highly
inclined orbit, the satellite moves around the Earth from pole to
pole, taking about 99 minutes to complete an orbit. During one-
half of the orbit, the satellite views the daytime side of the Earth.
At the pole, the satellite crosses over to the nighttime side of
Earth” [NASA Earth Observatory].

Effect of Launch Site on Inclination

Where the satellite is launched on the Earth’s surface and the

direction of launch have direct effects on the inclination of the
resulting orbit. The latitude of the launch site also determines
the minimum inclination possible without later propulsive
maneuvers to change the inclination. In the following figure,
416 • FRANCES ZHU

is the latitude of the launch site, is the launch azimuth, and i

is the inclination.

Figure from “Fundamentals of Astrodynamics” by Bate, Mueller &

White, Dover books.

Since -90° 90° cos must always be positive. A

posigrade orbit must thus be easterly ( < 180°). Minimum
orbital inclination achievable from launch site at is i =
since for all i to be minimized, cos must be maximized,
which implies = 90°. A satellite cannot be put directly into
an equatorial orbit from a non-equatorial launch site.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 417

Orbit Anomalies

Kepler invented “anomalies” (angles) originally used to define

a planet’s orbit motion around the Sun. The three anomalies are
true anomaly, mean anomaly, and eccentric anomaly. We have
already seen and used the true anomaly, so we will now look at
the other two.

Mean Anomaly

Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

Kepler defined a quantity related to true anomaly – the )mean

418 • FRANCES ZHU

anomaly (M), which is the angle that the satellite would have
moved since perigee if it were going at a constant speed (mean
motion, n) in an imaginary circular orbit with the same period as
the actual elliptical orbit. Where:

Mean anomaly is equal to true anomaly at perigee and apogee

only for elliptical orbits, and at all times for circular orbits. For
low eccentricity orbits, mean anomaly provides a quick way of
estimating the satellite’s position.

Eccentric Anomaly

Kepler defined another angle related to a true anomaly called

the eccentric anomaly (E), which is found geometrically by
circumscribing an elliptical orbit with a circle and relating E to
M, using the true anomaly, o. Eccentric anomaly is equal to true
and means anomaly at periapsis and apoapsis only for elliptical
orbits, and at all times for circular orbits.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 419

NORAD Two-Line Elements (TLEs)

One of the most common methods of expressing Keplerian

orbital elements is the NORAD two-line element (TLE) format.
Originally developed by the North American Aerospace Defense
Command, TLEs are also used by NASA and US Space
Command (USSPACECOM) as well as many commercial and
shareware satellite tracking programs. TLE element sets for
many satellites are updated frequently and are available on
websites like CelesTrak:
420 • FRANCES ZHU

http://celestrak.com/NORAD/elements/

Orbit Types

Orbits may be classified by centric (the orbit center), altitude

for geocentric orbits, inclination, directional, eccentricity, and
synchronicity. To signify which planetary body the spacecraft
orbits about, various prefixes are concatenated to the word
centric, like Jovicentric for Jupiter, but it is sufficient to say
Jupiter orbit to imply a Jovicentric orbit. The most common
centric orbit is geocentric or Earth orbit. As of April 2020,
we have 2,666 operational satellites currently orbiting Earth
(check out this very cool open-source database of all operational
satellites around Earth!) [UCS]. Earth (geocentric) orbits are
usually classified by their altitude and shape, with some
specialty orbits included. The most common orbit types are:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 421

• Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) – <2000 km altitude

◦ Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) is a type of

LEO

• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) – 2000

km<MEO<35,786km altitude

◦ Also known as Intermediate Circular Orbit

(ICO)

◦ Includes GPS satellites at 20,200 km

altitude

• Geosynchronous (GSO) or Geostationary Orbit

(GEO) – 35,786 km altitude

• Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO)

◦ Sometimes HEO refers to High Earth Orbit

beyond GEO
422 • FRANCES ZHU

Examples of Typical Earth Orbits.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 423

Examples of Typical Earth Orbits. Figure courtesy of HTSI.

Low Earth Orbits

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is the simplest (cheapest) orbit to

achieve and is the most extensively used. Over 90% of artificial
objects orbiting the Earth are in the LEO “corridor” – an area
bounded on the low-end by atmospheric drag factors (at about
200 km altitude) and at the high-end by the lower van Allen
radiation belt (at about 1,000 km to 2000 km altitude).
424 • FRANCES ZHU

Sun-Synchronous Orbits

Image courtesy of Trevor Sorensen with HSFL.

A Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) is a type of polar LEO that

exploits the regression of the ascending node caused by the
Earth’s equatorial oblateness to “twist” the orbit at a rate of one
revolution per year (0.9856 degrees per day). The result is that
the orbit plane will always maintain the same angle (β) with
respect to the Sun, and the satellite crosses the equator at the
same local time every orbit.

Since a satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit always crosses the

equator at the same time, it is common for their ascending (or
descending) nodes to be measured in time rather than as an angle
from the vernal equinox vector. The relationship can be seen in
the following figure.

Note that the example in the figure is only valid for the first day
of spring when the vernal equinox happens to line up with the
Earth-Sun line. For other times of the year, the time must be
corrected with the “Greenwich hour angle”.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 425

Definition of an SSO Using the Equator Crossing Time. Figure courtesy

HTSI.

SSO Dawn-Dusk Orbit. Figure courtesy HTSI.

A dawn-dusk orbit is an SSO in which the ascending node

occurs around local dawn (~06:00 h) and the descending node
corresponds to local dusk (~18:00 h) on every orbit. If the
equator crossings happen in the opposite order, the SSO is called
a dusk-dawn orbit. These types of SSO straddle the terminator,
the line between night and day. The result is that the satellite
is illuminated by the Sun almost continuously for most of the
year. This is advantageous for satellites with high power
requirements.

Dawn-dusk orbits (or dusk-dawn orbits) still enter the Earth’s

426 • FRANCES ZHU

shadow at certain times of the year because of the Sun’s apparent

change in position relative to the Earth. These periods are called
eclipse seasons.

For a dawn-dusk orbit, the most northern part of the orbit will be
in shadow when the Sun appears “lowest” relative to the equator
around the winter solstice. If the orbit is dusk-dawn, the eclipse
season takes place around the summer solstice when the Sun
appears “highest” relative to the equator.

SSO Eclipse Seasons.

Medium Earth Orbits

A Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), sometimes called an

Intermediate Circular Orbit (ICO). These orbits lie between the
LEO (<2000 km) and GEO (35,786 km) altitudes, but they
typically have an altitude of approximately 10,000 km and an
orbital period of about 6 hours. This orbit is popular for
communications satellite constellations. MEO satellite
constellations require fewer satellites than an LEO constellation
to achieve global coverage but at the expense of increased signal
time delay (50-150 msecs round trip delay as opposed to just
20-40 msecs at LEO).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 427

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) constellation is also

considered an MEO constellation but is actually in a 12-hour
semi-synchronous orbit at a much higher altitude – 20,200 km
than most of the MEO satellite constellations. 24 GPS satellites
reside in six orbital planes at 55o inclination, four satellites per
plane. There is little atmospheric drag at 20,200 km, so the GPS
orbits are quite stable. The primary perturbation forces are the
Earth’s equatorial oblateness, solar radiation pressure, and third-
body gravitational effects of the Sun and the Moon.

GPS Constellation – Courtesy of US Government.

GLONASS Navigation Constellation

GLONASS, or “Global Navigation Satellite System”, is a

428 • FRANCES ZHU

Russian space-based satellite navigation system operating as

part of a radio navigation satellite service. It provides an
alternative to GPS and is the second navigational system in
operation with global coverage and of comparable precision.
It provides better coverage at high latitudes than GPS because
this area is of more importance to Russia. The GLONASS
constellation consists of 24 satellites in three orbital planes
(eight satellites per plane) at an altitude of 19,100 km and an
orbital inclination of 64.8 deg.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLONASS

Galileo Navigation Constellation

Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that went

live in 2016, created by the European Union through the
European Space Agency (ESA), operated by the European
GNSS Agency (GSA). One of the aims of Galileo is to provide
an independent high-precision positioning system so European
nations do not have to rely on the US GPS, or the Russian
GLONASS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by
their operators at any time. The Galileo GNSS consists
nominally of 24 satellites in three orbital planes (eight satellites
per plane) at an altitude of 23,222 km and an orbital inclination
of 56.0 deg.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)

Constellation visibility from a point on the Earth

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 429

Geosynchronous Orbits

A Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO) is any Earth orbit, regardless

of inclination or eccentricity, that has a period of 24 hours. A
Geostationary Orbit (GEO) is an important GSO with near-zero
inclination and eccentricity, making this GSO both equatorial
and circular. At an altitude of approximately 35,700 km, a
satellite stationed in GEO goes about the equator at the same rate
that the Earth is rotating. Therefore, it appears “stationary” as
viewed from the Earth.

Although not strictly correct, both of these terms –

geosynchronous and geostationary – are often used
interchangeably to mean geostationary orbit. British science
fiction author Arthur C. Clarke first proposed that this orbit
could be used by communications satellites in a Wireless World
article published in 1945. This is why GEO is sometimes called
the Clarke Orbit.

Biography of Arthur C. Clarke

Highly Elliptical Orbits

A Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) is one that has a very high

eccentricity, with an apogee altitude much greater than its
perigee altitude. The most common types of HEO are the
Molniya and Tundra orbits.

Molniya Orbit

This orbit was devised by Russia as a way of stationing its

communications satellites to provide better coverage of the
430 • FRANCES ZHU

northern latitudes of the country (compared to the coverage that

could be provided by equatorial geostationary orbits. Molniya
orbits have a high eccentricity (e=0.75) and a fixed apogee in
the northern hemisphere, where the satellite remains for about
11 of the 12 hours of its orbital period. Fixing the apogee is
done by having the orbit at one of the critical inclinations of
63.4o or 116.6o. At these inclinations, the rate of change in the
argument of perigee due to the Earth’s oblateness is zero. The
time distribution of the orbit results from Kepler’s Second Law
or the conservation of angular momentum. For a Molniya orbit,
apogee = 39,354 km altitude and perigee = 1,000 km.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 431

Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) Figure courtesy HTSI.

Tundra Orbit

A Tundra orbit – with a period of 24 hours – is both highly

elliptical and geosynchronous. Like the Molniya orbit, the
Tundra is tilted at one of the critical inclinations so its apogee is
fixed in the northern hemisphere. However, the Tundra orbit is
at a much higher altitude and has a period of 24 hours instead of
12 hours. A telecommunications system based on Tundra orbits
would require only two satellites in two orbital planes whose
ascending nodes are 180o apart. In contrast, a Molniya system
needs three satellites in three orbital planes with ascending
432 • FRANCES ZHU

nodes 120o apart. For a Tundra orbit, apogee = 53,622 km

altitude and perigee = 17,951 km.

Recurrent and Sub-Recurrent Orbits

In a recurrent orbit, the ground track of the satellite repeats

within 24 hours. A sub-recurrent orbit is one in which the
ground track repeats after a period of time greater than 24 hours.
Such orbits are necessary for Earth-observing satellites so that
they can revisit ground targets in a regular and predictable
manner. They are accomplished by selecting a semimajor axis
(altitude) with a period that produces an integer number of
revolutions per integer number of days. This altitude is called
the nominal semimajor axis. The number of days or the number
of orbits between repetitions is called the repeat cycle. For
example, the sub-recurrent orbit of Radarsat has a repeat cycle
of 343 revolutions in 24 days. That is, if the satellite is over point
X at a particular time, it will again be over point X 24 days later.

Ground Tracks

The ground track is the path that a satellite traces over the
Earth’s surface as it orbits. It appears to shift westward during
successive orbits due to the eastward rotation of the Earth. For
an LEO satellite, the ground track has the appearance of a series
of sine waves when displayed on a flat Mercator projection map.
The highest North-South latitude excursion of the ground track
is equal to the inclination of the orbit. This website allows users
to select a satellite from a list and see the Earth as viewed from
that satellite: http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/satellite.html
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 433

Map in Mission Control, Houston Courtesy of NASA.

Images Courtesy of FAA.gov.

434 • FRANCES ZHU

Ground Track Problem

The above plot shows the ground track of a satellite in a circular

posigrade orbit over a time period. Assume the Earth rotates
at 15°/hour. Ignore J2 effects. Determine the following
characteristics of the orbit: inclination (i), period (P), semi-major
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 435

axis (a), altitude (z), satellite’s orbital speed ( ), angular

momentum (h), and minimum speed necessary for it to escape
from the Earth ( ).

Orbital Maneuvers

Often a spacecraft needs to change its orbit/trajectory based on

436 • FRANCES ZHU

the requirements of its mission. Sometimes it might need to

transfer into a different orbit for a variety of reasons, or it may
need to change its delta-V in order to maintain its current altitude
or position. This section looks at a variety of ways to change
orbits, starting with in-plane orbit transfers.

In-Plane Orbit Transfers

Apsidal Burns

Effect of Non-Apsidal Burns in Plane

1. Posigrade Burn

A posigrade thrust at an arbitrary (non-apsidal) point in an

elliptical orbit will rotate the line of apsides as well as increase
the orbit size. This rotation will be CW or CCW depending
on whether burn occurs approaching apoapsis or periapsis. It
moves the periapsis closer to the thrust point.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 437

2. Retrograde Burn

A retrograde burn at a non-apsidal point in an elliptical orbit will

rotate the line of apsides and decrease orbit size. Retrograde
burn moves periapsis further away from the thrust point with
rotation of the line of apsides being CW or CCW depending on
whether it was closer to apoapsis or periapsis.

Radial Burns

1. Inward
438 • FRANCES ZHU

Moves S/C radially towards Earth, resulting in the negative,

meaning the S/C is no longer in a circular orbit and is
approaching periapsis, which will be reached 90 deg ahead of
burn point. Apoapsis is raised by the same amount, so the period
stays the same.

2. Outward

Circular orbit becomes elliptical with the positive, thus S/C

is approaching apoapsis, which occurs 90 deg ahead of thrust
point. Orbit size and period remain constant.

Hohmann Transfers

In 1915 a German engineer, Walter Hohmann, theorized a fuel-

efficient way to transfer between orbits This method uses an
elliptical transfer orbit tangent to both the initial and final orbits.
Hohmann transfers are limited to orbits in the same plane
(coplanar), and circular orbits or those with their lines of apsides
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 439

aligned (co-apsidal orbits). All ΔV burns during the transfer are

tangent to the initial and final orbits, thus the velocity vector
changes magnitude, but not direction. Tangential burns (Flight
Path Angle=0º) are the most important aspects of Hohmann
Transfers. Assume all ΔV burns are instantaneous.

From the energy equation, ε =µ2a, when we add or subtract

energy due to the ΔV burn, we change the energy of the orbit
and thus its size (semi-major axis, a). To move an s/c to a
higher orbit, we have to increase a, then we must increase ε by
increasing v. Conversely, to decrease a, we must decrease ε.

Hohmann Transfer from Inner to Outer Orbit. Image by Microcosm Inc.

440 • FRANCES ZHU

Steps to Determine Parameters for Hohmann

Transfer
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 441

Simple Plane
Changes

The geometry of Simple Plane Change.

In a simple plane change only the velocity vector’s direction

changes – its magnitude remains the same, i.e.,

From the geometry in the figure above, the vectors form an

isosceles triangle with the vertex angle being the plane change
angle, .

When θ = 60°, the isosceles triangle becomes equilateral, thus

ΔV equals (i.e., amount of energy to get into orbit in
442 • FRANCES ZHU

the first place). Since ΔV increases with , for elliptical

orbits, the plane change should be done as close to apoapsis as
possible when v is minimum.

Combined Plane Changes

The geometry of Combined Plane Change.

This combines a change in direction with a change in magnitude

(e.g., moving satellite from LEO with i = 28.5° to a GEO orbit
with r = 42160 km and i = 0°. From geometry:

This means it is cheaper to do a combined ΔV burn than a simple

plane change followed by a Hohmann transfer burn. Applying
Law of Cosines:

It is cheaper to do plane changes when is least, i.e., near

apoapsis.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 443

Rendezvous

Special use of orbit transfer is to enable two spacecraft to

rendezvous with one another. There are several different cases,
depending on the initial orbits of the spacecraft.

Rendezvous Between Spacecraft in Coplanar Orbits

Coplanar Rendezvous using Hohmann Transfer.

444 • FRANCES ZHU

Co-Orbital Rendezvous
For this type of rendezvous, the Interceptor and Target are in
the same orbit. Applying ΔV in the direction to the Target will
alter the shape and size of the Interceptor’s orbit. Rendezvous
is accomplished by the interceptor moving into a phasing orbit,
which will return the interceptor to the same spot one orbit later
in the time it takes the target to move around to that same spot.

Case A – Target Ahead of Interceptor

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 445
446 • FRANCES ZHU

Case B – Target Behind Interceptor

The angular distance the target must cover to get to the

rendezvous point is > 360°, thus the interceptor phasing orbit
will be greater than the current orbit period. To get into the
phasing orbit, the interceptor must speed up, thus entering a
higher, slower orbit. This allows the target to catch up.
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 447
448 • FRANCES ZHU

Lagrangian Libration Points

Figures courtesy of NASA.

French scientist, Joseph Lagrange, discovered libration points in

1764 while attempting to solve the complex three-body problem.
A Lagrangian Libration Point (LLP) is an equilibrium point in
the gravitational fields of two major bodies where a small body
will stay stationary with zero velocity and acceleration since the
forces in the system balance each other out (rotating frame). The
three co-axis points are called saddle points and are unstable The
two orthogonal points are called trough points and are stable.

Sphere of Influence

All bodies in space exert a gravitational pull on other bodies that

varies as the square of the distance between the bodies based on
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation. Theoretically, a body’s
gravitational influence extends to infinity but practically, it’s
only effective within a certain volume of space called the Sphere
of Influence (SOI). In the solar system, the SOI depends on the
planet’s mass and how close the planet is to the sun (the Sun’s
gravitational force overpowers the gravity of the closer planets).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 449

The SOI of a planet is given by:

= mass of planets

= mass of sun

= distance between planet and sun (use )

Examples

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1230

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1230
450 • FRANCES ZHU

Systems Tool Kit (STK) Labs

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1897#oembed-1

Using Systems Tool Kit (STK)

What is STK?
“Systems Tool Kit (STK) is a platform for analyzing and
visualizing complex systems in the context of your mission.
Interact with data from platforms across aerospace, defense,
telecommunications, and other industries. Simulate your
intended missions and communicate the results with reports,
graphs, and stunning 3D animations.” via agi.com

450
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 451

Purpose

This lab will walk through how to install STK and

a basic demonstration of STK capabilities useful for
aerospace and small satellite applications.

Background and Key Concepts to Consider

• Demonstrating orbit of a spacecraft

• Desired outcomes to analyze

◦ Calculating the ground track of a satellite in

its orbit

◦ Solar irradiance

◦ Input surface area of solar panels

◦ Solar panels efficiency

◦ How to calculate the power generated from

452 • FRANCES ZHU

results

Required Materials & Setup

STK Software

• Register and create an account on agi.com

◦ Look out for an email from

[email protected] with your
license and installation information.

◦ STK Download & License Instructions

◦ See also:

▪ STK System Requirements

▪ AGI Software Downloads:

Windows downloads

▪ AGI Licensing and Free Trials:

Additional information

▪ AGI: Educational Alliance

Program: You may check if your
school is part of the EAP.

◦ STK Cloud: If you do not have a Windows

OS, STK Cloud is web-browser based and
requires subscription after the free-trial
expires
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 453

Others

• Windows OS – for the desktop version of STK

• A computer mouse (recommended)

• Python (optional, for more calculations from STK

reports generated)

Install STK

Log in to the AGI website. Click on the STK button on the

Download page to begin downloading the .zip file, in step 1.

The file should be named something like “STK_v12.1.0.zip”,

with a file size of around 3 GB.

Extract all files from the downloaded STK release.zip file and
double-click install.exe in the folder to install STK. Follow the
steps and prompts on the Installer to install STK.
454 • FRANCES ZHU

Download the free license if you haven’t already, in step 2. For

more guidance, click on the Question Mark button.

After submitting the Host ID, a license file download should

start from the AGI website. The license file should also be
delivered in an email from [email protected].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 455

The file should appear as a .lic file with STK in the file name.

Once STK finishes installing, double-click on the file to

install your free license.

Alternatively: When the installation is nearly complete, check

the box to “obtain or install a license” to open the STK License
Manager. Then, in the “Manage Licenses” tab, click on the
“Install a license file” button (document with a plus sign), and
select the downloaded license file to install.
456 • FRANCES ZHU

If adding a license is successful, it should appear under the list of

“Installed Licenses”. Under “License Status”, STK should also
now appear under the Features list, with “Host ID” as the status.

STK should now be ready to use!

If there are additional problems during the installation process,

visit the help page: Installing STK Help.

Procedure
Note: To view many of the STK tutorials, you must be logged into
your AGI account.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 457

Preliminary Lab Procedures

For this lab, you may want to first run a basic simulation in
STK based on Level 1 Training provided by AGI. The beginner-
friendly lessons show how to familiarize yourself with the STK
workflow and model your own systems and missions in STK.
Level 1 Training only requires a free license of STK. Subsequent
training for Level 2 requires additional STK licenses and STK
Pro.

You can also refer to an introductory STK demo by Dr. Miguel

A. Nunes from the spacecraft course, viewable here, starting
from timestamp 27:41~ 28:28.

Intro to using STK with Hubble, from Dr. Miguel A. Nunes is

a highly recommended activity to practice using STK for first-
time users. Additional introductory and advanced level training
is available on the AGI website, listed under the References and
Other Work section.

Main Lab Procedures

A Level 3 module provided by AGI will be followed for final

lab deliverables:

Intro to modeling space-based systems & computing solar

power & comms

• Lesson (step-by-step document)

• Backup Google Drive link

• Pages 1 – 8 provide instructions for demonstrating a

458 • FRANCES ZHU

basic satellite orbit.

• Pages 1 – 16 provides instructions for simulating

solar panels on a satellite.

• Note: For the solar panel simulation, you will need

access to STK Pro to use the feature. Lab times will
be scheduled for access to computers with STK Pro
installed.

• Optional

◦ Checkpoint scenario 1

◦ Checkpoint scenario 2

◦ Checkpoint scenario 3

Using on-campus lab computers at UHM

Computers in POST 544 (a.k.a the Data Center) are available for
classroom use.

• A room code will be needed to enter and will be

provided in class.

If entering the Data Center from the side of the hallway with the
large, colorful Mars map…

• Light switches are located to the right of the doorway

when walking in. Be sure to turn these on/off when
entering and exiting the room.

• Computer 1 is located to the left of the open area with

the conference tables.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 459

Note: Remember to record your name and time in the white

binder on the desk. Use the TV remote control to turn on the
monitor. Remember to turn it off when done.

• Computer 2 is located on the right, in the small

classroom setting area.

Note: Use the TV remote control to turn on the monitor.

Remember to turn it off when done. There is an additional TV
remote on the left table if needed.

• Computers should be automatically logged in for

guest use.

◦ If a secure login is prompted, restart the

computer. Guest users should then be
logged in. If login issues persist, ask for
assistance from the instructor/lab monitor.

• Computers on-campus use STK version 11. If

importing data from future versions of the software,
data or features may be lost.
460 • FRANCES ZHU

Some reminders for on-campus access:

• Do not report to campus if you are experiencing any

symptoms or have recently been exposed to
COVID-19.

• Check in to the UH LumiSight app.

• Wear a mask and practice social distancing.

• Report at your scheduled lab time with the instructor/

lab monitor.

• Remember to turn on/off the computer monitors using

the remote controls nearby.

• Please turn off the lights and ensure the door is

securely locked upon leaving.

Sample screenshots from the tutorial:

Figure 1: Basic STK interface with a new scenario.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 461

Figure 2: STK Simulation with a satellite, STKSat, and Pass Data

Report.

Figure 3: STK simulation in STK Pro, to simulate solar panels on the

satellite.

Lab Review and Deliverables

Demonstrating orbit of a spacecraft (using the free version
of STK)
462 • FRANCES ZHU

Take a screenshot of the 3d view and 2d plot of the satellite’s

modeled orbit. Share the Pass Data report generated.

Desired outcomes to analyze (using the professional version

of STK)

• Solar irradiance

• Input surface area of solar panels

• Solar panels efficiency

• How to calculate the power generated from results

Share the solar panel report and graphs generated.

Safety and Best Practices Tips

• Right-click on objects in the Object Browser tree to

view different actions/options for the selected object.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 463

• Keep the various windows in STK organized using

the Window from the STK Menu bar.

• If the satellite of interest goes out of view for any

reason in the 3D Graphics view (e.g. zooming too far
in, and “losing sight” of the satellite)

◦ Use the View From/To feature

▪ Select a body to keep the view

on.

◦ Use the 3D Graphics Window’s Central

Body feature ()

▪ Select a different central body to

view from the drop-down menu,
then re-select Earth.

Alternative Activities
Explore additional STK resources

• STK Data (terrain, imagery, 3D models, example

464 • FRANCES ZHU

scenarios)

• STK Discussion Forum

• Code samples using STK’s programming interface

References and Other Work

• Learning how to use STK

◦ Go to start.agi.com to start learning STK

online with video guidance (via STK Help).

◦ Register for free certification to validate

your STK knowledge.

◦ Check out our DIY series to explore more

specific capabilities.

◦ AGI: Training and Certification Resources

available:

▪ Tutorials created by AGI are

available through Instructor-Led
Live Training and On-Demand,
self-paced courses.

▪ Sign up for online training

sessions (schedule updated
regularly) or view resources
provided to walk you through
using STK.

▪ Level 1 and 2 Training Modules

PDF (December 2020)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 465

◦ The entire STK Help website provides a

wealth of step-by-step instructions on how
to use STK.

• AGI: Tech Tips

• Intro to using STK with Hubble, from Miguel A.

Nunes
466 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 467

4. Structures and
Mechanisms

authored by Dr. Zhu

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of structure

subsystem in the context of spacecraft as
a whole and between other subsystems
• Familiarize with typical requirements
and configurations
• Differentiate phases of structures
development for verification and
validation

467
468 • FRANCES ZHU

• Conduct structural analysis (load and

vibe)

Structures and Mechanisms Chapter Content

4.1 Definition

4.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

4.3 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Artemis Structures Requirements

◦ Suggested Activity

◦ Requirements Compliance Matrix

4.4 General Arrangement and Design Drivers

◦ Geometry

▪ Artemis CubeSat Kit

Arrangement

◦ Mass

◦ Structural Loads

◦ Materials

◦ Process

4.5 Mechanisms
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 469

◦ Deployers

◦ Restraints or Launch Locks

◦ Separation Mechanisms

◦ Ordinance Devices

◦ Spin Bearings

◦ Scan Platforms

4.6 Structural Analysis

◦ Safety Factors

◦ Load Equations

▪ Ultimate and Yield Loads

▪ Buckling Load

▪ Beam Stiffness

▪ Beam Natural Frequencies

▪ Random Vibe and Acoustic
Equivalent g’s

▪ Thermal Load

▪ Simple Pressurized Shell

◦ Fracture and Fatigue Analysis

◦ Finite Element Analysis

▪ Artemis Finite Element Analysis

Results
◦ Suggested Activity
470 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Reference Documents

Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and CubeSat

Requirements Document [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01] &
[CubeSat Design Specifications Rev 14]

Structural Requirements Excerpt from NanoRacks External

CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface Definition Document
(IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 471

4.1 Definition

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=329#oembed-1

The structures and mechanisms subsystem is responsible for

all the mechanical interfaces of the spacecraft throughout its
lifetime:

• Adhere to mass constraints set out by form factor and

launch provider (during design)

• Mechanically support all other spacecraft subsystems

(during integration)

• Attaches the spacecraft to the launch vehicle (during

launch)

• Provides for ordnance-activated separation (during

orbit insertion)

• Provides deployment and other moving mechanisms

471
472 • FRANCES ZHU

(during a mission)

• Shielding from space environment, like radiation,

atmosphere, pyrotechnic shocks (during a mission)

The mechanical design must satisfy all strength and stiffness

requirements of the spacecraft and launch vehicle, such as
deflection during thermal expansion in space and vibration
tolerance during launch. The structures and mechanisms
subsystem may be separated into a primary structure and a
secondary structure: the primary structure carries the
spacecraft’s major loads and the secondary structure supports
components and provides non-load bearing covers, etc.
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 473
474 • FRANCES ZHU

Arc Welding Procedures, Techniques, and Welding Safety

Equipment Image by Aircraft Systems Tech

Structural components include skin panel assemblies, trusses,

ring frames, pressure vessels, fittings, brackets, equipment
boxes, and much more. Structural interfaces include
attachments, joining options, and fittings. Attachment or joining
options in adhesive bonds, welds, and mechanical fasteners.
Adhesive bond strength depends on the process and
workmanship and requires strict process control and testing.
Welds are possible for most aluminum alloys but the heat from
welds can lower material strength near welds by more than 50%.
Welds require strict process control and testing. Mechanical
fasteners, such as bolts and rivets, can experience fatigue.

Fundamentals of adhesive bonding by Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich

Artemis Kit Specific

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 475

The Artemis CubeSat kit acknowledges the

extensive testing the kit may undergo during your
development process so replaceable inserts are
embedded within the structure. Most connections
within the kit are fastened by bolts.
476 • FRANCES ZHU

Types of Screws. A variety of fasteners for different jobs. Image

courtesy of The Indian DIY & Woodworker

Most composite material structures have metal end fittings or

edge members attached by bonding. Bolts can be used but local
stress concentrations around fasteners can cause premature
failure at lower load levels.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 477

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=329#h5p-41

Aerospace Fasteners Application: An Aerospace Manufacturing Perspective.

Slide show courtesy of Randy Swinger.

3D Exploded Image of CubeSat Created

by Kevin Williams with HFSL

In the Artemis CubeSat kit, the structures and mechanisms

subsystem consists of the 1U CubeSat frame, an antenna
deployment mechanism, a threaded rod, spacers, and various
fasteners. The structural frame is made out of aluminum 6061
T6 and is hard anodized. When stowed, the antenna deployment
mechanism relies on a spring-loaded antenna, fastened by a
fishing line. Upon deployment, the fishing line is burned through
by a nichrome wire, releasing the antenna. The threaded rod
is made of super-corrosion-resistant 316 stainless steel. The
various length spacers are made of aluminum. The inserts are
478 • FRANCES ZHU

made of stainless steel. The stainless steel fasteners include

slotted screws, hex nuts, and washers.

Video of Antenna Deployment by Kevin Williams with HSFL

The custom structure’s CAD can be found in the Artemis

repository but the list of parts for the remaining structural
components is as follows:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 479

What part is Part

# Part name Qty Pt. # No
used for Description

Structure

Al 6061 T6,
1 Top Frame Top Frame Hard 1 Xo
Anodized

Al 6061 T6,
Bottom
2 Bottom Frame Hard 1 Xo
Frame
Anodized

Al 6061 T6,
3 Side Frame Side Frame Hard 2 Xo
Anodized

90 Degree
Countersink,
316 Stainless
Frame M2 x
4 Steel Hex Drive 8 93395A138
screws 0.40mm
Flat Head Screw
Thread,
6mm Long

4.500 mm
Aluminum OD, 5 mm
6 Unthreaded Long, for 94669A099
Spacer M3 Screw
Size

Spacers for 4.500 mm

structure OD, 14 mm
7 rods in ”“ Long, for 94669A109
between M3 Screw
PCB’s Size

4.500 mm
OD, 20 mm
8 ”“ Long, for 94669A115
M3 Screw
Size
480 • FRANCES ZHU

4.500 mm
OD, 16 mm
9 ”“ Long, for 94669A111
M3 Screw
Size

Deployment
switch
Deployment simulated
10 D2FD-01L30-1H
switches roller
soldering
connection

M2 x 0.4
18-8 Stainless
Deployment mm Thread,
11 Steel Socket Head 92125A056
screw 10 mm
Screw
Long

Deployment 18-8 Stainless M2 x 0.4

12 91828A111
Nut Steel Hex Nut mm Thread

0.0040″
Antenna Wear-Resistant Thick, 1/2″
13 9075K4
Material 1095 Spring Steel Wide, 25
Feet Long

Pan Head
High-Strength Phillips,
Antenna
14 High-Temperature 6-32 96367A449
Screw
PEEK Screw Thread, 1/4″
Long

Number 6
High-Temperature
Antenna Screw Size,
15 PEEK Plastic 93785A300
Washer 0.15″ ID,
Washer
0.38″ OD

High-Strength
Antenna 6-32 Thread
16 High-Temperature 98886A100
Nut Size
PEEK Hex Nut
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 481

3mm OD
New
Welded Stainless 2.2ID 316
17 Structure 50415K16
Steel Tubing Stainless
Rods
Steel

6-32
High-Torque
Plungers on Thread,
Long-Nose
18 feet of .5-1.5 lb. 8476A41
Stainless Steel
cubesat Nose Force,
Spring Plunger
threadlocker

Screws for
outside with Hex
18-8 Stainless
PCB such Drive, M2 x
Steel Low-Profile
19 as solar 0.4 mm 92855A839
Socket Head
panel and Thread, 8
Screws
antenna mm Long
board

90 Degree
Countersink
New screws 18-8 Stainless
Angle,
20 for structure Steel Hex Drive 92125A084
M2.5Thread
rods Flat Head Screw
Size, 6mm
Long

nee
5m
Raspberry
18-8 Stainless M2 x 0.4 scr
pi NoIR
21 Steel Socket Head mm Thread, 91292A831 but
camera
Screw 6 mm Long 6m
Screws
wa
pri

Raspberry
pi NoIR 18-8 Stainless M2 x 0.4
22 91828A111
camera Steel Hex Nut mm Thread
Nuts

18-8 Stainless M2.5 x 0.45

IMU
23 Steel Socket Head mm Thread, 91292A012
Screws
Screw 8 mm Long
482 • FRANCES ZHU

4.500 mm
Aluminum OD, 4 mm
24 IMU spacer Unthreaded Long, for 94669A097
Spacer M3 Screw
Size

for M2.5
General Purpose Screw Size,
IMU
25 18-8 Stainless 2.700 mm 98689A111
Washers
Steel Washer ID, 5 mm
OD

18-8 Stainless M2.5 x 0.45

26 IMU Nut 91828A113
Steel Hex Nut mm Thread

4.500 mm
Raspberry 18-8 Stainless OD, 12 mm
27 Pi zero Steel Socket Head Long, for 91292A016
Screws Screw M3 Screw
Size

4.500 mm
Raspberry Aluminum OD, 7 mm
28 Pi zero Unthreaded Long, for 94669A304
Spacers Spacer M3 Screw
Size

for M2.5
Raspberry General Purpose Screw Size,
29 Pi zero 18-8 Stainless 2.700 mm 98689A111
washers Steel Washer ID, 5 mm
OD

Raspberry
18-8 Stainless M2.5 x 0.45
30 Pi zero 91828A113
Steel Hex Nut mm Thread
Nuts

For Thermal:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 483

What part is Part Part

# Qty. Pt. # Notes
used for name Description

Heating
Heaters for PFH-2/
1 Heaters packs for 1
Batteries 3-53
battery

Tape for
Heater Kapton
2 heater and 1
Adhesive Tape
batteries

*Both tables updated as of 03/13/23

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=329
484 • FRANCES ZHU

4.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=331#oembed-1

The structures and mechanisms system is responsible for:

• Surviving loads through launch and the entire

spacecraft mission.

• Supporting geometric requirements or constraints in

component placement.

• Deploying structures successfully.

• Ensuring mechanisms do not fail throughout the

entire spacecraft mission.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:

484
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 485

https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=331#h5p-35

Vibration Testing Arkyd 6 by Planetary Resources. Video Courtesy of Youtube.

During the design process, the structures, and mechanisms

(STR) specialist:

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit is supported by

Solidworks and OnShape.

• Is the owner and primary developer of the spacecraft

Computer-Aided Design (CAD).
• Must design the spacecraft frame and ensure the
primary structure, the spacecraft frame, survives the
spacecraft’s major loads, which includes the launch
vehicle conditions while contained in the deployer
and during the pod deployment.

• Must also generate secondary structures that support

components, like mounting brackets, baffles, and
camera covers.

• Must geometrically fit the various subsystem

components into the spacecraft structure, which may
be an iterative, time-consuming process.
486 • FRANCES ZHU

• Is responsible for adhering to the structural

requirements throughout the entire spacecraft
lifecycle through analysis and testing.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=331
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 487

4.3 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=333#oembed-1

The Artemis II mission map shows the planned flight path and test
objectives for the flight. Image courtesy of NASA.

Sources for requirements may be generated from external

constraints or internally generated needs from all parts of the
spacecraft lifecycle, from manufacturing to spaceflight
operations. The basic requirements or design drivers for any
subsystem are the allocated size, weight, and power, which apply
to structures and mechanisms. Requirements specific to the
structures and mechanisms system related to the spacecraft
mission include:

487
488 • FRANCES ZHU

• Components requiring a certain orientation within the

spacecraft frame (facing away from the spacecraft
center)

• Components requiring a certain placement within the

spacecraft frame (radiation shielding or protection)

• Observing payloads that need an unobstructed view

into the space environment (most optics)

• Accommodation of specific size within spacecraft

volume and weight distribution affecting moment of
inertia

• Required active mechanisms or deployable (like an

extendable boom) to achieve mission objectives

• Total mass and size of the spacecraft

• Mechanical interfaces between spacecraft

components and primary structure
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 489

Flight to orbit. The life cycle of a rocket. Image courtesy of NASA.

Sources of internal requirements during manufacturing and

assembly could include handling fixtures, container interfaces,
or stresses induced by manufacturing processes. The Artemis
CubeSat Kit does not have handling fixtures, has rails to
interface with the P-POD deployer, and inserts to deal with
manufacturing fatigue from assembly and disassembly.
490 • FRANCES ZHU

3U cube satellite alongside a P-POD deployer. Image by the University

of Colorado at Boulder.

Sources of internal requirements during manufacturing and

assembly could include handling fixtures, container interfaces,
or stresses induced by manufacturing processes.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit does not have handling

fixtures, has rails to interface with the P-POD
deployer, and inserts to deal with manufacturing
fatigue from assembly and disassembly.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 491

During transport and handling, requirements may include crane

or dolly interfacing (especially for large spacecraft) and
considerations for land/sea/air transport environments (like
shipping containers for freight boats or trucks). The Artemis
CubeSat Kit does not have any handling interfaces but will
arrive fitted snugly in fitted foam within a Pelican case, which
offers protection during shipment.

Technicians and engineers inside a clean room at NASA’s Jet Propulsion

Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., prepare to install SAM into the mission’s
Mars rover, Curiosity, using a crane. Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit does not have any

handling interfaces but will arrive fitted snugly in
fitted foam within a Pelican case, which offers
protection during shipment.
492 • FRANCES ZHU

During testing, external requirements from the launch provider

commonly include environmental testing from vibration or
acoustic profiles. These tests may require a fixture to the testbed
that also must withstand vibration loads. During pre-launch,
requirements could include handling during stacking sequence
and pre-flight checks.

Two students and engineer Lloyd French working on the vibration table.
Image courtesy of HSFL

Artemis Kit Specific

Commonly, 1U CubeSats are stacked into a

deployer with other units of spacecraft (for
Nanoracks six units in a silo), so our structural
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 493

design offsets the mating face to avoid any physical

contact and potential damage.

During launch and ascent, the structure must withstand steady-

state booster accelerations, vibroacoustic noise during launch
and transonic phase, propulsion system engine vibrations,
pyrotechnic shock from separation events, transient loads during
stage separations, etc. Generally, spacecraft are designed to
launch loads as these loads are the most intense out of any phase.

Shock absorbers on Ares 1 rockets to reduce significant vibrations that

could shake the Orion spacecraft and astronaut crews during the early
stages of the flight. Image courtesy of Universe today and NASA.
494 • FRANCES ZHU

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit has been tested on a

vibration table to withstand these loads per the
Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and
CubeSat Requirements Document [NASA LSP-
REQ-317.01] and NanoRacks External CubeSat
Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface Definition
Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]. The CubeSat
may be soft-stowed on a resupply mission to the ISS
or hard-stowed as a secondary payload. We’ve tested
both profiles.

During mission operations, the spacecraft structure must

withstand thruster acceleration, transient loads from pointing
maneuvers, docking events, pyrotechnic shock from separation
or deployment, and thermal expansion.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit experiences antenna

deployment and thermal expansion for which both
the thermal vacuum chamber and antenna
deployment tests verified survival.

In the final phase of reentry and landing, spacecraft may

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 495

experience aerodynamic heating and transient winds or landing

loads. These phenomena are particularly relevant for the
astronaut return or for Mars entry, descent, and landing
operations.

Artist’s concept of the Mars Science Laboratory, containing the

Curiosity rover, entering the Martian atmosphere. The Mars 2020
mission will use the same heat shield design. Credit: NASA/
JPL-Caltech.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit need not survive reentry

as it is designed to burn up upon reentry.

From the CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14, the CubeSat

dimensions and features are outlined in the CubeSat
Specification Drawings (Appendix B). Note: The CubeSat
Inspection and Fit-check Procedure (CIFP) can be used to aid in
496 • FRANCES ZHU

verifying that the CubeSat meets the dimensional requirements

specified in Appendix B. The CIFP can be found on cubesat.org.
These requirements are applicable for all dispensers not utilizing
the tab constraint method. CubeSats designed with tabs can
find those specific requirements on the PSC website. Within
the CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14, the structural
requirements fall under section 2.2 CubeSat Mechanical
Specifications, which start on page 10.

Artemis Kit Specific

The most stringent requirements imposed on the

Artemis CubeSat kit are from the NanoRacks
External CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface
Definition Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004].
Please refer to section 4.1 Structural and Mechanical
Systems Interface Requirements. The following table
lists the Artemis CubeSat Kit’s structural
requirements, drawn from both the CalPoly and
Nanoracks document
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 497

The CubeSat
structure shall be
contained within
1U and offer
3.6
flexibility in
mounting
components
internally

The CubeSat kit structure shall remain

3.6.1 inside a 10 x 10 x 11.35 cm +/- 0.1mm
volume while undeployed

All four protruding corners on the top and

bottom of the main body of the CubeSat
shall not exceed a height of 6.75mm, shall
3.6.2 have a minimum length and width of
6mm, and shall have a surface area of
6.5mm x 6.5mm, per NASA CLSI
requirements

There shall be a minimum of 20mm from

the CubeSat surface to the top of the
3.6.3
corners along the Z direction per NASA
CSLI Requirements

The four edges of the CubeSat along the Z

direction shall have a hardness greater than
3.6.4
or equal to Rockwell C 65-70 per NASA
CSLI Requirements

The overall structure shall withstand

1200N between two XY planes applied in
3.6.5
the Z direction, per NASA CSLI
Requirements

The maximum mass of the entire CubeSat

3.6.6 Kit shall not exceed 1.33 kg per NASA
CSLI Requirements

The center of gravity shall be within 2cm

3.6.7 of its geometric center relative to the Z
direction, per NASA CSLI Requirements
498 • FRANCES ZHU

The CubeSat kit shall be easy to assemble

3.6.3
with the provided instructions

Requirements Compliance Matrix

In a NASA Technical Standard to establish NASA structural
design and test factors [NASA-STD-5001], this document’s
appendix provides a listing of requirements for selection and
verification of requirements by programs and projects. You may
use the entire appendix table to decide which requirements apply
to your program and by entering “Yes” to describe the
requirement’s applicability to the program or project; or entering
“No” if the intent is to tailor and enter how tailoring is to be
applied in the “Rationale” column. For all the requirements that
you’ve deemed applicable, you should read the corresponding
sections in NASA-STD-5001. The figure below is just a
snapshot of the 8 pages of potential requirements.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 499

Potential requirements from the NASA Systems Engineering Handbook.

Image by NASA.

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from this version of the text. You can view them
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500 • FRANCES ZHU

4.4 General Arrangement and

Design Drivers

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

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This section will review the design drivers that affect the
structural design of the spacecraft: geometry, mass, structural
loads, materials, and processes. These design drivers affect each
other, sometimes beneficially, but also in ways that oppose each
other and cause problems. The design process is always iterative
and must consider all of these design drivers.

“The appropriate design and test factors for a given mechanical

or structural flight hardware element depend on several
parameters, such as the materials used, attachment methods
(e.g., bonding), and the verification approach (prototype or proto
flight). In addition to the minimum factors of safety specified in

500
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 501

this NASA Technical Standard, some structural and mechanical

members may be required to meet other more stringent and
restrictive performance requirements, such as dimensional
stability, pointing accuracy, stiffness/frequency constraints, or
safety requirements (e.g., fracture control)” [NASA-
STD-5001B].

Geometry

The structure of the EST CubeSat. Notice the placement of all the parts
relative to each other. Which components are on the outside? Which is
facing out? CC SA 3.0. Image by the University of Tartu.
502 • FRANCES ZHU

For the primary structure, the design drivers are the first and
foremost requirements, derived from external constraints and
internal needs. The primary structure is constrained to the launch
vehicle fairing or deployer enclosure and must enclose all the
spacecraft bus components. Geometric considerations that affect
every subsystem could include:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 503

Subsystem Consideration

• Unoccluded field of view for payloads

• Thermal deformation is critical
Payload payload components
• Electromagnetic Interference/
Capability

• Spatial organization to ensure

Structure and components do not intersect
Mechanisms
• Vibration isolation

• Facilitate thermal management

through conduction or radiation
Thermal Control • Regulating thermally sensitive
components through placement
• Enabling thermal isolation

• Securing harnessing in empty spaces

Power (including
harness) • Insulating battery (which is typically
thermally sensitive)

Telemetry and
• Unoccluded field of view for antenna
Control

Command and • Radiation shielding by placing

Data Handling computer behind other components
504 • FRANCES ZHU

• Sensor and actuator mounting in

defined orientations
Attitude • Regulating moments of inertia
Determination (emphasize one principal axis or
and Control uniform across axes)
• Minimize off-diagonal moments of
inertia

• Direction of thrusters
Propulsion • Placement of propellant exhaust exit
with respect to payload optics

Artemis CubeSat Kit Arrangement

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat kit is straightforward in its

geometric arrangement as the subsystem components
are rather homogenous in their geometry; all the
subsystems are generally mounted on PCB boards
and stacked on a threaded rod as seen in the figure.
The antenna and deployer on the exterior of the
satellite guarantee an unoccluded field of view. The
exterior skin has a cut-out to allow a camera to peer
through; the first board in the stack has the payload
and payload supporting electronics. The power
distribution board follows. The onboard computer
sits nearly in the center of the CubeSat, providing
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 505

radiation shielding. Between boards starting from

payload to onboard computer, 104-pin Cubesat kit
bus headers are used to reduce clutter. Pycubed
boards were not designed to be compatible with the
CubeSat kit bus header and thus integrated through
external connections. The low-level control
computer, called the PyCubed, is stacked underneath.
Finally, we have the PyCubed battery board, which
runs warm and needs exposure to the space
environment to radiate its heat.

Mass

Labeled Printed Circuit Boards of Artemis 1U CubeSat with No Solar

Panel Boards; A: Payload Board; B: Mock Payload; C: Onboard
Computer, D: Power Distribution Unit; E: Battery Board; F: Antenna
Board; G: Antenna
506 • FRANCES ZHU

The structure and mechanisms subsystem specialist is an

important player in generating and managing the mass budget,
with the assistance of the systems engineer and the other
subsystem specialists. For a 1U CubeSat, the total mass of the
spacecraft must not exceed 2 kg [CubeSat Design Specification
Rev. 14]. Any additional mass may be negotiated with the launch
provider with an immense amount of paperwork and persistence
but it’s not impossible. Typically, 1U CubeSats are between 1 kg
and 1.33 kg. To reiterate, a suggested mass budget and specific
1U CubeSat project mass budgets are as follows:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 507

Subsystem (% SMAD Hermes Artemis

of Dry Mass) suggestion CubeSat CubeSat

Allocated
Payload 41% 2%
in T&C

Structure and
20% 32.3% 20%
Mechanisms

Thermal
2% 0%
Control

Power
(including 19% 13.5%
harness)

Telemetry and
2% 22.5%
Control

Command
and Data 5% 3.6% 5%
Handling

Attitude
Determination 8% 2.4% 8%
and Control

Other
(balance 3% 25.7% –
launch)

Total 100% 100% 100%

The mass budget typically carries a margin at the preliminary

design phase. The design margin decreases over time as the
design converges to the final assembly. Refining the design
toward spaceflight reveals additional interfacing and detailing
that inevitably adds mass to the system [Hayhurst et al.]. Each
subsystem’s mass growth by design gate is shown in the figure.
Note, that the spacecraft studied are traditional in size and mass,
508 • FRANCES ZHU

which means that the study was not geared toward cube satellite
design.

Historical Mass, Power, Schedule & Cost Growth for NASA

Instruments & Spacecraft by Marc Hayhurst, Robert Bitten, Daniel
Judnick, Ingrid Hallgrimson, Megan Youngs The Aerospace
Corporation. Stephen Shinn NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Structural Loads
This section will provide an overview of typical structural loads
and how they drive the spacecraft’s structural design. Loads are
generated by forces, deformations, or accelerations that cause
stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures. There
are two types of structural loads: static and dynamic. Static
loads are steady-state loadings, like loads imparted on spring-
loaded deployers, launch acceleration, or pressurized vessels.
Think of these loads as built-up loads that are ready to burst or
buckle. Dynamic loads are loads from vibrations generated by
natural frequencies, like launch vehicles, pyrotechnic separation,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 509

or deployment events. Think of these loads as shocking events.

Structural engineers are concerned with mitigating the effects of
the critical load: the load that the spacecraft most intensely feels
and is most likely to break the spacecraft. Critical loads could be
launch loads for an assembled spacecraft, pressurization loads
for a rocket casing, thermal loads for a propulsion system,
centrifugal forces from rapid rotation, or on-orbit collisions.

Three 1U CubeSats beside a 3U (Poly Picosatellite Orbital Deployer

(PPOD) developed at CalPoly. The spring mechanism used by P-PODs
to deploy CubeSats can be seen within the main housing, prior to
loading. Image Credit: California Polytechnic State University Source
publication
510 • FRANCES ZHU

The Fox-1A CubeSat satellite has been integrated into the

Poly-PicoSatellite Orbital Deployer rig (P-POD) with two other
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 511

CubeSats. The red arrows show the static load on the CubeSats
generated from the compressed spring’s force. Image by Dan Passaro.

Apollo 15 Launch and Reaching Earth Orbit. Courtesy of NASA.

512 • FRANCES ZHU

Typical vibration spectrum of a launch.How to test satellites and not

destroy them by Ben Sampson Courtesy of Aerospace Testing
International.

Just as we reviewed every phase of the spacecraft lifecycle in

the Typical Requirements section, we will revisit these phases
to identify all loads and estimate the load. Load quantification
may be obtained through measurements, tests, references, and
asking the relevant engineers. Critical load estimation is not
always straightforward and may need to be indirectly quantified
or estimated.

• During manufacturing and assembly, stresses could

include welding, joint stressing due to tightening
bolts

• During transport and handling, requirements may

include loads from transferring the spacecraft to a
shipping container (especially for large spacecraft)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 513

and shock during transportation through land/sea/air

transport environments (like on freight boats or
trucks). The Artemis CubeSat Kit expects to be
handled delicately by human hands, which yield
gentle loads. The kit is not expected to survive being
dropped. The kit will arrive fitted snugly in fitted
foam within a Pelican case, which mitigates the shock
loads during transportation. These loads will not be
critical loads.

• During thermal and vibration testing, critical loads

could be the stress from misaligned thermal
expansion, launch shock, acceleration loads, and
random vibration environments. These tests replicate
launch loads and thermal stressing from the mission
operations environment. The difference between
thermal and vibe testing in this phase with respect to
the real environments could be the disparity in
replicating the same loads in which case the
spacecraft must survive two different loading profiles.
Ideally, the test matches the launch and space
environment conditions so we will discuss critical
loads in those phases. A summary of tests is seen
below:
514 • FRANCES ZHU

Launch Services Program. Courtesy of NASA.

• During pre-launch, the spacecraft must be handled

and packaged into the launch vehicle. For large
spacecraft, handling loads could include static loads
at hoisting interfaces. Cubesats experience the
compression of the P-POD deployer. Drawing from
the Nanoracks External CubeSat Deployer Document,
“The CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding a
force 1320N across all load points equally in the Z
direction”. The Artemis CubeSat kit was analyzed to
withstand this integrated load. This could be a critical
load for which we should do structural analysis.

• During launch and ascent, the structure must

withstand steady-state booster accelerations,
vibroacoustic noise during launch and transonic
phase, propulsion system engine vibrations,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 515

pyrotechnic shock from separation events, and

transient loads during stage separations, etc.
Generally, the critical loads to launch loads as these
loads are the most intense out of any phase. The
Artemis CubeSat Kit has been tested on a vibration
table to withstand these loads per the Launch Services
Program Level Dispenser and CubeSat Requirements
Document [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01] and
NanoRacks External CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E)
Interface Definition Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-
S0004]. The CubeSat may be soft-stowed on a
resupply mission to the ISS or hard-stowed as a
secondary payload. We’ve tested both profiles. For
your convenience, we have listed all relevant loads
taken word for word from the Nanoracks document.

• Acceleration loads: Payload safety-critical structures

shall (and other payload structures should) provide
positive margins of safety when exposed to the
accelerations documented in Table 4.3.1-1 at the CG
of the item, with all six degrees of freedom acting
simultaneously.

• Random Vibration Environment: The CubeSat shall

be capable of withstanding the dynamic flight
environment for the mission applicable launch
vehicle (shown in Table 4.3.2.1-1 through Table
516 • FRANCES ZHU

4.3.2.1-4). Nominally, NRCSDE missions are

launched on the Antares rocket; however, Atlas V
rockets have been utilized in the past.

• Launch shock environment: The CubeSat shall be

capable of withstanding the shock environment
shown in Table 4.3.3-1. Any mechanical or electrical
components on the spacecraft that are highly sensitive
to shock should be identified and assessed on a case-
by-case basis as defined in the unique payload ICA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 517

• During mission operations, loads include thruster

acceleration, transient loads from pointing
maneuvers, docking events, pyrotechnic shock from
separation or deployment, and loads from thermal
expansion. The Artemis CubeSat Kit experiences
antenna deployment and thermal expansion for which
both the thermal vacuum chamber and antenna
deployment tests verified survival. For your
convenience, we have reiterated the thermal
environment taken word for word from the Nanoracks
document.
518 • FRANCES ZHU

• The CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding the

expected thermal environments for all mission
phases, which are enveloped by the on-orbit EVR
phase prior to deployment. The expected thermal
environments for all phases of the mission leading up
to deployment are below in Table 4.3.5-1.

• In the final phase of reentry and landing, spacecraft

may experience aerodynamic heating and pressure,
transient winds, or landing loads. The Artemis
CubeSat Kit need not survive reentry as it is designed
to burn up upon reentry.

Upon identifying the various loads, we may conduct structural

analysis to determine which of these loads is the critical load.
From experience and intuition, a good guess is to design the
structural components of the spacecraft to the launch conditions
if your spacecraft will remain in orbit. If your spacecraft will
re-enter Mars’s atmosphere, for example, the entry, descent,
and landing phase may be more critical. The structural analysis
will be described in the last section of this chapter but the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 519

consequence of the structural analysis is the iterative design

and redesign of the structural components to fulfill sufficient
margins of safety.

Structural analysis plays into the initial design of structures

by conducting back-of-the-envelope (simplified) calculations as
to the sizing or thickness of a structural component, like the
primary structure wall or supporting bracket. The structural
analysis enters the redesign phase by showing that some
structural components fail at the critical load and need
reinforcement to achieve mission success. Structural analysis
may also show some structural components more than
sufficiently carry that piece’s critical load and could be trimmed
in mass to allocate elsewhere. Finally, structural analysis in the
way of finite element analysis is a critical method of verifying
that structural designs will survive tests or survive conditions
that would otherwise be infeasible to test.

Materials

The selection of the structural material affects the survivable

structural load, mass, geometry, and concerns around
outgassing. Material properties include density, stiffness,
strength, weight, ductility, coefficient of thermal expansion,
fatigue, and outgassing:

• Density is the mass per unit volume of a material. As

space missions are proportional in cost to the mass
launched into space, lower density materials are
preferred.

• The precise term for material stiffness is Young’s

520 • FRANCES ZHU

modulus, which “defines the relationship between

stress (force per unit area) and strain (proportional
deformation) in a material in the linear elasticity
regime of uniaxial deformation. Young’s modulus
enables the calculation of the change in the dimension
of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under
tensile or compressive loads” [Wikipedia]. This value
is commonly represented by the letter E or Y.

◦ E is Young’s modulus

◦ is the uniaxial stress or uniaxial force

per unit surface

◦ is the strain, or proportional deformation

(change in length divided by original
length); it is dimensionless

◦ Both E and have units of pressure, while

is dimensionless. Young’s moduli are
typically so large that they are expressed
not in pascals but in megapascals (MPa or
N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2).

• There are two types of material strengths that we care

about: yield strength and ultimate strength.

◦ Materials, when stressed below the yield

point, return to their original form. Imagine
a rubber band stretched gently. When you
stop stretching the rubber band, the rubber
band returns to its original form; this is
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 521

elastic deformation.

◦ Yield strength is when a material is stressed

to the point where the material does not
return to its original shape; this is plastic
deformation. Imagine that the rubber band
was stretched more intensely and when the
stretching is eased, the rubber band looks a
bit longer than it started out.

◦ Ultimate strength is the maximum stress

that a material can withstand while being
stretched or pulled before breaking.
Imagine that this is when the rubber band
snaps.

“Engineering” stress-strain (σ–ε) curve typical of

aluminum. 1.) Ultimate strength. 2.)Yield
strength. 3.)Proportional limit stress. 4.)Fracture.
5.) Offset strain (typically 0.2%) Image by
Maksim
522 • FRANCES ZHU

• Ductility “is a measure of a material’s ability to

undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture
or breaking, which may be expressed as percent
elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile
test” [Wikipedia].

% EL= =

Malleability is the compressive counterpart to ductility.

Malleability “is a material’s ability to deform under compressive
stress”.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 523

The schematic appearance of round metal bars after tensile testing. (a)
Brittle fracture (b) Ductile fracture (c) Completely ductile fracture.
Image by Sigmund.

• Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) “describes

how the size of an object changes with a change in
temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional
change in size per degree change in temperature at
constant pressure” [Wikipedia]. You’ll notice bridges
or parking lot structures have expansion joints that fill
gaps within the structure and act as a flexible,
variable filler that helps the structure adapt to
temperature changes without distorting [Science
Clarified].
524 • FRANCES ZHU

• Fatigue occurs when a material is cyclically loaded

and unloaded at mean stress. Fatigue limit “is the
stress level below which an infinite number of
loading cycles can be applied to a material without
causing fatigue failure” [Wikipedia]. Interestingly,
aluminum seemingly has no fatigue limit. “Fatigue
failures, both for a high and low cycle, all follow the
same basic steps process of crack initiation, stage I
crack growth, stage II crack growth, and finally
ultimate failure” [Wikipedia]. Characteristics of
fatigue include randomness in the location of the
failure, usual association with tensile stresses, inverse
relationship between applied stress and life, and
irreversible damage. “Fatigue life is influenced by a
variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish,
metallurgical microstructure, presence of oxidizing or
inert chemicals, residual stresses, scuffing contact
(fretting), etc.”, which is why attention to
manufacturing processes is important to preserve the
structural integrity of components likely to fatigue.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 525

Representative curves of applied stress vs a number of cycles

for steel (showing an endurance limit) and aluminum
(showing no such limit). Image by Andrew Dressel.

• Outgassing or off-gassing is the “release of gas that

was dissolved, trapped, frozen, or absorbed in some
material” [Wikipedia]. Outgassing commonly occurs
when the spacecraft is exposed to a high-vacuum
environment. NASA keeps a database of outgassing
data of materials intended for spacecraft use and
promotes the use of materials with low-outgassing
properties. “Outgassing products can condense onto
optical elements, thermal radiators, or solar cells and
obscure them. For most solid materials, the method of
manufacture and preparation can reduce the level of
outgassing significantly. Cleaning of surfaces or
heating of individual components or the entire
assembly (a process called “bake-out“) can drive off
volatiles” [Wikipedia].

Common choices for spacecraft structures include aluminum,

steel, titanium, and composites. Aluminum is incredibly
526 • FRANCES ZHU

common due to its high material strength with relatively low

density to save on mass and low cost. Steel is stronger and
generally cheaper but heavier. Titanium is stronger and lighter
but much more expensive. Composite materials are higher in
strength and lower in density, also making them attractive
candidates, but have less space heritage or historical use. For a
more quantitative comparison, refer to the table below:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 527

Aluminum Stainless Titanium Carbon-carbon

Material
6061-T6 Steel 316 Ti-6Al-4V composite

Density 2.7 g/cc 8 g/cc 4.43 g/cc 1.6 g/cc

Young’s
68.9 GPa 193 GPa 113.8 GPa 80 GPa
Modulus

Tensile
Yield 276 MPa 290 MPa 880 MPa 260 MPa
Strength

Tensile
Ultimate 310 MPa 580 MPa 950 MPa
Strength

Ductility 12 – 17 % 50 % 14 %

23.6 –
16 – 17.5 8.6 – 9.7 0.2 – 5.7 µm/
CTE 25.2 µm/
µm/m-°C µm/m-°C m-°C
m-°C

270
Fatigue
96.5 MPa MPa-N/ 510 MPa
Strength
mm2

5.1 × 10 x
Outgassing 33 x 10^-9
10−9 10^−9
rate

Thermal 167 W/ 16.3 W/ 6.7 W/

4 – 27 W/m-K
Conductivity m-K m-K m-K

Cost for ¼” 23.31 98.46

3.46 USD 20.50 USD
x 1” x 1’ bar USD USD

Process

Although the process may seem like an afterthought, we must

consider the manufacturing, integration, assembly, and testing
process. The design may be geometrically elegant or structurally
strong but the design is not feasible if the structure components
528 • FRANCES ZHU

are impossible to manufacture or assemble. The most

straightforward way to gauge if a design is possible to fabricate,
assemble, and test is to attempt to fabricate, assemble, and test.
Infeasible plans may be revealed through preliminary plans, like
consulting with machinists on part drawings or generating an
integration procedure. The best practice is to fabricate and test
prototypes prior to the actual deadline to iron out any hiccups in
the implementation progress.

ALTEN engineers during assembly, validation tests, and final integration

(before launch) of a satellite. Image by ALTEN.

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from this version of the text. You can view them
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4.5 Mechanisms

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For the beginner structures and mechanisms engineer, this

section will provide a brief overview of the various components
and what they’re used for in spacecraft. These mechanisms are
typically very risky as they have a significant rate of failure.
As they are so risky, systems engineers prefer not to use active
mechanisms unless necessary. Mechanisms may be critical for
engineering solutions or science applications, which will be
discussed below. Thus, deployers are rigorously tested on the
ground in gravity offloading testbeds, which simulate
microgravity by placing wheels underneath a structure or
stringing cables from the structure to the ceiling to compensate
for gravity.

529
530 • FRANCES ZHU

Mechanical gravity offloader. Image courtesy of Gravity-Offloading

System for Large-Displacement Ground Testing of Spacecraft
Mechanisms by Olyvia Han, David Kienholz, Paul Janzen, and Scott
Kidney.

Deployers
Deployers or deployment mechanisms transform a packaged
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 531

spacecraft into its operational form. The common need for all
deployers is the desire to achieve a different geometry than is
feasible with the rocket fairing volume constraint. Deployers can
achieve great lengths (booms), large surface areas (solar panels
or solar sails), or immense volumes (habitation modules).

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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epet302/?p=337#h5p-45

This is the ISS S4/S4 solar panel deployment. Video Courtesy of NASA via
YouTube.

Booms
Booms are typically used to take advantage of length extension.
This length extension could offer spatial isolation, like
mitigating electromagnetic noise for a magnetometer on the tip
of the boom. A boom could also offer geometric placement
for optics, as a shade or occluder. Booms may also be used
to manipulate spacecraft dynamics. A boom can modify the
moment of inertia of a spacecraft to create spin stability [Pankow
et al.] or mass distribution of a spacecraft to create a gravity
differential to preference an orientation [Kowalski et al.].

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https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337#h5p-46

Deployable Composite Booms (DCB). Video courtesy of NASA.

Solar Panels
Solar panels rely on the surface area to generate power. Some
spacecraft, like our Artemis Cubesat kit, have solar panels on
most faces of the spacecraft structure. But some spacecraft have
opted to extend solar arrays away from the primary structure to
get as much surface area and thus as much power as possible.
This level of power generation may be critical to fulfilling
mission requirements. These solar arrays can’t fit in the rocket
fairing as is so the solar panels must be folded close to the
primary structure and deployed once in orbit. Solar panel hinges
and motors deploy these solar panels to their full extent.
Vipavetz and Kraft give great lessons learned as to the reasons
solar panel arrays have historically failed grouped into
mechanical loading, on-orbit space environment, tribology
(mechanisms and lubricants), and basic systems engineering.

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this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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Glory Solar Array Deployment. Video courtesy of NASA.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 533

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337#h5p-164

Engineering with Origami. Video by Veritasium

Light Sails or Shades

Light sails or shades are deployed much like thin booms with
the addition of unfurling a thin sail. The careful folding, like
origami, of the sail, is ingenious. The sail is made of an
incredibly thin mylar material that could risk tearing with poor
fabrication or assembly. This surface area is necessary for a
light sail to capture as much linear momentum from photons as
possible, as the individual exchange from a single photon is not
much, but the summation across a large surface area can propel
a small spacecraft.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337#h5p-47

The full video can be seen at Raw video: LightSail solar sail deployment test.
Video Courtesy of The Planetary Society.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
534 • FRANCES ZHU

https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337#h5p-49

The full video can be seen at James Webb Space Telescope – Unfurls. Video
courtesy of Northrop Grumman.

Antennas
Antennas, like the radar antenna on RainCube, require a
parabolic dish shape that is too large to be launched as is, thus
they must be compacted and deployed after launch. A small
business, named Freefall Aerospace, has created a lightweight,
low-volume stowed spacecraft antenna that is inflatable,
bypassing rigid deployment. MarCO-A and B are “our first and
second interplanetary CubeSats”, enabled by a deployable high-
gain, X-band antenna flat panel.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 535

RainCube’s Umbrella: The radar antenna for the tiny RainCube satellite
folds up into a 10-by-10-by-15-centimeter canister. Upon deployment,
its 30 ribs extend like an umbrella to form a parabolic dish that’s still
small enough to test in a thermal vacuum chamber. Photo by JPL/
NASA.
536 • FRANCES ZHU

Inflatable Space Habitats

Inflatable space habitats are deployable modules for crewed
space. The ISS has an expandable habitat called the Bigelow
Expandable Activity Module that has been operational since
2016. These habitats are pressurized structures and provide a
greater volume of living space [Wikipedia]. There are proposed
uses of inflatable habitats on planetary surfaces but no instances
yet, only uses in space.

Series of photos showing the expansion of the Bigelow Expandable

Activity Module to its full size on May 28, 2016. Image courtesy of
NASA and Bigelow Aerospace.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 537

Restraints or Launch Locks

Eurockot’s MLS adapter system for a single satellite accommodation

Rockot User’s Guide, EHB0003, Issue 5, Revision 0, August 2011

Restraints or launch locks restrain the payload and isolator

during spacecraft launch. The spacecraft interfaces with an
adapter or dispenser system of the launch vehicle commonly
called the Mechanical Lock System [Eurockot]. The adapters
and interfaces vary with the spacecraft and rocket, but there are
some standards associated with the size. For example, CubeSats
can rely on the PPOD deployer for mechanical interfacing.
538 • FRANCES ZHU

Cut-away detail of the Eurockot’s Mechanical Lock System Rockot

User’s Guide, EHB0003, Issue 5, Revision 0, August 2011

Separation Mechanisms

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337#oembed-2

Glory Solar Array Deployment. Video Courtesy of NASA.

Separation mechanisms disconnect the spacecraft from the

launch vehicle once in the proper orbit. There are many options
for separation mechanisms: clamp bands, motorized light bands,
Marmon clamps, dispensers, and custom systems [Spaceflight].
The best technical solution depends on the size of the spacecraft,
launch vehicle provider, allowable shock, and typical tip-off
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 539

rate. Separation mechanism characteristics include the imparted

velocity in the axial and lateral direction, spin rate, umbilical
connectors to supply power or data, allowable volume or length
dimensions, and any applied loads.

Clamp band system with major components identified. The system is

shown in clamped, preloaded configuration. Image by Semantic Scholar.
540 • FRANCES ZHU

Ordinance Devices

Typical launch with ordnance-initiated events. Iyengar et al. Image

courtesy of ULA Launch.

Ordnance is an explosive device that enables the sudden release

of spacecraft. Ordnance systems initiate important discrete
events, like lift-off, stage separations, spacecraft separation, and
flight termination [ULA launch]. Ordnance often incorporates
the use of explosive bolts, or pyrotechnic fasteners, in separating
different stages of the launch vehicle and spacecraft. An
explosive charge separates the bolt at a specified break plane.
The explosion can be the result of explosive detonating material
or a pyrotechnic pressure-generating material [Pacsci EMC].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 541

A cross-sectioned bolt, pre-explosion. Image by Ray Lego.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337#oembed-3

Hi-Shear Explosive Bolt P/N 55-07057-1 HACL Film 554 [film] San Diego Air
and Space Museum Archives. Film from the Atlas-Centaur Heritage Film
Collection was donated to the San Diego Air and Space Museum by Lockheed
Martin and United Launch Alliance. The Collection contains 3,000 reels of
16-millimeter film.
542 • FRANCES ZHU

Spin Bearings

Dynamics and control of dual-spin gyrostat spacecraft with changing

structure. V. Aslanov, V. Yudintsev.

An example of spin bearings, or ball bearings, in space, is a dual-

spin spacecraft. Two rigid bodies are connected by a bearing that
allows the two bodies to rotate at different rates. The spinning of
one body stabilizes the other body so that the payload may track
or point. Bearings notoriously fail in space, although specifically
reaction wheel bearings and not passive mechanical joints.
Bearings naturally wear over time, accumulating friction and
potentially jamming up. Some bearings fail due to bearing
damage caused by electrical arcing [AEGIS]. Rotating joints
also increase complexity in design. “When electrical power or
signals must be passed across a rotating interface, a slip ring
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 543

(sliding electrical contact) or twist capsule (specialized flexible

harness) is required” [Honeybee Robotics].

Scan Platforms

At the end of the science, the boom is the moveable scan platform that
houses 5 optical sensing instruments, including the two cameras. Image
courtesy of PBS.

Some payloads require sweeping across a field of view to collect

swaths of information. To conduct a sweep, the payload may be
mounted to a scanning platform. A famous example of a scan
platform is on the Voyager spacecraft. The payloads look away
from the rotation axis and collect visible UV and IR data along
a horizontal plane. Another sample mission is SENTINEL-1,
which carries a synthetic aperture radar instrument that scans
quickly along elevation and azimuth.
544 • FRANCES ZHU

SENTINEL-1 Modes: The IW mode images three sub-swaths using

Terrain Observation with Progressive Scans SAR (TOPSAR). Image
courtesy of ESA.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=337
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 545

4.6 Structural Analysis

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from this version of the text. You can view them
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epet302/?p=339#oembed-1

The goal of structural analysis is to aid the structural engineer

in designing, evaluating, and verifying the structural integrity
of the structures and mechanisms on the spacecraft. Typical
requirements dictate margins of safety for critical structural
components that must be proven through testing or finite
element analysis. In aerospace engineering, safety is a critical
consideration in the design process.

Safety Factors
Factor of Safety = =

545
546 • FRANCES ZHU

The margin of Safety = Factor of Safety – 1.0

The idea of safety can be numerically characterized by the terms

factor of safety and margin of safety. The factor of safety is
the ratio of failure load to design load, or equivalently, failure
stress to design stress as stress is load normalized to the area.
The design load is what you anticipate seeing on the structure in
realistic conditions; in our analysis, the design load is the critical
load. The failure load is how much the structure can withstand
before failure, derived from a back-of-the-envelope calculation,
finite element analysis, or testing. Structural components are
not just designed to bear the critical or design load; they are
designed to withstand much more than the intended critical load.
For bridges, the factor of safety is 10, meaning that if the bridge
anticipates 1 car’s weight in a footprint, the bridge was designed
and built to withstand 10 cars in that same footprint: a very
conservative and safe design. For aircraft and other aerospace
engineering applications, the factor of safety is very common 2.
The factor of safety is a user-defined threshold that the structure
design must meet, typically imposed by the end-user, customer,
or structural engineer. This number is defined by how uncertain
you are of the load or structure or how safe you want to be;
more uncertainty and more safety both lead to higher factors of
safety. When in doubt, crank that factor of safety up. The trade-
off to imposing too high of a safety factor is that could lead
to significant mass accumulation as stronger parts are usually
achieved with more mass.

The NASA Structural Design and Test Factors of Safety for

Spaceflight Hardware document specify for various factors of
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 547

safety that must be met for various materials. There are two
different failure loads that are used in the definitions: 1) Ultimate
Design Load: The product of the ultimate factor of safety and
the limit load and 2) Yield Design Load: The product of the
yield factor of safety and the limit load. These loads correlate
with the ultimate strength and yield strength of the material
structure. “Structural designs generally should be verified by
analysis and by either prototype or proto flight strength testing.
For metallic structures only, it may be permissible to verify
structural integrity by analysis alone without strength testing”
[NASA STD].

Structural Design and Test Factors of Safety for Space Flight Hardware. Image
Courtesy of NASA.

Artemis Kit Specific

For the Artemis CubeSat Kit, the primary structure

is the aluminum skeleton frame that immediately
interfaces with the deployer and contains all the
CubeSat components. The critical load is the launch
acceleration load coupled with the deployer
compression at 1320 N. Through finite element
548 • FRANCES ZHU

analysis, the factor of safety was deemed to be 4.98.

A finite element analysis tutorial is at the end of the
chapter.

Load Equations
In the Structural Loads section of this chapter, we discussed the
driving critical loads (design loads) but how do we relate these
loads to factors of safety? In this section, we will cover some
key structural formulas for back-of-the-envelope calculations,
valid for simplified geometries/models. The following sections
describe 1 degree-of-freedom problem but structures reside in 3
dimensions. Make sure to repeat calculations for all degrees of
freedom or axes.

Ultimate and Yield Loads

We talked about estimating critical loads or design loads but to

get a factor of safety, we need to also find the failure loads. The
failure load comes in two flavors: ultimate load and yield load.
To find ultimate load and yield load, we refer to the structure’s
material properties to extract ultimate strength in yield strength
in units of Pascal or .
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 549

A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear. Strength

of Materials. Image by Daniel M. Short.

Stresses come from different directions of loading: compression,

tension, and shear. Material sheets will typically specify the
strength associated with each direction as the yield or ultimate
strengths values are different. The direction of loading matters
so makes sure you use the correct strength number! The area that
the load travels across also matters. The stress formula is:

where F is the force and A is the cross-sectional area. If we

plug in yield or ultimate strength in and we know the cross-
sectional area of the piece we are analyzing, we have yield/
ultimate force as our one unknown to solve for.
550 • FRANCES ZHU

Buckling Load

Euler’s Buckling Formula. Courtesy of Engineering Course.

Buckling is a failure mode of compressive loading in which

the two ends of a beam are constrained and the beam fails
by bending, seen in the figure below. This loading scenario
describes a slender member bolted at two ends experiencing a
compressive load, like the Artemis CubeSat frame corner posts
under launch acceleration. The equation to find the critical
buckling load, , depends on Young’s modulus, E, the
moment of inertia that resists the direction of buckling, I, and
the length of the slender member. As the length of the slender
member is likely constrained, the slender member’s strength can
be scaled by varying the moment of inertia in that direction. One
of the edge lengths affects the moment of inertia to the cubic
power, which could be taken advantage of to quickly reinforce a
beam that is facing critical loading.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 551

The Moment of Inertia Modul. Image Courtesy of VCCS Engineering

Education via Course Bridge Modules.
552 • FRANCES ZHU

For different boundary conditions and pin constraints, the

modified critical load equation is scaled by , where K is
defined by the effective length of the slender member:

You’ll notice that by minimizing K, the critical load will

increase. Decreasing K involves constraining the beam or
slender member along the length, “breaking up” the effective
length. For spacecraft support members, “breaking up” the
effective length could involve bolting a strut to the main
member.

Beam Stiffness

A cantilever beam is a slender structure with a fixed constraint

on one end and no constraints on the other end (free end), like
a deployed solar array or boom. A cantilever beam deflects if
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 553

a load is imparted along the length of the beam or the beam

experiences a load if a deflection is forced. There are various
loading cases seen in the figure below with corresponding
formulas, where is the maximum beam deflection, P is the
load, L is the length of the beam, E is Young’s modulus, I is the
moment of inertia in the loading direction, and M is a moment
or torque.

Beam Deflection Calculator. Image Courtesy of Omni Calculators.

554 • FRANCES ZHU

These formulas may be useful to convert between beam

deflection and force. If we know the acceleration profile acting
on the beam, we can calculate the deflection along the beam,
important for missions like SMAP, which has a spinning large
flexible reflector/structure that points toward the Earth. The
spinning motion produces centrifugal force and the mass at the
end of the beam accentuates the centrifugal loading.

Stages of Reflector Deployment. Image Courtesy of Earth Online

A cantilever beam’s yield and ultimate load differ from the

buckling load in that the buckling load is parallel with the length
of the beam whereas the cantilever beam’s load is perpendicular
to the length. The failure load may be calculated by calculating
the intermediate variable, bending moment. An example of the
moment calculation for the simple point source force at the end
of a cantilever beam is = -FL, where F is the magnitude
of the force and L is the length of the beam. The critical bending
moment occurs at the fixed end of the beam, or the joint between
the beam and primary structure. The stress in a bending beam
can be expressed as σ = y where σ is stress, y is the distance
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 555

to point from the neutral axis, M is the bending moment, and I

= moment of Inertia. This stress value may then be used in the
yield and ultimate factor of safety.

Cantilever Beam Stress Distribution. Technical Tidbits ©2010 Brush Wellman

Inc.

Beam Natural Frequencies

Cantilever Beam vs. Coil Spring Technical Tidbits ©2010 Brush Wellman Inc

Structures under dynamic loads (vibration or acoustic loads) can

556 • FRANCES ZHU

exhibit resonance at the natural frequencies and cause failure.

The cantilever beam, like a diving board, can deflect and vibrate
once the load suddenly disappears.

Artemis Kit Specific

A common scenario that this vibration describes is

a sudden boom deployment, like the Artemis
CubeSat antenna deployment event. The
phenomenon that a cantilever beam experiences
deflection and vibration may be captured in an
analogy with a spring.

The structure deflects or displaces with a load, like a spring,

and upon release, the beam oscillates around the unloaded
equilibrium, like a spring. The natural frequency of the beam in
units of rad/s may then be calculated with the following formula
[Meirovitch, 1967]:

where is the natural frequency, m is the mass of the beam, L

is the length of the beam, E is Young’s modulus, I is the moment
of inertia in the loading direction, and are coefficients
describing the first, second, and third natural frequencies. The
first natural frequency is the fundamental frequency.
The natural frequency, may
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 557

be converted to units of Hz with a conversion factor:

.

Random Vibe and Acoustic Equivalent g’s

A structure experiences a load due to random vibrations and

can be approximated by a number of g’s, an acceleration unit.
Developed by John Miles in 1954, GRMS is Root Mean Square
Acceleration in G’s (sometimes given as ÿRMS) that relates

natural frequency , transmissibility Q at where is

the critical damping ratio, and input acceleration spectral density
at [Simmons]:

The expected stress as a result of from random vibration

loads is then:

where m is the mass of the beam and I is the moment of inertia

in that vibration axis.

Thermal Load

Materials expand at different rates, dictated by their coefficient

558 • FRANCES ZHU

of thermal expansion (CTE) and their temperature difference.

If these structures of differing CTE are bonded together and
undergo a temperature difference, the structure will change in
length and experience stress. The structural change could result
in a deflection (load perpendicular to the length of the beam) or
shrinkage/elongation (load parallel to the length of the beam).
The change in length is calculated by the total length L, change
in temperature T, and CTE .

The resultant stress from deflection may be calculated with a

previous Beam Stiffness section and the axial stress, , can be
found with the following formula:

where E is Young’s modulus and L is the length change

calculated previously.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 559

Simple Pressurized Shell

The large hydrazine propellant tank prior to integration with the core
structure of the MAVEN spacecraft at a Lockheed Martin clean room
near Denver. Image Courtesy of NASA.

Pressurized vessels are rounded sheets that experience tension

if the vessel is in positive pressure or compression if the vessel
is under negative pressure. Think of blowing up a balloon as
positive pressure and sinking a submarine for negative pressure.
We care about this stress when dealing with propulsion systems
that store propellants. These walls can burst if the cylinder walls
experience more stress than the tensile ultimate strength. The
thin walls of the vessel experience hoop stress and longitudinal
stress, related to pressure p, radius R, and thickness t:
560 • FRANCES ZHU

Stress in the cylinder body of a pressure vessel. Image by James Doane,

Ph.D., PE.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 561

Fracture and Fatigue Analysis

S-N curve for a brittle aluminum with an ultimate tensile strength of 320
MPa. Image by Nicoguaro.

Load cycle modeling examines the periodic nature of loads

throughout a spacecraft’s lifetime. These loads may incite
fatigue and failure in components; think of it like wear and tear
in structural components. Load cycles can occur from thermal
cycling due to periodic exposure to the sun or dynamic
maneuvers (like SMAP’s constant rotation deflecting a slender
member or Curiosity’s wheels running over sharp rocks).

Briefly mentioned in the materials section, fatigue limit is

correlated with the material’s endurance limit, the component’s
mean load, and ultimate tensile strength. It’s hard to know when
a component will break under fatigue due to the stochastic nature
of the cracks and failures. Fatigue S-N curves, fatigue prediction
models, and tests can offer validation that a structural
component will not fail under fatigue. For metallic structures, if
562 • FRANCES ZHU

the number of cycles stays below 10^4 with loading reasonably

far away from yield or ultimate loads, the component will likely
survive the mission lifetime. Components undergoing higher
cycles should be more carefully scrutinized or replicated for
fatigue testing.

Finite Element Analysis

Finite element analysis is the use of computer-generated
geometries, numerical methods, and the first principles of loads
described above. The finite element model breaks down
computer geometries into smaller elements and approximates
the transfer of loads, cumulative deflection, and distribution of
stress for static analysis. Finite element analysis software is
complementary and commonly built into CAD software, like
Autodesk Inventor, Solidworks, and OnShape.

The entire spacecraft model may be designed and analyzed

within one of these software packages.

1. By defining material properties for each component

in the spacecraft model, ultimate strength, yield
strength, CTE, Young’s modulus, and density are all
embedded in the model.

2. The primary structure, secondary structure, and all

supporting component interfaces must be defined and
constrained in motion.

3. Finite element analysis assists in identifying critical

loads on each part of the spacecraft model by
applying load conditions on the primary structure and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 563

probing the resultant stress on the rest of the

spacecraft structure.
4. The stress can then be converted to margins or factors
of safety. The software will identify the location of
the minimum safety factor. The load acting on this
component at this location is the critical load.

5. If this minimum safety factor does not satisfy the

requirements, there must be a redesign of the critical
component so that the minimum safety factor is
achieved. This process must be iterated from step 3
until all components meet the minimum safety factors
for all potentially critical loading scenarios.

Artemis Finite Element Analysis Results

To meet requirements set by launch service providers, the

Artemis project completed a finite element analysis for static
loads using Solidworks. Graphs are shown below to detail the
load conditions, von mises stress, and factor of safety. By taking
the calculated minimum factor of safety and design load (1,200
N), the max failure load was found to be 6 kN (approximately
2,700 toilet paper rolls).
564 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 565

Suggested Activity

Back of the envelope kind of calculation of

structural load and natural frequencies (vibe) -> FEA

Reference Documents

Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and

CubeSat Requirements Document [NASA
LSP-REQ-317.01] & [CubeSat Design Specifications Rev
14]

2.2 CubeSat Mechanical Specifications

CubeSat dimensions and features are outlined in
the CubeSat Specification Drawings
Note: The CubeSat Inspection and Fit-check
Procedure (CIFP) can be used to aid in verifying that
the CubeSat meets the dimensional requirements
specified in Appendix B. The CIFP can be found on
cubesat.org.
These requirements are applicable for all
566 • FRANCES ZHU

dispensers not utilizing the tab constraint method.

CubeSats designed with tabs can find those specific
requirements at the PSC website
(planetarysystemscorp.com).
2.2.1 The CubeSat shall use the coordinate
system as defined in Appendix B. The origin
of the CubeSat coordinate system is located at
the geometric center of the CubeSat.
2.2.1.1 The CubeSat configuration
and physical dimensions shall be per the
appropriate section of Appendix B.
2.2.1.2 Note: Extra volume may be
available for 3U, 6U, and 12U CubeSats.
This extra volume is shown in Figure 3,
sometimes referred to as the “Tuna Can”
volume. The availability and volume
dimensions are dispenser-dependent.
2.2.2 The –Z face of the CubeSat will be
inserted first into the dispenser.
2.2.3 No components on the yellow shaded
sides (see Appendix B CDS drawings) shall
protrude farther than 6.5 mm normal to the
surface from the plane of the rail.
2.2.3.1 Note: Please refer to the CIFP for
recommended protrusion measurement
technique.
2.2.4 Deployables shall be constrained by
the CubeSat, not the dispenser. This
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 567

requirement originates from the requirements

of most Launch Providers.
2.2.5 Rails shall have a minimum width of
8.5mm measured from the edge of the rail to
the first protrusion on each face.
2.2.5.1 Note: An example is shown in
Figure 4.
2.2.6 Rails should have a surface roughness
of less than 1.6 µm.
2.2.6.1 Note: This is typically met if
the rail material is shown to be properly
anodized. Otherwise, if the surface
appears rough, more testing may be
required.
2.2.7 The edges of the rails should be
rounded to a radius of at least 1 mm.
2.2.7.1 Note: This is typically met
using engineering drawings and
manufacturer certification.
2.2.8 The ends of the rails on the +/- Z face
shall have a minimum surface area of 6.5 mm
x 6.5 mm contact area with neighboring
CubeSat rails (as per drawing in Appendix B).
2.2.8.1 Note: If the CubeSat is not
sharing the dispenser with another
spacecraft, the Launch Provider may
choose to waive this surface area
requirement.
568 • FRANCES ZHU

2.2.9 At least 75% of the rail should be in

contact with the dispenser rails. 25% of the
rails may be recessed.
2.2.10 Note: Table 1 shows the typical
maximum mass for each U configuration.
Table 1: CubeSat Mass Specifications
U Configuration Mass [kg]
1U: 2.00
1.5U: 3.00
2U: 4.00
3U: 6.00
6U: 12.00
12U: 24.00
2.2.10.1 Note: Masses larger than the
one presented in Table 1 may be
evaluated on a mission-to-mission basis.
Verify constraints with your dispenser
provider or Launch Provider.
2.2.10.2 Note: Acceptable masses
may vary depending on the dispenser’s
capabilities. Verify capabilities with
your dispenser provider.
2.2.11 The CubeSat center of gravity shall
fall within the ranges specified in Table 2.
Table 2: Ranges of the acceptable center of gravity
locations as measured from the geometric center on
each major axis
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 569

X-Axis Y-Axis Z-Axis

1U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm
1.5U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 3 cm / -3 cm
2U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 4.5 cm / -4.5
cm
3U + 2 cm / -2 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 7 cm / -7 cm
6U + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm + 2 cm / -2 cm + 7 cm / -7
cm
12U + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm + 4.5 cm / -4.5 cm + 7 cm
/ -7 cm
2.2.12 The CubeSat structure should be
made from aluminum alloy.
2.2.12.1 Note: Typically, Aluminum
7075, 6061, 6082, 5005, and/or 5052 are
used for both the main CubeSat structure
and the rails. If materials other than
aluminum are used, the CubeSat
developer should contact the Launch
Provider or dispenser manufacturer.
2.2.13 Any aluminum CubeSat external
surfaces, such as rails and standoffs that are in
contact with the dispenser rails, shall be hard
anodized to prevent any cold welding within
the dispenser.
2.2.14 If a CubeSat shares a dispenser with
another CubeSat(s), each CubeSat shall
employ a mechanism to encourage separation
570 • FRANCES ZHU

from neighboring CubeSats within the

dispenser.
2.2.14.1 Note: Any mechanism that
will provide separation is acceptable.
The common assumption with
separation springs is that “stronger is
better”. This is not always the case.
Stronger separation springs can
overpower the CubeSat dispenser
deployment spring force during ejection
and yield unpredictable separation
characteristics, possibly re-contacting
neighboring CubeSats. On the other
hand, lower force springs may not have
sufficient energy to separate the
CubeSats from the required amount. The
general guideline is to select a separation
spring with a max force less than 6.7 N
(1.5 lbf) but with a stroke length greater
than 2.5 mm (0.1 inches)
2.2.14.2 The separation mechanism
shall not extend beyond the level of the
standoff in a stowed configuration.
2.2.14.3 Note: The most common
placement of the CubeSat separation
mechanism is centered on the end of the
two standoffs on the CubeSat’s –Z face
as per Figure 5.
2.2.14.4 Note: A separation
mechanism is not required for CubeSats
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 571

that do not share a dispenser with

another CubeSat(s).

Structural Requirements Excerpt from NanoRacks

External CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface
Definition Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]

4.1 Structural and Mechanical Systems

Interface Requirements
The NRCSD-E is designed to house 6U of
payloads in each of its six silos, for a total volume of
36U. It can accommodate any combination of
CubeSats from 1U to 6U in length, up to a maximum
volume of 6U in the 1x6x1U form factor. The only
dimensional requirement that varies between the
form factors is the total length (Z-axis dimension),
which is specifically noted in the requirements
herein. This section captures all mechanical and
dimensional requirements to ensure the payloads
interface correctly with the NRCSD-E and adjacent
CubeSats.
4.1.1 CubeSat Mechanical Specification
1) The CubeSat shall have four (4)
rails along the Z-axis, one per corner of
the payload envelope, which allows the
payload to slide along the rail interface
of the NRCSD as outlined in Figure
4.1.1-1.
2) The CubeSat rails and envelope
572 • FRANCES ZHU

shall adhere to the dimensional

specification outlined in Figure 4.1.1-1.
Note: Any dimension followed
by ‘MIN’ shall be considered a
minimum dimensional
requirement for that feature and
any dimension followed by
‘MAX’ shall be considered a
maximum dimensional
requirement for that feature. Any
dimension that has a required
tolerance is specified in Figure
4.1.1-2. The optional cylindrical
payload envelope (the “tuna can”)
must be approved for use by
NanoRacks and special
accommodations may be required
if utilizing this feature.
3) Each CubeSat rail shall have a
minimum width (X and Y faces) of
6mm.
4) The edges of the CubeSat rails
shall have a radius of 0.5mm +/- 0.1mm.
5) The CubeSat +Z rail ends shall be
completely bare and have a minimum
surface area of 6mm x 6mm.
Note: This is to ensure that
CubeSat +Z rail ends can serve as
the mechanical interface for
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 573

adjacent CubeSat deployment

switches and springs.
6) The CubeSat rail ends (+/-Z) shall
be coplanar with the other rail ends
within +/- 0.1mm.
7) The CubeSat rail length (Z-axis)
shall be the following (+/- 0.1mm):

cxiii. 1U rail length:

113.50mm
cxiv. 2U rail length:
227.00mm
cxv. 3U rail length:
340.50mm
cxvi. 4U rail length:
454.00mm
cxvii. 5U rail length:
567.5mm

cx 6
iii. U
r
a
i
l
l
e
n
g
t
574 • FRANCES ZHU

h
:
6
8
1
t
o
7
4
0
.
0
0
m
m
Note: Non-standard payload
lengths may be considered. Any
rail length differing from the
above dimensions must be
approved by NanoRacks and
recorded in the payload unique
ICA.
8) The CubeSat rails shall be
continuous. No gaps, holes, fasteners, or
any other features may be present along
the length of the rails (Z-axis) in regions
that contact the NRCSD-E rails.
Note: This does not apply to
roller switches located within the
rails. However, the roller switches
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 575

must not impede the smooth

motion of the rails across surfaces
(NRCSD-E guide rails, fit gauge,
etc.).
9) The minimum extension of the +/-Z
CubeSat rails from the +/-Z CubeSat
faces shall be 2mm.
Note: This means that the plane
of the +/-Z rails shall have no less
than 2mm clearance from any
external feature on the +/-Z faces
of the CubeSat (including solar
panels, antennas, etc.).
10) The CubeSat rails shall be the
only mechanical interface to the
NRCSD-E in all axes (X, Y, and Z axes).
Note: For clarification, this
means that if the satellite is moved
in any direction while inside the
NRCSD, the only contact points
of the payload shall be on the rails
or rail ends. No appendages or any
part of the satellite shall contact
the walls of the deployer.
11) The CubeSat rail surfaces that
contact the NRCSD-E guide rails shall
have a hardness equal to or greater than
hard-anodized aluminum (Rockwell C
65-70).
576 • FRANCES ZHU

Note: NanoRacks recommends

a hard-anodized aluminum
surface.
12) The CubeSat rails and all load
points shall have a surface roughness of
less than or equal to 1.6 µm (ISO Grade
N7).
4.1.2 CubeSat Mass Properties
1) The CubeSat mass shall be less
than the maximum allowable mass for
each respective payload form factor per
Table 4.1.2-1.
Note: The requirement driver
for the CubeSat mass is the
ballistic number (BN), which is
dependent on the projected surface
area of the payload on-orbit. The
mass values in Table 4.1.2-1
assume no active or passive
attitude control of the payload
once deployed. If the CubeSat has
attitude control capabilities or
design features, then the
operational ballistic number (BN)
drives the mass requirement. If
applicable, this shall be captured
in the unique payload ICA.
2) The CubeSat center of mass (CM)
shall be located within the following
range relative to the geometric center of
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 577

the payload: a. X-axis: (+/- 2cm) b. Y-

axis: (+/- 2cm) c. Z-axis: i. 1U: (+/-
2cm) ii. 2U (+/- 4cm) iii. 3U (+/- 6cm)
iv. 4U (+/- 8cm) v. 5U (+/- 10cm) vi. 6U
(+/- 12cm)
4.1.3 RBF/ABF Access
1) The CubeSat shall have a remove
before flight (RBF) feature that prevents
the CubeSatfrom powering on when the
inhibit switches are not depressed. The
NRCSD-E has access ports only on the
-X face of the dispenser. CubeSats in
silos without the access panels should
have timers implemented post RBF
removal to prevent powering on of the
spacecraft. The access port dimensions
are defined in Figure 4.1.3-1.
Note: There is no physical
access to the payload after
integration into the NRCSDE
besides what can be accessed from
the access ports.
4.1.4 Deployment Switches
1) The CubeSat shall have a minimum
of three (3) deployment switches that
correspond to independent electrical
inhibits on the main power system (see
the section on electrical interfaces).
2) Deployment switches of the
578 • FRANCES ZHU

pusher/plunger variety shall be located

on the rail end faces of the CubeSat’s -Z
face.
3) Deployment switches of the roller/
lever variety shall be embedded in the
CubeSat rails (+/- X or Y faces).
4) Roller/slider switches shall
maintain a minimum of 75% surface
area contact with the NRCSD-E rails
(ratio of switch contact to NRCSD-E
guide rail width) along the entire Z-axis.
5) The CubeSat deployment switches
shall reset the payload to the pre-launch
state if cycled at any time within the first
30 minutes after the switches close
(including but not limited to
radiofrequency transmission and
deployable system timers).
6) The CubeSat deployment switches
shall be captive.
7) The force exerted by the
deployment switches shall not exceed
3N.
8) The total force of all CubeSat
deployment switches shall not exceed
9N.
4.1.5 Deployable Systems and Integration
Constraints
1) CubeSat deployable systems (such
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 579

as solar arrays, antennas, payload

booms, etc.) shall have independent
restraint mechanisms that do not rely on
the NRCSD-E dispenser.
Note: Passive deployables that
release upon ejection of the
CubeSat from the NRCSD are
considered on a case-by-case
basis.
2) The CubeSat shall be capable of
being integrated forward and backward
inside of the NRCSD (such that the +/-Z
face could be deployed first without
issue).
Note: In general, the
deployables should be hinged
towards the front of the deployer
to mitigate the risk of a hang-fire
should the deployables be released
prematurely while the CubeSat is
still inside the NRCSD.
4.1.6 Deployment Velocity and Tip-Off Rate
Compatibility
1) The CubeSat shall be capable of
withstanding a deployment velocity of
0.5 to 2.5 m/s at ejection from the
NRCSD-E.
2) The CubeSat shall be capable of
580 • FRANCES ZHU

withstanding up to 5 deg/sec/axis tipoff

rate.
Note: The target tipoff rate of
the NRCSD-E is less than 5 deg/
sec/axis. Additional testing and
analysis are being completed by
NanoRacks to refine and verify
this value. If a payload has
specific tipoff rate requirements,
these should be captured in the
unique payload ICA.
4.4.9 Materials
4.4.9.1 Stress Corrosion Materials
Stress corrosion-resistant materials
from Table I of MSFC-SPEC-522 are
preferred. Any use of stress corrosion-
susceptible materials (Table II) shall be
pre-coordinated with NanoRacks and
documented in the ICA. Any use of
Table III materials shall be avoided.
4.4.9.2 Hazardous Materials
Satellites shall comply with NASA
guidelines for hazardous materials.
Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, silver,
and other materials prohibited by
SSP-30233 shall not be used.
4.4.9.3 Outgassing/External
Contamination
Satellites shall comply with NASA
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 581

guidelines for selecting all non-metallic

materials based on available outgassing
data. Satellites shall not utilize any non-
metallic materials with a Total Mass
Loss (TML) greater than 1.0 percent or a
Collected Volatile Condensable Material
(CVCM) value greater than 0.1 percent.
Since the satellite will be in close
proximity to the ISS for anywhere from
21-90 days, a more thorough outgassing
analysis is performed. This outgassing
analysis, performed by the ISS Space
Environments group, uses ASTM 1559
data to characterize any potential
material issues.
Note: A Bill of Materials (BoM) must
be provided to NanoRacks to verify all
materials requirements are met. The
BoM shall be provided in the template
specified by NanoRacks and must
include the vacuum-exposed surface
areas of all non-metals. The ISS Space
Environments Team screens the BoMs
to ensure there are no external
contamination concerns due to high-
outgassing components. A bake-out is
not required. The NASA website linked
below is a useful source for obtaining
outgassing data for materials.
https://outgassing.nasa.gov/
582 • FRANCES ZHU

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=339

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=339
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 583

Software Lab for Structures

Structures – Structural Analysis using Finite

Element Analysis (FEA)
authored by L. Danielle Young

Learning Objectives

Understanding how to do or retrieve the following

information from Finite Element Analysis:

1. Mass and Center of Gravity

2. Setting Boundary Conditions and
Fixtures
3. Probing Critical, Structural Load

583
584 • FRANCES ZHU

Purpose
In order to qualify a structure based on requirements (see under
the References section of this lab).

Background and Key Concepts to Consider

Application of: General Arrangement and Design Drivers
(Mass, Structural Loads, Materials) and Structural Analysis.

Artemis CubeSat Kit description of structures:

• 1U CubeSat frame

◦ Frames: Aluminum 6061 T6, hard anodized

• Fastener materials

◦ Rods: 304 Stainless Steel

◦ Inserts: 18-8 Stainless Steel

◦ Screws and nuts: 18-8 Stainless Steel
(equivalent Onshape’s 300 SS)

◦ Spacers: Aluminum 6061 (equivalent

Onshape’s Al 6061)

Link to Artemis’ GitHub: https://github.com/hsfl/artemis/tree/

master/cad-model

Required Materials & Setup

• Computer with a web browser and internet access

(required)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 585

• Computer mouse (required)

◦ Some mechanics in CAD software utilize

the scroll button, right/left click, dragging
to rotate, etc. that is difficult (but not
impossible) to substitute with laptop
trackpads.

• Artemis CubeSat Kit GitHub Repository:

https://github.com/hsfl/artemis

◦ Hardware CAD Models: https://github.com/

hsfl/artemis/tree/master/hardware/cad-
model

• Onshape – Web & Cloud-Based CAD Software

◦ https://www.onshape.com/en/

◦ Sign up for free using Education or Public

Makers versions

◦ Onshape Learning Center

▪ Instructor-led training, self-paced

courses, and more

◦ Onshape Help

▪ https://cad.onshape.com/help/
Content/EnterpriseHelp/Content/
EnterpriseLandingPage.htm

▪ https://cad.onshape.com/help/
PDF/Onshape.pdf

• SimScale – Web & Cloud-Based Analysis Software

586 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ https://www.simscale.com/

◦ Sign up for free on SimScale

◦ SimScale Platform Introduction

◦ SimScale Tutorials

◦ Example Analyses – example results,

parameters

▪ FEA: Pipe Flexibility Analysis

▪ Thermal (for later): Transient

Thermal Analysis of a Printed
Circuit Board

▪ … and more to explore!

◦ SimScale Help

▪ Forum: SimScale CAE Forum

▪ Documentation: SimScale
Documentation | Online
Simulation Software

▪ Public Projects: Public

Simulation Projects Library

▪ Using Onshape with SimScale:

Using Onshape CAD Tool and
Needing FEA or CFD Software?

• CAEplex – Web & Cloud-Based Analysis Software

(alternative, not used in tutorials)

◦ https://www.caeplex.com/

◦ Sign up for free on CAEplex

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 587

◦ CAEplex Tutorials

Procedure
Additional help links from official software help sites are linked
with each step name. These procedures assume you are working
on a desktop/laptop computer, not a mobile device.

Preliminary Lab Procedures

1. Downloading the model

• Visit Artemis’ GitHub: https://github.com/hsfl/

artemis

• Navigate through the repository following hardware

-> cad-model (https://github.com/hsfl/artemis/tree/
master/hardware/cad-model)

• Look for the most recent revision of the CAD model

(file name appears as Artemis-RX)

• Click on the file name, then the “Download” button

to retrieve the .zip file of the structure model.

2. Importing models into Onshape

• See Onshape’s tutorial on importing (link)

588 • FRANCES ZHU

• Log onto your Onshape account then select “Import

files” under the “Create” button

• Import zip file by selecting the “splitting into multiple

documents” option.

◦ Selecting the option to split into multiple

documents will preserve links/references in
the assembly file (however, this does not
retain mates made from other CAD
software).

◦ Note: importing the assembly onto the

OnShape browser may take a few minutes,
based on the speed of your internet
connection.

3. Defining material properties

With the model imported to your Onshape account, open the .zip
file found in the zip folder from your Onshape dashboard.

• Click part at bottom of the screen to open the

individual part. You can then assign the material to
that part.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 589

• Alternatively, you may double-click on the part. It

will open a new tab.

• Right-click on the part name found in the left-hand

column and select “Assign material”

• A window will pop up and allow you to select a

material library and material. By default, the Onshape
material library will be selected.
• Select Aluminum 6061 from the drop-down menu
under the Onshape material library and click on the
590 • FRANCES ZHU

check box. Be sure to create a new version of the part

by clicking the “Create version” button on the left-
hand side of the part name above the toolbar.

Note: You can add a library with the “+” button or create a
custom material with the custom tab. See Onshape’s tutorial
(link) for more information on creating, using, and managing
material libraries

The following steps will be summarized to assist in assigning

materials for the remaining parts of the structure, as only one
part was assigned material in the past few steps.

• Assign the top and bottom sections as Aluminum

6061. As a shortcut, you can double click on the parts
in the instances column to open the part with editing
enabled. The parts should appear in the context of the
assembly where everything but the selected part is
transparent. Create and return to the assembly after
assigning the material.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 591

• Repeat previous steps for the rod and screws.

◦ Screws located on the mid-section part: 300

Series Stainless Steel

◦ Screws located on the top-section and

bottom-section parts: 18-8 Stainless Steel

◦ Rods: 300 Series Stainless Steel

• Refer to the figure shown below for assistance.

592 • FRANCES ZHU

Note: Once you have assigned the materials for the rods and
screws, the assembly file will indicate to parts to be updated. Be
sure to update the parts in order to get a complete estimation of
the structure’s mass.

4. Reorienting the coordinate system and origin

This step is done to orientate the model so that it follows the

correct orientation as if placed in a deployer. For the structure, it
should be oriented such that the “top” view/face in the modeling
software shows the part of the structure with the four protruding
corners from the rails (part name: top-section). The “bottom”
view/face in the modeling software should show a similar part,
with holes going through the protruding feet of the rails of the
structure (part name: bottom section). The “front”, “back”, and
side (“left” or “right”) views should show the midsections of the
structure (part name: mid-section).

If correctly aligned in the modeling software, the structure

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 593

should appear with the internal rods pointing vertically, up, and
down.

• Select the entire assembly by clicking on the

“Artemis” assembly list item under the instance
column. A coordinate system should appear on your
screen, and the entire assembly should be highlighted
in yellow.

• On the coordinate system shown hovering over the

selected assembly, right-click on the arrow of the axis
that you want to realign to the z-axis. Then, select
“Align with Z” from the pop-up menu shown.

• The model should reorientate the assembly to the

desired coordinate system.

• Ensure the bottom section is oriented towards the

bottom. If not, select anti-align instead
594 • FRANCES ZHU

Note: You can use the viewing cube on the upper-right-hand side
of the screen as your coordinate system. This can be used as a
visual reference, or directly clicked on to show a desired view
of the assembly. For example, clicking on “Top” on the viewing
cube will move the assembly so the top face is shown.

The assembly should now show the model with the correct
orientation. The origin, indicated by two black rings, should be
in the center of the structure’s volume/cube. If the assembly is
off-centered from the origin, then the coordinate system can also
be reoriented to align with the modeling software’s origin.

• Select the entire assembly by clicking on the

“Artemis” assembly list item under the instance
column. A coordinate system should appear on your
screen, and the entire assembly should be highlighted
in yellow.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 595

In the figure shown, the origin is off to the right, outside of

the structure assembly. It should be located on the inside of the
cubical volume of the structure.

• At the point of the coordinate system, right-click on

the circle. Then select “Move to origin”.

• The model should be shifted so the origin and

coordinate system are now aligned.
596 • FRANCES ZHU

5. Import Onshape files into Simscale

• See Onshape tutorial on Simscale (link)

To run an FEA in SimScale, parts can be imported into Simscale

via Onshape to run an analysis. For the FEA analysis, the whole
structure will be analyzed.

First, a New Project must be made on Simscale.

From your Simscale dashboard (https://www.simscale.com/

dashboard/), create a “New Project” by clicking on the button on
the top right.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 597

Give the Project a Title – be sure to make it something helpful

and descriptive. A Project Description, Category, and Tags can
also optionally be added as desired.

When done, click on the “Create project” button at the bottom

of the “New Project” window. Next, after opening the newly
created project, an “Import Geometry” window will pop up,
prompting to add files for the Simscale project. If no window
pops up, look at the “GEOMETRIES” section under the Tree on
the left, and click on the “+” plus sign.
598 • FRANCES ZHU

From here, files can be uploaded from the user’s computer or

Imported from Onshape. For this lab, since Onshape is the
modeling software being used, we will import the file from
Onshape. Click on the “Import from Onshape” button on the
bottom right of the Import Geometry window. If the user has not
used Simscale with Onshape before, an authorization window
may pop up first.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 599

Then, an Onshape Connector App window will open to allow

users to import models from their Onshape account. Import the
entire Artemis structure assembly file. Users will have to scroll
through to find the correct file from the list generated. If the file
isn’t listed from the initial list provided, scroll down and click
on the “Load more” button.

After the correct file appears, select it and click on the “Import”
button.
600 • FRANCES ZHU

After authorizing linking Onshape with SimScale then you can

import the file from Onshape, and click on the “Import” button.

Main Lab Procedures

• Simscale provides an in-depth page on how to set up

simulations and more external help links here:
Simulation Setup in the SimScale Workbench

• Unless otherwise stated, default settings will be used

for the simulation properties.

• Key Indicators to note:

◦ Incomplete state

▪ Indicated by a red, open circle

▪ Settings in this state must be

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 601

configured as a critical part of the

simulation

◦ Complete state

▪ Indicated by a green circle with a

checkmark

▪ Settings in this state do not need

to be configured unless it is
necessary or noted.

◦ Optional state

▪ Indicated by a blue, open circle

▪ Settings in this state may or may

not need to be configured. Again,
this tutorial will only detail
settings to adjust.

◦ Error state

▪ Indicated by a red circle with an

X

▪ Settings in this state have an error

and must be reconfigured.

1. Mass and Center of Gravity

See Onshape’s tutorial: Mass and Center of Gravity (link)

• Open the assembly or zip file (model of the entire

Artemis structure). Locate the mass properties tool
602 • FRANCES ZHU

(bottom right-hand corner of the window, the icon

appears as scales/balances.)

Icons for the Measurement and Mass properties tools, click to

display the window.

• Click on the Mass Properties tool and a pop-up

window should appear. Select the assembly file and
the mass properties should populate within the
window.

Note: If no properties appear, be sure to check that the parts

have been assigned a material. The faces are aluminum and the
screws/rods are steel.

• Based on the part’s geometry, the CAD software will

find the total mass, volume, surface area, center of
mass, and moment of inertia calculations. The center
of mass will be indicated in the black and white,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 603

circular symbol.

Note: If the point of origin for the model is off, refer to the
preliminary lab procedures under the section to reorient the Z-
axis

2. Define boundary conditions and fixtures

To run the FEA analysis, the entire Artemis structure will be

analyzed in Simscale. Defining the boundary conditions and
fixtures is the first step in conducting an FEA Analysis. To do
this, a Static Analysis will need to be set up in SimScale.

An example simulation in SimScale using the Artemis CubeSat

Kit is viewable here: https://www.simscale.com/projects/
ldyoung/artemis_assem_fea/

Initial FEA Analysis setup in SimScale

(link above to SimScale website page)

See also: Creating a Static Analysis in SimScale (link)

With the Artemis structure assembly imported and opened in

SimScale, select the appropriate assembly geometry under
“GEOMETRIES” in the tree. Click on the “Create Simulation”
button.
604 • FRANCES ZHU

Next, a window will appear showing all the different types of

simulations that can be conducted in SimScale.

• For this lab, a Static analysis will be conducted to

analyze when a critical load is applied to the
structure, as expected from the mechanical
requirements for the Artemis CubeSat Kit.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 605

After selecting Static and “Create Simulation”, a new Static

Simulation will show under the Simulation tree.

The Static simulation will show various features of the analysis

that can be modified. Going through each feature.
606 • FRANCES ZHU

Geometry

(link above to SimScale website page)

Refers to the modeled 3d part imported from Onshape.

Contacts

(link above to SimScale website page)

Contacts are required to be fully defined in order to run a

simulation. This describes and affects the degrees of freedom
in the model and describes how parts are connected relative to
other existing parts in the model.

For this tutorial, bonded contacts will be used. More

information on other types of contacts is available on the
SimScale website.

• “The bonded contact is a type of contact which allows

no relative displacement between two connected solid
bodies. This type of contact constraint is used to glue
together different parts of an assembly.”

• “You can assign faces or sets of faces that should be

tied together via the assignment box under Pick
Faces. For numerical purposes, you have to choose
one of these selections as master and the other one as
slave. During the calculation, the degrees of freedom
of slave nodes are constrained to the master surface.”

◦ Master assignments = blue selection

◦ Slave assignments = pink selection

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 607

For the lab module, only Master and Slave assignments will be
adjusted, Position Tolerance and Tolerance settings will be left
at the default values.

• Connections = Bonded

• Position tolerance = Set value

• Tolerance = 0.001 m

Upon importing the file into Simscale, the software may

automatically create Contact points. These should be checked to
ensure they are more accurate to what should be simulated, then
can be deleted or edited as necessary.

• Auto-generated contacts may appear as four Bonded

contacts. These can be deleted altogether, so new
contacts can be added in from scratch (right-click on
the desired contact and click on “Delete”.
Alternatively, clicking on a bond will bring up the
settings for the established contact. From here, under
the “Master assignment” and “Slave assignment”
sections, click on the trash can icon.
608 • FRANCES ZHU

Tip: Contacts can be selected in bulk via CTRL + Click and/or

SHIFT + Click.

Contacts to establish in the analysis simulation setup:

◦ Repeat as needed for the entire structure

model (all six of the connected top, bottom,
and side pieces). Consider the relationships
and constraints between the parts to ensure
contacts are fully defined.

◦ Structure frames (top/bottom sections, mid-

sections) = BONDED

▪ Inner surfaces of the top/bottom

frames to the inner surfaces of the
side frames.

▪ Note: Select all inner surfaces of

side frames, including fillet on
inner corners of mid sections.
You should select a total of 10
surfaces for the side frames.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 609

• Example contacts:

• Screws to structure section faces = BONDED

◦ Screw faces (master) flush with the surface

of structure plate face (slave).

◦ Repeat for screws on the top/bottom part of

the structure and sides as available.

• Rods to the inner circumference of structure =

BONDED

◦ Inner surface/circumference of the structure

plate holes (master) with the outer face of
internal rods (slave).
610 • FRANCES ZHU

Element technology & Model

Element technology can be selected as ‘Standard’ or ‘Reduced

Integration’. Use the default setting, with the type as
‘Standard’.

Materials

(link above to SimScale website page)

“This is where the user defines the simulated material, such as

the fluid in a CFD simulation or the material of a solid in a
structural analysis. The user can use a predefined material that is
available in SimScale or use a custom material by changing the
physical properties of the material.”

Define the material for the part. The two Artemis structure
materials will be assigned as defined in the background section.
To assign a material, click on the “+” plus button next to
“Materials” in the Simulations tree.

• Aluminum will be assigned to the frame of the

structure.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 611

• Stainless Steel will be assigned to the fasteners

(screws) and rods of the structure.
◦ Use the Steel material as the base selection
and adjust the material properties to
accurately reflect Stainless Steel properties
instead.

Assigning Aluminium to the Structure Frames:

For Aluminium, select “Aluminum” from the list and click

“Apply”.
612 • FRANCES ZHU

From here, Aluminum will be shown as the set material with

material properties, and volumes within the model that the
property is applied.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 613

Next, select the structure frames as “Volumes” to assign the

Aluminum material properties to.
614 • FRANCES ZHU

Once all appropriate parts have been selected (highlighted in

blue and appearing under the Assignments list), click on the
Check button to finish assigning material properties to the
desired parts of the structure.

Assigning Stainless Steel to the Structure Fasteners and Rods:

For Stainless Steel, select “Steel” from the list of materials and
click on “Apply”.

After it has been selected, the material property values can be

adjusted to better accurately reflect the materials used on the
Artemis structure (which can also be referred to in the
Background section of the lab).

• Stainless Steel properties to adjust:

◦ (E) Young’s modulus: 193 GPa or 1.93e+9

Pa
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 615

◦ (ρ) Density: 8 km/m3

Next, select all of the fasteners (screws) and rods in the structure
as “Volumes” to assign the Stainless Steel material properties to.

Once all appropriate parts have been selected (highlighted in

blue and appearing under the Assignments list), click on the
Check button to finish assigning material properties to the
desired parts of the structure.

Boundary conditions

(link above to SimScale website page)

“Boundary conditions define how a system (for example, a

structure or a fluid) interacts with the environment. Fixations,
loads, pressures, flow rates, or velocities are all examples of
boundary conditions.”

• Fixed Support
616 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ If a fixed support constraint is used, all

degrees of freedom of the selected entities
are fixed at zero. This constraint is often
used to model a fixation to the ground or an
undeformable part.

◦ Assignment – select the bottom faces of the

square rails to apply the fixtures.

• Force

◦ Fx = 0 N, Fz = 0N

◦ Fy = -1320 N

◦ Ensure the model is imported and aligned to

the appropriate axes/directions/faces! See
pre-lab instructions if unsure.

◦ Assignment – select the top faces of the

square rails to apply the force.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 617

Numerics

(link above to SimScale website page)

“The user can configure the equation solver for the simulation,
change the convergence settings, and other numerical settings
necessary to reach a converged solution. However, it is worth
keeping in mind that this is for advanced users only. In most
cases, default settings are enough. These are the brains behind
running the simulation. Here, you have control over the
schemes, solvers, relaxation factors, tolerances, etc that can lead
to a successful and efficient solving of a simulation problem.
Through these settings, you can control the convergence and
stability. It is worth keeping in mind that this is for advanced
users only. For most of the cases, default settings are
enough.”

These numbers will not be adjusted for this tutorial. Default

values are sufficient to use for this tutorial.

• Solver = MUMPS
618 • FRANCES ZHU

• Precision singularity detection = 8

• Stop if singular = ON (slider to the right)

• Matrix type = Automatic detection

• Memory percentage for pivoting = 20

• Linear system relative residual = 1 e-5

• Preprocessing = Active

• Distributed matrix storage = ON (slider to the right)

• Memory management = Automatic

Simulation Control

(link above to SimScale website page)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 619

“This is where the user can configure the amount of time the
simulation is allowed to run, the number of results that will be
saved, and the number of processors that will be used in the
simulation.”

Default values can be left the same.

• Pseudo-time-stepping = Single step

• Static time steps = 0 s

• Number of processors = Automatic (up to 16)

• Maximum runtime = 3600 s

Mesh

(link above to SimScale website page)

“This is where the discretization of the model is defined. The

user can choose the meshing algorithm and the level of fineness
620 • FRANCES ZHU

that the mesh needs to achieve. The quality of the mesh heavily
influences whether the simulation can be run or if the results are
accurate enough. The user can also create multiple meshes for
one geometry.”

Note: Changing the mesh fineness can affect the computation

time, which determines how the simulation runs.

For the first simulation, the following mesh settings can be used.

• Algorithm = Standard

• Sizing = Automatic

• Fineness = 6 (in between Coarse and Fine)

• 2nd order elements = OFF (slider to the left)

• Number of processors = Automatic

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 621

After defining the mesh, you can see the properties as it is

computed by the software. For example, you can see how many
cells and nodes consist in the mesh.

Note: You need to generate the mesh before running the

simulation.

Running the Simulation

Once the simulation setup is complete, the simulation is now

ready to run.
622 • FRANCES ZHU

Click on the “+” plus sign next to Simulation Runs.

A “New run” window should pop up, showing the “Resource

estimation” information such as duration (time), compute
resources (core hours), meshing cell count (number). Click on
the “Start” button and the software will begin running the
simulation and output results when it is done computing. This
may take time, and you may receive an email letting you know
when the simulation is done computing. Depending on the
complexity of the simulation and model, this can take more or
less time.

Troubleshooting

If the simulation setup contains errors, a window will pop up

before allowing a simulation to run.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 623

When this occurs, a red message should also be displayed

advising why the simulation can’t run. For more details and
guidance directly from Simscale on how to address the errors,
click on the icon in the upper right corner of the red error
message to pop out and trace where errors are identified.

For example, if parts in the assembly have not been assigned

a material, Simscale advises which pieces of Geometry are of
interest, and how to address the issue in the Simulation Setup
tree by looking under Analysis > Materials.

Alternatively, click on the text that says “(click to select)” to

begin resolving the issues as Simscale identifies them. Simscale
will highlight parts in red to indicate specific components.
624 • FRANCES ZHU

For example, if parts in the assembly have not been assigned

a material, Simscale will show the components of interest
highlighted in red.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 625

3. Probing Critical, Structural Loads

Post-Processing with SimScale

(link above to SimScale website page)

After the simulation is done computing, you can access the

results of the simulation by clicking on the simulation run you
are interested in under “Simulation Runs”. Find the simulation
run’s results you want to view and click on “Post-process
results”.

The model will now show the Von Mises plot (default in Pascals,
Pa) on the model. On the scale, red indicates higher points of
stress, while blue indicates lower stress.

• Read more on von Mises stress here: What is Von

Mises Stress?

Note: The model may look different If the Von Mises

Stress scale is adjusted, however values from
statistics will stay the same.
626 • FRANCES ZHU

To find the von Mises stress at a particular point on the model,

right-click anywhere on the model, and select “Inspect point”
from the menu. Click on any point to view the specific von
Mises stress measured at the node (indicated with the redpoint
and smaller window under “Result”).

You may also analyze using statistics tool. These measurements

from the simulation results can be used in post-simulation
analysis and calculations.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 627

Lab Review and Deliverables

• For EPET/ME 400, view the Structures Analysis

Assignment.

• Define critical load for your spacecraft. Back of the

envelope calculation of critical load and natural
frequencies.

• Finish the finite element analysis structures lab. Solve

for the minimum factor of safety. Probe the point of
highest stress or lowest factor of safety. Write up
intuition to your findings.

• Both tasks will be graded by the Analysis Rubric.

Safety and Best Practices Tips

Onshape

• Onshape Learning Center

• Onshape Help

◦ https://cad.onshape.com/help/PDF/
Onshape.pdf

• Onshape FAQ

• 10 Essential Onshape Tips

• Navigating Onshape for New Users

• Importing Data

• Onshape Self-Paced Course Catalog

628 • FRANCES ZHU

• Onshape Videos Course Catalog

SimScale

• SimScale Platform Introduction

• SimScale Knowledge Base and FAQs

• SimScale Engineering Webinars

• SimScale Tutorials

• Example Analyses – example results, parameters

◦ FEA: Pipe Flexibility Analysis

• SimScale CAE Forum

• SimScale Documentation

• Public Simulation Projects Library

• Using Onshape with SimScale: Using Onshape CAD

Tool and Needing FEA or CFD Software?

• In the simulation workbench, you can add as many

models as you want to the simulation project,
allowing you to manage for example design changes
and variations. The same models can also be used for
distinct aspects, such as stress or thermal analysis.

General CAD tips

• When creating, importing, or dimensioning parts, it is

helpful to place the part or assembly relative to the
Origin point in the CAD software (as a base point).
This allows you to have a reference point in the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 629

coordinate space/plane, so future dimensioning or

positioning has a constant reference point and can
help to prevent errors.

Alternative Activities

Simulation Setup

Several simulations can be set up to test different materials,

boundary conditions, loadings, etc.

Consider how these may affect results and be used in the design
process.

Additional Result Control

More results are capable of being explored as well using Result

Control.

• “If necessary, the user can define additional results to

be exported. For example, forces and moments,
surface data, and field calculations are some of the
additional results that can be exported. The user can
also place probe points in the model.”

• Read more on Result Control on the SimScale

website.
• Capabilities with Result control:

◦ Solution fields

▪ Displacement
630 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Cauchy stress

▪ Von mises stress

▪ Total strain

◦ Edge calculation

◦ Area calculation

◦ Volume calculation

◦ Point data

Effects of Structural Supports

• With SimScale and Onshape, options are offered to

run multiple simulations and make adjustments to
parts.

• Just adjust the thickness of a structural feature or add/

remove a part. How does this affect the results? What
does this imply about the design?

Vibration Analysis

Frequency Analysis and Harmonic Analysis are also offered in

SimScale, which can be used to analyze expected vibrations
from launching spacecraft.

References and Other Work

See the Reference Documents section in Chapter 4.6 Structural
Analysis for the full list of specifications and requirements.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 631

CubeSat Mechanical Specification from Nanoracks

1. The CubeSat shall have four (4) rails along the Z-

axis, one per corner of the payload envelope, which
allow the payload to slide along the rail interface of
the NRCSD as outlined in Figure 4.1.1-1.

2. The CubeSat rails and envelope shall adhere to the

dimensional specification outlined in Figure 4.1.1-1.

1. Each CubeSat rail shall have a minimum width (X

and Y faces) of 6mm.

2. The edges of the CubeSat rails shall have a radius of

0.5mm +/- 0.1mm.

3. The CubeSat +Z rail ends shall be completely bare

and have a minimum surface area of 6mm x 6mm.
632 • FRANCES ZHU

4. The CubeSat rail ends (+/-Z) shall be coplanar with

the other rail ends within +/- 0.1mm.
5. The CubeSat rail length (Z-axis) shall be the
following (+/- 0.1mm):

◦ 1U rail length: 113.50mm

◦ 2U rail length: 227.00mm

◦ 3U rail length: 340.50mm

◦ 4U rail length: 454.00mm

◦ 5U rail length: 567.5mm

◦ 6U rail length: 681 to 740.00mm

6. The CubeSat rails shall be continuous. No gaps,

holes, fasteners, or any other features may be present
along the length of the rails (Z-axis) in regions that
contact the NRCSD-E rails.

7. The minimum extension of the +/-Z CubeSat rails

from the +/-Z CubeSat faces shall be 2mm.

8. The CubeSat rails shall be the only mechanical

interface to the NRCSD-E in all axes (X, Y, and Z
axes).

9. The CubeSat rail surfaces that contact the NRCSD-E

guide rails shall have a hardness equal to or greater
than hard-anodized aluminum (Rockwell C 65-70).

10. The CubeSat rails and all load points shall have a
surface roughness of less than or equal to 1.6 µm
(ISO Grade N7).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 633

Mass and Center of Gravity — Apply in Onshape or Simscale

1. The CubeSat mass shall be less than the maximum

allowable mass for each respective payload form
factor per Table 4.1.2-1.

2. The CubeSat center of mass (CM) shall be located

within the following range relative to the geometric
center of the payload: a. X-axis: (+/- 2cm) b. Y-axis:
(+/- 2cm) c. Z-axis: i. 1U: (+/- 2cm) ii. 2U (+/- 4cm)
iii. 3U (+/- 6cm) iv. 4U (+/- 8cm) v. 5U (+/- 10cm) vi.
6U (+/- 12cm)

Probing Critical, Structural Loads — Apply in Simscale

1. The CubeSat shall be capable of withstanding a force

1320N across all load points equally in the Z
direction.
634 • FRANCES ZHU

Structures and Mechanisms Lab

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2314#h5p-166

Structures – Assembly and Load Analysis

Purpose

• Assemble the frame of the satellite

• Validate structure size/fit check requirements in mock

3d-printed deployer model and measurement with
instrumentation

• Verify and measure the mass of the structure,

compare to mass budget and maximum mass

634
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 635

requirements of 1.33 kg

• Validate the structure’s ability to sustain the applied

compressive load of 1200N (approximately
equivalent to 269.8 lbf)

Background and Key Concepts to Consider

Application of: General Arrangement and Design Drivers
(Mass, Structural Loads, Materials) and Structural Analysis.

Artemis CubeSat Kit description of the Structure:

• 1U CubeSat, Custom Designed Aluminum Structure

• Material: Aluminum 6061 T6, hard anodized

• Outer Dimensions: 100.00mm x 100.00mm x

113.5mm

• Approximate Mass: 150 grams

• Screw Fasteners: 316 Stainless Steel

• The structure and mechanisms of this kit are designed

to follow Nanoracks and Cubesat Launch Initiative
(CSLI) requirements. See the References section for
the full list of requirements.

Links to the Artemis CubeSat Kit Github: https://github.com/

hsfl/artemis
636 • FRANCES ZHU

Required Materials & Setup

• From kit: Artemis CubeSat Kit structure frames

◦ Bottom Plate

◦ Top Plate

◦ Two (2) Side Plates

• Eight (8) Structure Screws: 5 mm long M2 screws

(link)

◦ 316 Stainless Steel Hex Drive Flat Head

Screws. 90 Degree Countersink, M2 x
0.40mm Thread, 5mm Long.

• 2mm, M2 Hex Screwdriver

• Length Measuring Device for fit check (e.g. ruler,

caliper, mock-up of deployer model)

• Flat, thick surface to stand on structure with, like a

textbook

• Weights, to supplement anything needed

Scales to figure out unknown weights (e.g. kitchen scale for

measuring the structure mass, luggage, or bathroom scale for
loading test)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 637

The assembled Artemis CubeSat Kit structure, with an M2 hex

screwdriver.
638 • FRANCES ZHU

The Artemis CubeSat Kit structure frame plates (top, bottom, and two
sides), structure screws, and M2 hex screwdriver.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 639

The bottom plate of the structure frame is the base. There is a large,
circular hole cutout in the middle, and rails on the corners. With the
protruding cubed feet of the rails on the working table, the up and down
direction is defined as the Z-axis, with the X and Y axes defined on the
face with the circular hole. Along the Y face, there are two holes, for
attaching the side plates and solar panels.
640 • FRANCES ZHU

The top plate of structure frame pieces. There is a large, circular hole
cutout in the middle, and rails on the corners. With the protruding cubed
feet of the rails facing up towards the sky, the up and down direction is
defined as the Z-axis, with the X and Y axes defined on the face with the
circular hole. Along the Y face, there are two holes, for attaching the
side plates and solar panels. **Note: The top and bottom plates are very
similar. The bottom plate will have one extra set of holes in the corners,
going through the rails while the top plate does not.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 641

Two of the near-identical side plates of structure frame pieces. There is a

square with rounded corners hole cutout in the middle and C-shaped
arms. Holes and slots for the deployment system (utilizer later, not in
this lab) are located towards the bottom of the side plate.

Procedure

Preliminary Lab Procedures

Optional: 3d print the deployer mock-up for a fit check

• 3D print files (public link)

Main Lab Procedure

Assembly of the Frame

The bottom plate of the structure frame is the base. Place the
bottom plate down with the protruding cubed feet of the rails on
the working table. Take a side piece and gently align and slide
642 • FRANCES ZHU

them onto the base of the frame. Start with one plate, and use
the table as a guide when sliding on the side plate to the bottom
plate.

The side plate is placed flat on the surface of the table. The bottom plate
has been slid between the C-arms of the side plate, with the protruding
corner rails oriented on the outside of the structure of the frame. The
bottom edge of the side plate makes contact with the bottom plate.

Make sure the two bolt holes for the side plates and solar panels
line up between the bottom plate and each side plate. The outer
hole with a countersink will be used to secure the frame side
pieces to the bottom plate, as it will allow for the bolt to sit flush.
Use two screws to fasten the first side plate to the bottom plate.

Important: The screw should easily be inserted and screwed in,

not forced. If it seems like the screw needs force to be screwed
in, try and readjust it. Forcing the screw in can result in the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 643

threading of the holes being stripped and ruined. Screws do

not need to be over-screwed/very tight, a small twist with the
screwdriver should be sufficient once the screw becomes flush
with the rest of the structure.

When attaching the side plates to the top or bottom plates, make sure the
screw fasteners are secured to the threaded holes with a counter-sink. If
the screw head is not flush and is sticking out, it may be in the wrong
hole.

After attaching both side plates to the bottom plate, the frame
is three-quarters of the way assembled with just the top plate
missing. A total of four screws will be fastening both of the
side plates to the bottom plate, and be flush with the face of the
outside surface of the satellite.
644 • FRANCES ZHU

The bottom plate sits on the protruding cubic feet of the rails, with side
plates attached by four screws. The up and down direction is the Z-axis,
while the screws securing the side plates to the bottom plate sit along the
Y-axis. The remaining direction is the X-axis.

Now, all that should be remaining will be the top plate. This
piece will be attached to the top of the structure that has been
completed so far. The top plate may need to be gently pushed
onto the rest of the frame, but not forced on. The holes on the top
section and bottom section are keyed. This means they are not
symmetrical and will only align in a certain orientation. Note the
orientation of the bottom section holes and align the top section
holes. Also take note of where the bolt holes are and line them
up the same way as the bottom plate, allowing the bolts to align
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 645

flush with the frame. This is important so that the rest of the
frame will be assembled properly and allow for the solar panels
to be attached later on. With the top plate attached, the remaining
four screws should be used to secure the entire frame together.
Again, screws do not need to be over-screwed, a small twist with
the screwdriver should be sufficient. This completes the frame
assembly!

The fully assembled frame consists of the top, bottom, and two side
plates held together with eight screws. The screws sit flush with the
outer surfaces of the satellite, in the countersunk holes.
646 • FRANCES ZHU

Mass and Fit Check

In the three images shown, the CubeSat frame has been inserted into a
blue, 3d printed deployer model along the Z direction. The CubeSat fits
in the model, successfully completing the fit check.

Loading Test

A simple loading test can be performed by compressing the

structure underweight similar to the force expected during
launch, 1200 N or approximately 269.8 lb/f. This force is
designed for the structure made of Aluminum 6061 T6 in the Z
direction. Note: If the structure is used in the procedures is NOT
made of Aluminum 6061 T6, this loading will NOT be the same.

For this lab, a fun and easy way to do this is to have a person
stand on the structure, then supplement the remaining weight
with everyday objects to reach the target weight as close as
possible. After reaching the target weight, check how the
structure performed and if any fractures or failure points have
appeared. Other creative methods may also be used to conduct
a simple loading test as well! The procedures will outline the
suggestion of having a person stand on the structure with
assistance from others.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 647

Loads using a Human and Everyday Object’s weight

Before getting started, be sure to use safety precautions and

assist as needed to keep the demonstration and participants safe
at all times! Select a volunteer(s) that will stand on the CubeSat
structure to apply the load. If possible, two people may stand on
the structure!

Estimate the volunteer’s weight and supplementary weight that

will be needed in addition to the volunteer standing on the
structure. Again, the goal is to get as close as possible to loading
the structure with the target weight. If additional weight is
needed, gather materials to supplement the weight.

• If using a kitchen/bathroom scale, find the volunteer’s

weight first without weighing anything else. Then,
use the box(es)/bag(s) as needed to hold additional
weights and measure them on the scale (or have the
volunteer hold the additional weights and take the
difference of the total weight and the volunteer’s
weight if it’s too light on its own).

• If using a travel scale, use a bag to hold the additional

weights and weigh the bag that the volunteer will
carry on them when standing on the structure.

• In the example case of those who prepared this

demonstration, the volunteer was 150 lbs. The
supplemental weight of 110 lbs was prepared by
using textbooks and backpacks. A total of 3 bags
were to be carried by the volunteer, plus a stack of
648 • FRANCES ZHU

textbooks in the volunteer’s hands.

Once the approximate weight that will be applied is known,

prepare to load the structure. Place the structure on flat ground. It
is important that the structure is sitting with the rail feet pointing
up and down, and not the other way with the rail feet pointing to
the sides!

The correct orientation of the CubeSat on the ground for the loading test
should be with the Z-axis pointing up and down. The Z-axis is aligned
with the rails of the CubeSat, so the cubic feet protruding from the
structure are facing up and down, not side to side.

It should also be in an area that will be relatively safe in case

anyone were to lose their balance and they or other lab mates can
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 649

help catch their fall by using nearby, sturdy objects like a table
or bookshelf, or by standing near the volunteer, respectively.
Using something thick and flat for the volunteer to stand on the
structure is highly recommended.

The volunteer should carefully step onto the structure. It’s

recommended to step on with one foot first while using supports
to prevent falling. Once the volunteer has one foot on the
structure and feels comfortable, they can continue to bring their
second foot and full weight onto the structure while staying
supported. If possible, their feet should be close together when
first stepping onto the structure, but shifted/pivoted outwards so
they stand wider and feel more stable standing on the structure
on their own. Remember to stay safe and take precautions or
stop the demonstration if participants do not feel comfortable
with their safety!

If additional weights are going to also be added, be sure to

slowly give them to the volunteer to hold (in their arms, or
on their body if weights are in a bag) and make sure they are
supported while doing so, in case they lose their balance. Try
to distribute the weight that they carry evenly, so they have an
easier time keeping their balance on the structure.

After the target weight has been reached, the structure has been
loaded to the approximate force! Carefully remove the weights
and help the volunteer safely step off of the structure. Check the
structure for any damage or fractures!

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

650 • FRANCES ZHU

from this version of the text. You can view them

online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2314#oembed-1

Video example of the loading procedure.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 651

In the example demonstration, a human volunteer stands on the structure

which has been placed on the ground with a textbook on top. From
bottom to top, there’s the structure, textbook, and volunteer that is
stacked on the ground. The volunteer (150 lbs) is carrying two 25 lb
bags on their shoulders, and one 30 lb bag on their chest. They are also
carrying a couple of textbooks in their hands.
652 • FRANCES ZHU

Clean Up

Disassembly

Use care when unscrewing and taking apart the pieces of the
structure. Turning counterclockwise from the top of the screw
should loosen it, while turning clockwise tightens. Having a
tray or box to place the disassembled pieces may be helpful in
keeping things organized and preventing the loss of screws.

Loading Test

Carefully remove the weights and help the volunteer safely step
off of the structure. Remove weights in an order that will help
the volunteer keep their balance best, and make sure they have
supports to lean on in case they lose their balance.

Lab Review and Deliverables

• What were the outer dimensions of the assembled

satellite frame?

• What was the measured mass of the assembled

satellite frame?

• How much weight and stress was applied to the

structure in the loading test?

• What is the factor of safety of the structure? How

much weight could the structure theoretically
support?
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 653

Safety and Best Practices Tips

• Be careful of stripping screws/threading when

screwing in the fasteners. Do not use too much force
and make sure the screw is aligned before fastening.

• Ensure the structure frames are assembled correctly

by matching the screw holes for each frame piece
together. Screws used for the structure should be
fastened into the holes with the countersink, so the
screw head is flush with the surface of the structure
and does not stick out once it is screwed in.

• When tightening screws, wait (if needed) until several

screws are in place before making it very tight.

• When working with small parts, it is recommended to

work in a clean, tidy space, or use a tray to keep the
pieces from rolling off the table.

Alternative Activities

• What other structural tests are expected for a

CubeSat?

• How much weight is left for the rest of the satellite

components?

References and Other Work

See the Reference Documents section in Chapter 4.6 Structural
Analysis for the full list of specifications and requirements.
654 • FRANCES ZHU

Artemis Kit Specific

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 655

Artemis Requirements
656 • FRANCES ZHU

The
CubeSat
structure shall
be contained
3 within 1U and
.6 offer
flexibility in
mounting
components
internally

The CubeSat kit structure shall

remain inside a 10 x 10 x 11.35 cm
3.6.1
+/- 0.1mm volume while
undeployed

All four protruding corners on

the top and bottom of the main
body of the CubeSat shall not
exceed a height of 6.75mm, shall
3.6.2
have a minimum length and width
of 6mm, and shall have a surface
area of 6.5mm x 6.5mm, per
NASA CLSI requirements

There shall be a minimum of

20mm from the CubeSat surface to
3.6.3 the top of the corners along the Z
direction per NASA CSLI
Requirements

The four edges of the CubeSat

along the Z direction shall have a
3.6.4 hardness greater than or equal to
Rockwell C 65-70 per NASA
CSLI Requirements
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 657

The overall structure shall

withstand 1200N between two XY
3.6.5
planes applied in the Z direction,
per NASA CSLI Requirements

The maximum mass of the

entire CubeSat Kit shall not exceed
3.6.6
1.33 kg per NASA CSLI
Requirements

The center of gravity shall be

within 2cm of its geometric center
3.6.7
relative to the Z direction, per
NASA CSLI Requirements

The CubeSat kit shall be easy to

3.6.3 assemble with the provided
instructions

CubeSat Mechanical Specification from Nanoracks

1. The CubeSat shall have four (4) rails along the Z-

axis, one per corner of the payload envelope, which
allow the payload to slide along the rail interface of
the NRCSD as outlined in Figure 4.1.1-1.

2. The CubeSat rails and envelope shall adhere to the

dimensional specification outlined in Figure 4.1.1-1.
658 • FRANCES ZHU

3. Each CubeSat rail shall have a minimum width (X

and Y faces) of 6mm.

4. The edges of the CubeSat rails shall have a radius of

0.5mm +/- 0.1mm.

5. The CubeSat +Z rail ends shall be completely bare

and have a minimum surface area of 6mm x 6mm.

6. The CubeSat rail ends (+/-Z) shall be coplanar with

the other rail ends within +/- 0.1mm.

7. The CubeSat rail length (Z-axis) shall be the

following (+/- 0.1mm):

◦ 1U rail length: 113.50mm

◦ 2U rail length: 227.00mm

◦ 3U rail length: 340.50mm

◦ 4U rail length: 454.00mm

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 659

◦ 5U rail length: 567.5mm

◦ 6U rail length: 681 to 740.00mm

8. The CubeSat rails shall be continuous. No gaps,

holes, fasteners, or any other features may be present
along the length of the rails (Z-axis) in regions that
contact the NRCSD-E rails.

9. The minimum extension of the +/-Z CubeSat rails

from the +/-Z CubeSat faces shall be 2mm.

10. The CubeSat rails shall be the only mechanical

interface to the NRCSD-E in all axes (X, Y, and Z
axes).

11. The CubeSat rail surfaces that contact the NRCSD-E

guide rails shall have a hardness equal to or greater
than hard-anodized aluminum (Rockwell C 65-70).

12. The CubeSat rails and all load points shall have a
surface roughness of less than or equal to 1.6 µm
(ISO Grade N7).

Mechanisms: Burn Wire and Deployer

Demonstration
Purpose

• Demonstrate and validate the ability to deploy

antenna

• Validate the importance of redundant deployment

660 • FRANCES ZHU

switches

Background and Key Concepts to Consider:

• Application of: 4.5 Mechanisms – EPET 400:

Spacecraft Mission Design

• Artemis CubeSat Kit description of the onboard

mechanisms:

◦ Deployable “tape measure” antenna

◦ Burn wire scheme using nichrome wire and

fishing line

Links to the Artemis CubeSat Kit Github: https://github.com/

hsfl/artemis

Required Materials & Setup

• Artemis CubeSat structure (frame-only assembled)

◦ See the instructions for how to assemble in

the Structure hardware lab section.

• The structure assembly can be done with the

preliminary procedures before moving on to the main
procedure for this lab.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 661

• Structure fasteners for antenna board

◦ Eight Hex Drive, M2 x 0.4 mm Thread, 8

mm Long, 18-8 Stainless Steel Low-Profile
Socket Head Screws

◦ Eight M2 x 0.4 mm Thread, 18-8 Stainless

Steel Hex Nuts

◦ 90 Degree Countersink, M2 x 0.40mm

Thread, 5mm Long, 316 Stainless Steel
Hex Drive Flat Head Screws

▪ To assemble the structure frame if

not already assembled
662 • FRANCES ZHU

The antenna board fasteners are shown below with a US

quarter coin for scale. There are four pairs of screws and
nuts.

• Antenna board
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 663

(left) The top of the antenna board has five ports. There are two through
screw holes for attaching the antenna. (right) The bottom of the antenna
board has four boards, with a small section of a silver area between two
screw holes for attaching the antenna.

• Antenna

• Antenna fasteners

◦ Two 0.15” (#6 screws) high-temperature

PEEK Washers

◦ Two 6-32 thread size, ¼” long, threaded

screws
664 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Two 6-32 thread size, high-strength high-

temperature PEEK Hex Nut

The fasteners are shown below, with a US five-dollar bill for scale.
From left to right, the fasteners are lined up in pairs of washers, screws,
and nuts.

• 2mm, M2 Hex Screwdriver

• Phillips Screwdriver

• AC Bench Power Supply and electrical probes/test

leads

• Nichrome wire, 30 to 32 gauge

• Fishing line, 20 lb

• Soldering helping hands

• Clippers/scissors

• Electrical Jumper/Dupont Wires (for testing and

connecting to pins)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 665

• Multimeter

• ANT J4 wire

This portion of the lab requires:

• Antenna board

• Antenna

• Connector ANT J4

• Assembled structure

• Power supply

• Alligator clips

• Fishing line
666 • FRANCES ZHU

• Insert the male Molex connector of the ANT J4 wire

into the female Molex connector J9 of the antenna
board
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 667

Connector ANT J4
668 • FRANCES ZHU

J9 location on the antenna board.

• The antenna board and connector should look like the

picture below.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 669

Assembled antenna board, ANT J4 connector, and the antenna.

• Attach the antenna board to the structure. You will

use 8 screws to screw the antenna board to the top of
the structure. This will secure the board and the
structure for when the antenna deploys. As seen
below
670 • FRANCES ZHU

• Tie the fishing line to the hole of the antenna and

leave enough fishing line on the end to wrap it around
the structure. Any standard knot should do.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 671

A fishing line is tied to one end of the antenna.

• Wrap the fishing line around the structure to have

tension on the antenna. The fishing line and antenna
should look like the picture below.
672 • FRANCES ZHU

The fishing line is wrapped around the CubeSat structure.

• Tie the fishing line to the burn wire. Again, any knot
should do.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 673

The fishing line is secured to the burn wire.

• Connect ANTJ4 to the power supply.

• Connect the alligator clips to the ANT J4 wire.

◦ Orient the antenna board so that the wires

are pointed straight down. The wire on the
left should be connected to power while the
wire on the right should be connected to the
ground.
674 • FRANCES ZHU

Ground and Power alligator clips secured to the

end of the ANT J4 wires.

• Below is what the whole configuration should look

like.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 675

The finalized configuration is ready for the lab procedure.

• Set the power supply to 5 volts and 2 amps the

fishing line will burn off. Turn off the power supply
after the fishing line burns or after 15 seconds.
Whichever one comes first.
676 • FRANCES ZHU

• No need to reconnect the fishing line but set the

power supply to 5 volts 3 amps. Turn on the power
supply for 10 seconds.

• Observe the burn wire.

◦ The wire should glow brightly.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 677

5. Power System

authored by Dr. Zhu

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of the power

subsystem in the context of spacecraft as
a whole and between other subsystems
• Recognize possible sources of power
in space and power generation
technologies
• Identify various power storage
methods
• Describe considerations for power
distribution

677
678 • FRANCES ZHU

• Analyze power budget and profile

Electrical Power System Chapter Content

Learning Objectives

5.1 Definition

5.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

5.3 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Artemis Power Requirements

◦ Suggested Activity

5.4 Design Process and Drivers

◦ Suggested Activity

5.5 Power Generation

◦ Solar Cells (or Photovoltaic/Photoelectric

Cells)

▪ Artemis Selection

◦ Solar Thermal Power Systems

◦ Chemical Thermal Power Systems

◦ Nuclear Power
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 679

5.6 Consumable Power Storage

◦ Fuel Cells
◦ Capacitors

◦ Primary Batteries

5.7 Rechargeable Power Storage

◦ Secondary Batteries

◦ Battery Sizing

◦ Artemis Selection

◦ Artemis Battery Sizing

◦ Flywheel Energy Storage

5.8 Power Management and Distribution

◦ Artemis CubeSat Kit Power Distribution

Unit

◦ Integrated Power Systems

◦ Artemis CubeSat Kit Integrated Power

System

5.9 Power Budget and Profiling

◦ Suggested Activity

5.10 Electrical Power System Design Tools

◦ Schematic Diagram Software

680 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Printed Circuit Board Design Software

◦ Integrated Schematic and PCB Design

Software

Summary

Reference Documents
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 681

5.1 Definition

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from this version of the text. You can view them
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epet302/?p=355#oembed-1

Responsibilities of power subsystem in spacecraft bus created by Dr.

Frankie Zhu of HSFL

The electrical power system has three jobs: generate power,

store energy, and distribute power. The electrical power system
supports spacecraft bus components that must consume energy
at a specified power. Of these spacecraft bus systems, the most
notable power consumers are the payload, onboard computer,
communications system, attitude control system, propulsion

681
682 • FRANCES ZHU

system, and ECLSS systems when relevant. The electronics that

drive these subsystems have associated properties that must be
managed by the electrical power system, like peak power draw,
average power usage, and lifetime energy consumption. These
high-level characteristics may be broken down into voltage
regulation, current limits, and resistance.

Complex electronics are composed of many simple circuits

interacting with each other to form a more complex circuit.
The key terms we must review are voltage, current, resistance,
energy, and power that you may have seen from a circuit analysis
course.

• Current is the “rate of flow of electric charge past a

point”, or literally imagine electrons moving along a
copper wire. The higher the current, the more
electrons move through the wire. The unit for current
is Ampere or Coulomb/second.

◦ Electrical charge is a fundamental property

of mass, consisting of positive, negative, or
neutral quantities. The smallest units of
charge are held by protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Protons have a positive charge,
neutrons have no charge, and electrons have
a negative charge. As the protons and
neutrons reside in the nucleus, the current
refers to the movement of electrons. The
unit of charge is Coulomb.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 683

The electrons, the charge carriers in an electrical circuit, flow in the

opposite direction of the conventional electric current. Conventional
Current by Romtobbi, CC BY 3.0, Image by Flekstro.

• Voltage is “the difference in electric potential

between two points” or “the work needed per unit of
charge to move a test charge between the two points”.
The electrical potential may be converted to electrical
work, which drives circuits. An analogy may be made
to mechanical potential energy, like a compressed
spring, that is converted to mechanical work, pushing
a block. The higher the voltage, the more electrical
energy is pent up to be transferred. The unit for
voltage is Volt or Joule/Coulomb.

◦ Electrical energy is the potential energy,

kinetic energy, or work in the electrical
domain. Electrical energy is important
684 • FRANCES ZHU

when characterizing the storage of energy

in batteries. The unit of energy is Joule.
◦ The relationship between energy and
voltage is that electrical potential energy is
the storage of energy per charge, Joules/
Coulomb or Volts.

Concept of the relationship between voltage,

current, and resistance. Image by Wrwkwb.

• Resistance is the “measure of its opposition to the

flow of electric current”. Everything that the current
runs through has resistance, the question is how much
resistance. The resistance is mainly a function of the
material; insulators, like rubber, have high resistance,
and conductors, like copper, have low resistance.
Conductors are useful for efficient circuitry and
insulators help contain a charge. The unit for
resistance is Ohm.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 685

The voltage of a car battery is read from the multimeter.

Image by Car From Japan.

• Power is the amount of electrical “energy transferred

or converted per unit time”. Power converts static
potential energy to electrical or mechanical
movement. For system-level design, we pay attention
to power as the high-level characteristic of a
component or subsystem to form a power budget and
profile for the mission. The summation of power
consumption from the various subsystems is the
overall strain on the battery. The unit of power is Watt
or Joule/second or Volt*Ampere.

◦ Power is the time derivative of energy: Watt

= Joule/second.

◦ Power is also the product of voltage and

current: Watt = Volt*Ampere. Power may
be calculated instantaneously by measuring
voltage and current draw.
686 • FRANCES ZHU

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epet302/?p=355
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 687

5.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

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epet302/?p=357#oembed-1

The electrical power system is responsible for:

Image by Dr. Frankie Zhu with HSFL

• Generating power to power the spacecraft for the

entire mission.

• Storing energy to power the spacecraft for

the entire mission.

687
688 • FRANCES ZHU

• Managing the power distribution to spacecraft

subsystems.
• Converting the voltage and limiting the current
distributed to spacecraft components.

During the design process, the electrical power system (EPS)

specialist:

• Is the owner and primary developer of the

spacecraft’s electrical design, which includes
schematic diagrams, printed circuit board designs,
component placement on electronic boards, and an
electric harness plan.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit is supported by Eagle and

KiCAD.

• Selects the power generation and/or storage

technology then designs the power conversion,
distribution, and management system.

• Must ensure sufficient energy is generated and stored

throughout the mission lifetime.

• Analyzes that the electrical power system can supply

spacecraft bus components with the proper power,
voltage, and current for all mission operations by
managing the power budget and profile.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 689

• Is responsible for adhering to the power requirements

throughout the entire spacecraft lifecycle through
analysis and testing.

• Verifies electrical power system performance in

analysis and testing.

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center engineers testing

electrical components, multimeter, and oscilloscope seen on
a test bench.Image courtesy of NASA.

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690 • FRANCES ZHU

5.3 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

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Within the scope of the spaceflight mission, the electrical power

system must support the other subsystem designs and properly
interface electrical and data connections. Like with any
subsystem, the size, weight, and power are obvious requirements
or design drivers. Requirements for spaceflight include:

• An orbit average and peak power on the power

distribution (wire harnessing, motherboard, and
daughterboard control)

690
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 691

Orbital simulation shows power consumption as a function

of time over the course of a single orbit as power is
consumed during sensor operations and the battery is
recharged when in sunlight. MANAGE can make
autonomous decisions about optimal sensing operations
within the constraints of power consumption. Image by Ball,
Christopher, et al. “Simulation Toolset for Adaptive Remote
Sensing.” Ann Arbor 1001: 48109.

• A specific amount of power generated and/or stored

(solar array and battery size)

• Voltage conversion and limits (circuit board design)

• Current regulation or limits (circuit board design)

Let’s think about sources for requirements generated from

external constraints from all parts of the spacecraft lifecycle. Just
like the structures and mechanisms system, the electrical power
system design also needs to adhere to many considerations
outside of the spaceflight mission.
692 • FRANCES ZHU

Engineer soldering on an electrostatic discharge (ESD) mat and wearing

an ESD bracelet to protect against accidental discharge. Image by Duo
Tech Services.

During manufacturing and assembly, electrical engineers and

technicians need to take proper care when handling electrostatic-
sensitive components. Workbenches must be clear of paper and
other debris, and sensitive components must be handled on
grounded electrostatic discharge mats with the handler
connected with a discharge wrist strap. A clean work surface
prevents debris from contaminating the electronic board and
potentially short-circuiting the exposed circuitry. This holds
particularly true for any metal shards, which act as conductors.
Paper and cardboard boxes can interfere with the path-to-ground
of the grounded ESD mat if ESD-sensitive components are
placed on top of the paper instead of the mat [Desco]. Another
consideration is the growth of “whiskers” from tin or zinc
finished surfaces. These whiskers can grow up to 10 mm in
length but are typically less than 1 mm and typically around 1
micrometer in diameter. The reason for their growth is unknown.
To reduce the risk of tin whiskers, requirements could include
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 693

the exclusion of pure tin-plated components and independent

verification of the plating composition of the products [NASA].
Other practices include reflowing and alloying the tin plating,
replating the whisker-prone area, conformal coating or foam
encapsulation, or accepting the risk. Bonding requirements for
the ISS may be found in Space Station Electrical Bonding
Requirements [SSP 30245 Revision E]. The Artemis CubeSat
Kit will include an ESD mat, does not use tin or zinc plated
components, and follows all bonding requirements.

Tin “Whisker” shown above growing between pure tin-plated hook

terminals of an electromagnetic relay similar to MIL-R-6106 (LDC
8913) Photo Courtesy of Andre Pelham (Intern) NASA Goddard Space
Flight Center

During testing, external requirements from the launch provider

commonly include battery safety and survivability through
vibration tests. “All cells and batteries on the CubeSat shall
adhere to the design and testing requirements for spacecraft
flight onboard or near the ISS as derived from the NASA
requirement document JSC 20793 Crewed Space Vehicle
Battery Safety Requirements”. After vibration testing specified
in the structural requirements, the electrical power system must
694 • FRANCES ZHU

be functionally tested to ensure safe operations. As the Artemis

CubeSat Kit may be soft-stowed with astronauts through launch
and handled by astronauts on the ISS for deployment, we have
followed the evaluation, qualification, and acceptance testing of
the kit batteries and avionics.

Battery restrictions imposed by the TSA. Image by Hearing Health

Matters.

During transport and handling, requirements may include

restrictions on batteries or pressurized vessels. Battery
composition or the maximum amount of charge on the battery
may be regulated during transportation. As an example for
airplanes, lithium batteries must not exceed 100 Watt-hours per
battery and may only be allowed in carry-on bags, not checked
bags [TSA]. Small compressed gas cartridges (for spacecraft)
are not permitted through TSA. The exceptions are if the gas
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 695

cartridges are for personal medical use or if the cylinders are

empty.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit batteries are rated below 50

Watt-hours and there are no pressurized containers within
the kit.

From the time of delivery through on-orbit deployment, the

CubeSat power system shall be at a power-off state, utilizing an
RBF pin, which cuts all power to the satellite once it is inserted
into the satellite. The power is inhibited through a minimum
of three (3) independent inhibit switches actuated by physical
deployment switches. “The CubeSat shall have, at a minimum,
one deployment switch, which is actuated while integrated into
the dispenser” [NR-NRCSD-S0004]. During in-orbit operations,
“the CubeSat shall not operate any system (including RF
transmitters, deployment mechanisms or otherwise energize the
main power system) for a minimum of 30 minutes after
deployment. Satellites shall have a timer (set to a minimum
of 30 minutes and requiring appropriate fault tolerance) before
satellite operation or deployment of appendages. CubeSats shall
incorporate battery circuit protection for charging/discharging to
avoid unbalanced cell conditions ” [NASA LSP-REQ-317.01].
The Artemis CubeSat Kit has an RBF pin, at least three
independent inhibit switches, a 30-minute timer, and battery
circuit protection. Outside of these external launch provider
requirements (or really, constraints), the electrical power
696 • FRANCES ZHU

system’s primary responsibility is to enable the other spacecraft

subsystems, particularly the payload. The EPS requirements are
highly prone to iteration following the dynamic design process.
Here are the initial requirements that drove the Artemis CubeSat
kit.

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis Power Requirements

3.1 The CubeSat power system shall

generate power in LEO and provide sufficient
power to all other bus components
3.1.1 The solar panels shall generate a
minimum of 2.5W to charge the battery
3.1.2 The power distribution system
shall supply sufficient power to all the
other subsystems
3.1.3 The battery shall have a
capacity of at least 10Wh

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 697

5.4 Design Process and Drivers

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

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epet302/?p=364#oembed-1

The main design driver in sizing the electrical power system

is the power and energy consumption of the payload and other
subsystems. This section will provide the best guidance as to
how best to size the power generation’s initial capability in
producing power. We start with an initial power budget is given
by the New SMAD’s Table 10-9:

697
698 • FRANCES ZHU

% of
% of Operating
Minimum Operating
Power for
Subsystem Power Power for
Medium to
Consumption Small
Large Spacecraft
Spacecraft

Payload 20 – 50 W 40 40 – 80

Propulsion 0W 0 0–5

Attitude Control 0W 15 5 -10

Communications 15 W 5 5 -10

Command and
5W 5 5 -10
Data Handling

Thermal 0W 5 0–5

Power 10 – 30 W 30 5 – 25

Structure 0W 0 0

Let’s focus on a small spacecraft design. The

payload initial characteristics drive the capabilities
of the power generation solution. If we need to
support a payload that consumes 40 W, which is
recommended to consume 40% of the power
budget, the power system must produce 100 W
and distribute the remaining 60 W to the rest of the
subsystem components.

With the remaining 60 W, we can start to find subsystem

component solutions that consume around the power allocated
to them on average. The keyword here is average, where the
average is taken over a single orbit or a set of multiple orbit
completions. A more detailed power budget and profile are
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 699

discussed in the analysis section but let’s discuss the intuition

around variation in power consumption that must be taken into
account when calculating averages:

• The attitude control subsystem has a high %

allocation for average power consumption because
many payloads require active pointing during their
science operational phase. The attitude control
subsystem must be active for other mission
operational phases, like sun pointing to charge the
batteries or radio pointing when passing overground
stations. You’ll also notice that the minimum power
consumption for an attitude control system is 0 W,
lower than the other subsystems because the attitude
control system can be held at standby with no power
consumption.

• The communication subsystem has a rather high

minimum power consumption but a small %
allocation of average power consumption. The
communications subsystem is power-hungry when it
is on but does not remain on constantly. When sizing
the communications subsystem, think about how
much data must be transmitted, how long the
transmitter must communicate with ground stations,
and how frequently the spacecraft encounters a pass
over a ground station.

• The command and data handling system is nearly

always on unless an anomaly disrupts the system’s
operations. If the onboard computer only has one
700 • FRANCES ZHU

power mode and uniformly consumes a steady

amount of power, this uniform power consumption is
the average consumption number. Some on-board
computers have low and high power modes, toggling
between low activity and high activity depending on
the operational mode. A high power mode is
potentially necessary during science operations and
for on-board processing prior to downlinking data. A
low power mode may be utilized if the spacecraft
needs to conserve energy during a long transit. The
average power consumption is a weighted average of
the power levels during each mission phase and the
length of time of each mission phase.

• The thermal system’s power allocation primarily

includes active thermal control components, like
heaters. Many thermal control solutions are passive
and do not consume power, like radiators or surface
coatings. For active components, the thermal control
system does not need to be active through the whole
mission and may be held at standby (0 W minimum
power consumption). The heaters may not be needed
during sun pointing, as a heat source is already
present. Heaters may be necessary during an eclipse
in which the satellite passes behind a planetary body
and the sun is occluded by the planetary body.

• The power system must support all the other

subsystems and commonly, an amount of power is
necessary to sustain electronic drivers or other
daughterboards at an overhead cost during standby.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 701

The supporting electronics from all the subsystems

accumulate a significant amount of power
consumption that varies with the mission phase, like
all the other subsystems. This power consumption
also includes line losses and other inefficiencies in
power conversion or transfer. As the power
subsystem is so pervasive in its involvement with all
the subsystems, the electrical power system has the
second-highest average power allocation, behind the
payload.

• The structures and mechanism subsystem typically do

not need power, outside of single events like
deployment.

At the initial design, SMAD recommends a margin of 25% due

to the design’s immaturity so SMAD advises a power generation
solution that produces 125 W. As the initial design progresses,
the payload and spacecraft system will grow in power
consumption. The Aerospace Corporation conducted a historical
study of the power budget growth through the design phases
relative to the ultimate flight system [NASA & Aerospace].
They found the historical average of the instrument and
spacecraft power growth is closer to 40%, which is better advice
for margin. Although the results of this study are for traditionally
larger spacecraft, this study is based on real data analysis. We
should look for a power generation solution that produces 140
W.
702 • FRANCES ZHU

Historical Power growth percentage at Phase B Start typically higher

than guidelines while PDR & CDR are more in line. Image courtesy of
NASA.

Guidelines appear mostly adequate compared to historical mass &

power growth. Image courtesy of NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 703

The basic procedure to design the electrical power system is

listed below. A more detailed procedure is broken out in section
5.10 Electrical Power System Design Tools

1. Define the power consumption and electrical

characteristics of the spacecraft bus components

2. Define the necessary power generation and energy

storage required to fulfill the power consumption
requirements

3. Select the power generation and energy storage

methods

4. Analyze the system’s power budget and profile from

the beginning of the mission to the end of the mission
to ensure the selected components are sufficient to
supply power

5. Design a power conversion, management, and

distribution subsystem to interface the power sources
and power consumers

6. Procure and fabricate components

7. Conduct tests on isolated components

8. Conduct tests on integrated components

Suggested Activity

• Given your payload specification, what is

the initial power allocation to the rest of the
704 • FRANCES ZHU

subsystems?
• How much power are we expecting from
our power generation solution?
• Relate your concept of operations to
different phases and associate which
components are on and off during these
phases

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 705

5.5 Power Generation

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We’ve motivated why the spacecraft bus needs to generate

power, now how do we actually go about generating power?
Spacecraft either use resources in space or bring energy sources
with them into space. In this section, we’ll discuss the various
ways to generate power in space and the relevant environmental
parameters that affect the system design.

Solar Cells (or Photovoltaic/Photoelectric Cells)

Solar energy is by far the most popular energy source,

dominating missions around the Earth and in close proximity to
the Earth. “As of 2010, approximately 85% of all nanosatellite
form factor spacecraft were equipped with solar panels and
rechargeable batteries. Limitations to solar cell use include

705
706 • FRANCES ZHU

diminished efficacy in deep-space applications, no generation

during eclipse periods, degradation over mission lifetime, high
surface area, mass, and cost” [NASA]. Typically, solar energy is
not the primary power source for spacecraft farther than Jupiter
because 1) solar radiation is too weak, 2) current solar
technology is not efficient enough, and 3) the solar arrays would
be too massive [Wikipedia]. The intensity of sunlight is the
driving factor in determining whether solar energy should be
the primary power source for a spacecraft mission. The intensity
of sunlight scales with distance squared from the sun. Juno’s
mission to Jupiter has broken the record to become humanity’s
most distant solar-powered emissary [NASA].

This graphic shows how NASA’s Juno mission to Jupiter became the
most distant solar-powered explorer and influenced the future of space
exploration powered by the sun. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 707

Mean distances of the Jovian Planets from the Sun. Orbits are drawn
approximately to scale by David Dooby. Image courtesy of NASA.

A major consideration in utilizing solar energy is the efficiency

of solar cells in converting sunlight into electrical energy. The
efficiency of solar cells depends on the ability of the technology
in capturing the energy within the wide spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation that is sunlight. Sunlight is a specific
distribution of light, spanning wavelengths of primarily
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light. Although the sun does
emit all frequencies of electromagnetic waves, except gamma
rays, wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet and longer than
708 • FRANCES ZHU

infrared light have very low spectral irradiance; spectral

irradiance is energy per surface area, which is what we
ultimately care about. For those reasons, solar cells focus on
capturing light energy through surface area and converting this
light energy into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.

Sunlight spectrum in space as a function of wavelength. Public Domain

Image, image source: Christopher S. Baird, data source: American
Society for Testing and Materials Terrestrial Reference. What is the
Color of the sun by Dr. Christopher S. Baird.

The photovoltaic effect is the “generation of voltage and electric

current in a material upon exposure to light”, the combination
of a physical and chemical phenomenon. Photons hit a
semiconductor, are absorbed into the semiconductor material
structure, and create in essence free electrons in the solar cell
material. The positive charge is attracted to the p-type
semiconductor and the negative charge to the n-type
semiconductor. The difference in potential creates a current, or
electricity!
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 709
710 • FRANCES ZHU
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 711
712 • FRANCES ZHU

How Solar cells work. The Anatomy of a Solar Cell by Save on Energy

The material affects the ability of photons to be absorbed, the

mobility of the electrons to move or transfer freely within the
structure, conversion efficiency, and the ease of manufacturing.
The selected material must match the spectral distribution of
sunlight. Photon absorption may be improved by maximizing
surface penetration, minimizing reflection, and reducing
obstacles. Monocrystalline (single crystal) cells can be
manufactured in a way that retains high purity or quality, which
makes them more efficient and prolongs their useful lifetime.
These cells appear black, are more energy-intensive to make,
produce more waste, and thus are more expensive.
Polycrystalline cells appear blue, are less energy-intensive to
make, produce less waste, and thus are more common and
inexpensive [EnergySage]. Finally, consider that solar cells
surface and electrodes degrade over a mission lifetime, carrying
a finite useful life and diminishing returns in later years. There
are many different types of solar cells and we’ll review the most
common choices for spacecraft.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 713

When selecting solar cells for spacecraft, key metrics to evaluate

selection are specific power (watts generated per solar array
mass), stowed packing efficiency (deployed watts produced per
stowed volume), and cost. Specific power incorporates solar cell
efficiency and surface area but carries the evaluation one step
further by incorporating mass. As mentioned before, solar cells
degrade from usage but, in a space environment, additionally
degrade from ionizing radiation as a function of “differential
flux spectrum and total ionizing dose” [Wikipedia]. The effects
of ionizing radiation may be mitigated for special glass
coverings, reducing efficiency loss to 1% to 10% a year.

Solar cell technology progresses year by year, as they become

more popular for terrestrial applications. In the solar cell
industry, terrestrial applications mostly use single-junction cells
(or a single pair of p-type and n-type electrodes), which usually
carry less than 20% efficiency. Terrestrial applications take
advantage of rather limitless surface area and the non-critical
nature of power generation. Spacecraft are limited in surface
area and power generation is mission-critical, so spacecraft
designers prefer multi-junction solar cells with higher efficiency.
Multi-junction incorporates “multiple layers of light-absorbing
material that efficiently convert specific wavelength regions of
the solar spectrum into energy, thereby using a wider spectrum
of solar radiation” [NASA]. Theoretically, an infinite amount of
layers could be stacked to achieve 86.6% efficiency [Green]. In
an implementation, triple-junction cells balance high efficiency
with cost.
714 • FRANCES ZHU

Solar Cell Efficiency. State of the Art Power Generation. Photo Courtesy of
NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 715

Table 3-1 itemizes small-spacecraft solar panel efficiency per the

available manufacturers. Image courtesy of NASA.

The projected surface area of the panels exposed to the Sun also
affects generation and varies with the solar incidence angle, the
cosine of the angle between the panel and the Sun [NASA]. As
716 • FRANCES ZHU

seen in the figure above the projected surface area for a tilted
solar cell, a, is smaller than the projected surface area for the
solar cell that is more directly facing the sun, A. The efficiency
of a solar collecting device thus depends on the orientation of
the solar cell relative to the sun, . The scaled intensity of solar
flux is given by the following equation:

Where is the scaled intensity, is the full intensity of the

sun from direct exposure, and is the incidence angle. The
total solar irradiance around Earth, , is 1360.8 ± 0.5
[NASA].

Incidence Angle’s Effect on Efficiency. Image courtesy of MCEN

Sustainable Energy.

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ISS Solar Array Deployment. Video by Bruno The Questionable.

An example of solar cell configuration. Image courtesy of Top Coder.

To mitigate the inefficiency of solar cells not directly facing the

sun, solar arrays may be deployed (for the larger surface area)
and articulated to point more directly at the sun. For example, on
the ISS, the huge solar arrays were deployed with an extending
truss structure, pulling the end of the solar array out. The ISS
uses gimbals to track the position of the sun by continually
rotating the panels to face the sun, seen in the figure. The
RAVAN CubeSat shows the deployment and articulation of its
solar panels.
718 • FRANCES ZHU

Cubesat RAVAN’s solar panel arrays are deployed and articulated

toward the sun. Credit: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory artist’s concept.

For deployed solar panels and a spacecraft with attitude control,

you can assume direct pointing toward the sun and no loss to
efficiency. For solar panels that are rigidly attached to the faces
of a cube, you can point the entire spacecraft body to face the sun
and maximize the sunlight hitting the solar panels. The optimal
incidence angle to point at the sun depends on how many faces
you can point toward the sun. If there are two panels adjacent
that can simultaneously face the sun, the optimal incidence angle
from each solar panel face is 45 degrees. Instead of 1 panel
facing the sun directly, 2 panels facing the sun at 45 degrees
will achieve 1.41 times the amount of power of a single panel.
If there are three panels all touching the same corner, which
can point toward the sun, the optimal incidence angle from each
solar panel face is 54.7 degrees, seen in the figure. Three panels
partially pointing to the sun achieves 1.73 times the amount of
power of a single head-on panel, which is the configuration of
the Artemis CubeSat kit.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 719

Best spacecraft attitude for 3 adjacent solar panel faces on 1U CubeSat.

Author: Atakan Sirin. From Master’s thesis titled: Power System
Analysis of J3 CubeSat and RATEX-J High Voltage Power Supply
Calibration.

To size the solar array surface area, you must collect the
following information:

• Required power to generate based on your power

budget,

◦ The efficiency of the solar cells you’ve

chosen,

◦ Solar irradiance at your distance from the

sun,

◦ Incidence angle across all solar arrays,

• The formula to calculate the surface area of the

array’s surface from your power generation
720 • FRANCES ZHU

requirement is:

Artemis Kit Specific

◦ Artemis Selection

For our system, we have the

following:

▪ power generation
requirement of 2.5
W,
▪ solar cell
selection of
ANYSOLAR’s
SolarBITs with 25
% efficiency,
▪ solar irradiance at
Earth,

▪ incidence angle
across all solar
arrays, = 54.7
degrees
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 721

The total surface area across

the 3 CubeSat faces is 30,000
. The solar cells need to
cover at least 42 % of the
CubeSat faces to satisfy the 2.5
W power generation
requirement.
Each solar cell has a surface
area of 23 x 8 [mm] or 184
with a mass of 0.5 grams.
We need at least 69 cells to
meet this requirement or 23
cells per face. To cover 5
available faces, the entire
CubeSat will have 115 solar
cells with a total mass of 57
grams, or about 5 % of our mass
budget.

Solar Thermal Power Systems

Another way to utilize solar energy in space is to convert solar

energy into heat. Mirrors and lenses concentrate sunlight into
high-temperature collectors, through a technique called
concentrated solar power. High-temperature collectors can then
be used in conjunction with various thermodynamic cycle
engines to generate electricity. In a thermodynamic cycle, a
722 • FRANCES ZHU

working fluid (liquid or gas) converts heat into useful work

through pressure and temperature differences. Well-known
thermodynamic cycles are the Otto cycle, used in spark-ignition
piston engines of cars, and the Rankine cycle used in steam
engines of trains. Spacecraft typically do not bring combustible
or consumable fuel to incite internal or external combustion,
instead, a sensical choice for a spacecraft solar thermal engine is
the Baker or Carnot heat engine.

A parabolic solar dish concentrating the sun’s rays on the heating

element of a Stirling engine. The entire unit acts as a solar tracker.
Image by WAPA.

A Carnot heat engine transfers “energy from a warm region to a

cool region of space and, in the process, converting some of that
energy to mechanical work” [Wikipedia]. This cycle is special
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 723

because the cycle may be reversed and the whole system may
be contained in a closed system. The fluid that runs through the
engine can be any substance capable of expansion. The total
possible work is equal to the difference in the heat put into and
heat that is taken out of the system. This material is covered in a
thermodynamic course so I won’t expound further, as these heat
engines are not commonly used in spacecraft.

A Carnot cycle is illustrated on a PV diagram to illustrate the work

done. Image by Keta.

These solar thermal power systems can be advantageous over

solar cells, with higher areal efficiencies and lower procurement
costs. The disadvantages are that there are moving parts that
wear down over time and require maintenance.
724 • FRANCES ZHU

Nuclear Power

The Curiosity rover took this self-portrait on Mars that includes its
MMRTG electrical power source (the white cylinder with radiator fins,
at the rear of the rover). Image courtesy of NASA.

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) are the most

common power generator for spacecraft missions past Jupiter
and the Martian planetary rovers: the Apollo missions to the
moon, the Viking missions to Mars, and the Pioneer, Voyager,
Ulysses, Galileo, Cassini, and New Horizons mission to Pluto
and the Kuiper Belt all used RTGs [NASAfacts]. RTGs are
nuclear reactors that do not rely on the space environment;
all components and physical phenomena are contained in the
technology built on the ground. These tiny nuclear reactors
generate electricity from the heat of radioactive decay, typically
from the element Plutonium-238. These energy sources
constantly decay, emit heat, and degrade over time. A sample
of technical specifications used for the Mars 2020 Rover,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 725

Perseverance, is seen in the table below. These energy generators

do not miniaturize well, as there are many reactor components in
a complex configuration to convert nuclear energy into electrical
energy. 238Pu can also be toxic to humans if improperly
contained and exposed directly in large doses. This highly
radioactive element is also strictly controlled by the Department
of Energy for which immense paperwork is required to obtain
significant amounts for a spacecraft mission. These reasons
motivate the use of RTGs for large unmanned spacecraft or
robotic missions.

Model of a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator,

including its internal General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) modules.
Image courtesy of NASA.
726 • FRANCES ZHU

MMRTG Technical Specifications. Image courtesy of NASA.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 727

5.6 Consumable Power Storage

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Ragone Plot of Electrochemical Devices Source: US Defence Logistics

Agency.

727
728 • FRANCES ZHU

A Ragone Plot of electrochemical devices shows storage

capacity against instantaneous power output. On the extremes,
capacitors store little energy but discharge very quickly (useful
for short but powerful electrical movement, like deployment
mechanisms). Fuel cells store an immense amount of energy
but output power at a low rate. The lines represent the relative
time to get charged in or out of the device. Lithium batteries
are a compromise between fuel cells and capacitors, charging
and discharging at a relative time of less than an hour, making
them ideal candidates for Low Earth Orbit spacecraft due to the
temporal match in the orbital period. This section will give an
overview of the various power storage options, their physical
inner workings, and design considerations.

Fuel Cells

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Solar-powered hydrogen fuel cell demo.

By Philip Russell
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 729

Fuel cells convert the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidizing

agent into electricity. Commonly, the fuel is hydrogen and the
oxidizing agent is oxygen. The chemical reaction is shown by:

Where are hydrogen molecules, are oxygen molecules,

O are water molecules, and e- is a free electron that can
produce electricity or heat. The production of electricity is solely
dependent on the availability of hydrogen and oxygen, so when
the fuel is gone, the ability to produce electricity disappears
as well. You’ll see that the reaction produces water that may
be used as potable water for humans or recaptured in a closed
system in storage. Water can be electrolyzed into and
molecules with excess power as a form of regenerated fuel.
This regenerative process requires a separate power source, like
solar cells, but in this way, fuel cells act as a power storage
device, like a high-capacity battery. Hydrogen fuel cells are on
the horizon for small satellite power generation technologies
[SmallSat Institute].
730 • FRANCES ZHU

In this hydrogen fuel-cell schematic, oxygen from the air reacts with
hydrogen, producing water and electricity.© 1999-2020, Rice
University. Except where otherwise noted, content created on this site is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

As fuel cells are not common for small satellites yet, we will
not delve deeply into the equations for developing and sizing
your own fuel cell. If interested, refer to these useful fuel cell
equations that relate to oxygen usage rate, air inlet flow rate,
air exit flow rate, hydrogen usage, and the energy content of
hydrogen, rate of water production, heat production [Wiley].
The stoichiometric reaction formulas yield the electrical power
of the whole fuel cell stack and the average voltage of each cell
in the stack. Voltage is typically 0.6 – 0.7 V per cell; 0.65V
is a safe assumption when voltage is not explicitly given. The
electrical power is either a given or estimated specification that
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 731

is the most basic and important information about a fuel cell

system. For reference, an experimental fuel cell from the
University of Illinois that is based on hydrogen peroxide rather
than water has demonstrated an energy density of over 1000
Whkg-1 with a theoretical limit of over 2580 Whkg-1, less than
half the theoretical limit [SmallSat Institute]! The maximum
theoretical efficiency of a complete fuel cell system based on
a lower heating value of hydrogen is 228.6 kJ/mole ∕ 241.8
kJ/mole or 94.5% [NREL]. You can see that the technology
development for fuel cells for space has a long way to go and
might be an exciting technology mission for CubeSats. I would
highly suggest diving deep into the other references and taking
courses in chemical engineering if this technology piques your
interest.

Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies. Courtesy of Department of

Energy.
732 • FRANCES ZHU

Capacitors

Schematic illustration of a supercapacitor. CC BY-SA 4.0. Image

courtesy of AVS.

On the other side of the extreme on the Ragone plot is the

capacitor, which supplies high power at high-energy efficiency
but has low energy density. For comparison, lithium-ion cells
have an energy density of 150 Wh/kg and super-capacitors have
between 5 – 30 Wh/kg [Underwood]. The difference between
capacitors and batteries is that capacitors store energy in an
electric field on conductive plates and batteries store energy in
chemical form.

Capacitors can act as a consumable power source when charged

and connected to a load, but also as an energy storage option
when connected to a charging circuit. “Capacitors are commonly
used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 733

batteries are being changed” [Wikipedia]. Taking advantage of

the capacitor’s high current discharge, capacitors may also be
used to power ordnance devices, separation mechanisms, or
deployers. For power conditioning to be discussed in the power
management section, capacitors can “smooth current
fluctuations for signal or control circuits” [Wikipedia]. With the
rise of small satellites, these capacitors may satisfy the minimal
energy and power requirements of a spacecraft the size of a
cracker [ChipSat].

2011 ChipSat Labeled Design.Copyright © 2011 by Zachary

Manchester. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., with permission.

Primary Batteries

Suggested Reading
734 • FRANCES ZHU

• Batteries and Fuel Cells in Space

Batteries operate by converting chemical potential energy to

electrical energy. “Batteries powering satellites or spacecraft
must be rugged enough to withstand the severe vibrations of
launch. Once the craft is deployed, these batteries must operate
in extreme conditions of heat and cold and solar radiation. And,
they need to work in a vacuum without leaking or exploding.
There are many types of batteries: carbon-zinc, lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, nickel-hydrogen, silver zinc, alkaline, and
lithium-ion to name a few” [NASA]. There are two types of
batteries: primary and secondary; secondary batteries will be
discussed in the power storage section. Primary batteries are
single-use and disposable, storing a finite amount of energy
and discharging until energy can not be withdrawn. Although
consumable, primary batteries are typically higher in energy
density, which may be preferred for short space mission
lifetimes for their reliability and simplicity. These batteries were
used before solar panels were widely adopted and are still
commonly used to power small probes sent to the surface of
planetary bodies [Wikipedia]. The most recent mission to use
primary batteries is MASCOT, a scientific asteroid-hopping
rover deployed by Hayabusa2. You can see that MASCOT is
a tiny scientific, self-contained package with no deployable
mechanisms; a short and sweet mission powered by primary
batteries.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 735

Left: Illustration of MASCOT separating from Hayabusa2. Right:

Illustration of MASCOT landing on the surface of Ryugu. Image by
JAXA

Primary batteries are evaluated by their energy density,

discharge rate, and temperature limits. For all primary and
secondary batteries, “important cell properties, such as voltage,
energy density, flammability, available cell constructions,
operating temperature range and shelf life”, which is dictated by
battery chemical compositions. When sizing the primary battery,
the EPS system lead must consider that the primary battery
contains the entire energy budget of the mission, unless there is
another power source. Based on the power budget, the primary
battery must be able to output power associated with a minimum
discharge rate. The battery must also be operational or thermally
regulated to survive the thermal environment throughout the
mission.
736 • FRANCES ZHU

Battery Terminology

• Ampere-hour (Ah) – TOTAL

CAPACITY OF BATTERY (e.g. 40
Amps for 1 hr = 40 Ah)
• Depth of discharge (DOD) – percent of
battery capacity used in discharge (75%
DOD means 25% capacity remaining,
DOD usually limited for long cycle life)
• % DOD =

◦ WhLoad= Watt hours

delivered to load = (Load in
Watts) x (Duration in hours)
◦ C = Capacity of battery in
amp-hours
◦ = Average battery
discharge voltage
• For long cycle life, DOD may be
limited to 50% to 75%
• Watt-hours – stored energy of the
battery, equal to Ah capacity times
average discharge voltage
• Charge rate – rate Ah which battery
can accept a charge. Rule of thumb =
Capacity (Ah)/15 hr
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 737

• Average discharge voltage – number

of cells times cell discharge voltage (1.25
V for most cells)

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738 • FRANCES ZHU

5.7 Rechargeable Power Sources

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Secondary Batteries

EMU batteries are composed of numerous, individual Li-Ion cells,

packaged in a brick fashion. Image courtesy of NASA.

Secondary batteries are by far the most common energy storage

738
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 739

option for spacecraft. Secondary batteries are rechargeable and

commonly paired with a power generation source, like solar
cells. The most common batteries currently used in space flight
are nick-cadmium (NI-Cad) and with the rise in CubeSats,
lithium polymer (Li-pol) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries
[NASA, Knap]. A battery module is pictured in the figure above,
composed of many individual battery cells connected in series to
achieve a defined power, energy capacity, and voltage.

Chemical Short
Full Name Characteristics
Abbreviation Name

Lithium Low cost, high discharge rate

manganese LiMn2O4 LMO capability, good safety, low
oxide specific energy.

Low cost, high specific

Lithium
energy, good discharge rate
manganese LiNiMnCoO2 NMC
capability, low resistance,
nickel
good safety.

Lithium
The highest specific energy
nickel
and cycle life, lower
cobalt LiNiCoAlO2 NCA
discharge rate capability,
aluminum
good safety.
oxide

Lithium
nickel
LiNiCoO2 NCO Rarely used
cobalt
oxide

Lithium Expensive, low specific

cobalt LiCoO2 LCO energy, lower discharge rate
oxide capability, poor safety.

Lithium Highest discharge rate

iron LiFePO4 LFP capability, low specific
phosphate energy, excellent safety.
740 • FRANCES ZHU

Secondary batteries are evaluated and selected by their energy

density, discharge rate, allowable depth of discharge, cycle life,
and temperature limits.

• To achieve the necessary power storage requirements

for the whole mission lifetime, we need to pay
attention to energy density or total energy storage
capacity, dictated by the choice of material and the
number of cells. Energy density degrades so be sure
to add margin when sizing the batteries.

• A battery’s required discharge rate is dictated by the

maximum instantaneous power draw of the spacecraft
bus during its most demanding phase, a quantity
derived from a power budget and profiling.

• A battery’s depth of discharge is dictated by the

maximum sustained energy consumption of the
spacecraft bus during the phase that draws the most
power over the longest period (power * time), a
quantity also derived from a power budget and
profiling.

• A battery’s cycle life is dictated by the concept of

operations and mission objectives by answering the
question: how many orbital periods, associated with
charging and discharging cycles, are proposed in the
concept of operations to fulfill the mission
objectives?

• As batteries have the strictest operational temperature

limits, batteries typically create a thermal requirement
that the structures and thermal subsystem leads must
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 741

design around. The EPS lead can help these other

subsystem leads by considering batteries with the
widest temperature range so that the other subsystem
leads need to adhere to a more forgiving requirement.

Energy density degrades over time due to several factors:

internal physical changes or corrosion, fast discharging,
overcharging, environmental conditions (vibration, shock,
temperature), and storage. Degradation will always exist but best
practices may minimize the amount of total degradation.

• Batteries naturally discharge when not in use, called

self-discharge. Secondary batteries typically self-
discharge faster than primary batteries. To mitigate
the effects of self-discharge, we can store batteries in
refrigerators or freezers, slowing the uncontrollable
internal processes.
742 • FRANCES ZHU

This graph shows typical self-discharge rates for a Lithium-Ion battery.

Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd.

• To mitigate degradation due to fast discharging, we

can size our battery module such that the necessary
power draw is limited in discharge rate.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 743

The discharge curves for a Lithium-Ion cell below show that the
effective capacity of the cell is reduced if the cell is discharged at very
high rates (or conversely increased with low discharge rates). This is
called the capacity offset and the effect is common to most cell
chemistries. Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd.

• Environmental conditions may be regulated with a

structural dampening or thermal control to minimize
the vibration, shock, or extreme temperature
exposure.
744 • FRANCES ZHU

At the lower extreme, in batteries with aqueous electrolytes, the

electrolyte itself may freeze setting a lower limit on the operating
temperature. At low temperatures, Lithium batteries suffer from Lithium
plating of the anode causing a permanent reduction in capacity. At the
upper extreme the active chemicals may break down destroying the
battery. In between these limits the cell performance generally improves
with temperature. Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd
(mpoweruk.com)

A battery’s state of charge, or percent of total capacity

discharged, can be estimated by measuring the voltage of the
cell. We want to predict the state of charge of a battery to ensure
that we do not fully discharge the battery and impart permanent
damage to the battery cell. The voltage may be read by Analog-
to-Digital converters on the onboard computer or battery board.
For lithium-ion batteries, the voltage for a significant portion
while discharging can read the same voltage level, which makes
determining the true capacity difficult and potentially inaccurate.
The danger for lithium batteries is not protecting the battery
from discharging until the rapid fall in cell voltage upon
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 745

complete discharge of the battery, dramatically shortening the

cycle life of the battery. Other methods for estimating the state
of charge are based upon current, internal impedance, specific
gravity, etc. Estimating the state of charge is very difficult due to
but not limited to nonlinearity to voltage, hysteresis, or memory
effects due to the previous cycling, variation to temperature,
and on. Today, algorithms for estimating the state of charge are
state-of-the-art research, utilizing advanced techniques such as
machine learning techniques [Hannah et al.].
746 • FRANCES ZHU

The X-axis shows the cell characteristics normalized as a percentage of

cell capacity so that the shape of the graph can be shown independently
of the actual cell capacity. If the X-axis was based on discharge time, the
length of each discharge curve would be proportional to the nominal
capacity of the cell. Copyright © Woodbank Communications Ltd.

Battery Sizing

To size the battery, we must consider the total capacity, total

system load, duration, DOD, and average voltage. To calculate
the total capacity of the battery, the formula follows:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 747

The load and duration are determined from the spacecraft system
power budget and profile. The DOD and average voltage are
taken from the battery specifications.

Artemis Kit Specific

748 • FRANCES ZHU

• Each cycle is an interval between the

charge (charge current 1,020mA) with
100mA cut-off and the discharge
(discharge current 3,400mA) with 2.65V
cut-off. Capacity after 500cycles.
• Capacity ≥ 2,010mAh (60% of
Standard Capacity)

• To achieve the necessary power storage requirements

for the whole mission lifetime, we need to pay
attention to energy density or total energy storage
capacity, dictated by the choice of material and the
number of cells. Energy density degrades so be sure
to add margin when sizing the batteries.

• A battery’s required discharge rate is dictated by the

maximum instantaneous power draw of the spacecraft
bus during its most demanding phase, a quantity
derived from a power budget and profiling.

◦ Talk about the Initial startup, takes 16.05 W

but how long?

• A battery’s depth of discharge is dictated by the

maximum sustained energy consumption of the
spacecraft bus during the phase that draws the most
power over the longest period (power * time), a
quantity also derived from a power budget and
profiling.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 749

◦ Talk about the Data Transmit mode, which

takes 3.29 W for 4 minutes
• A battery’s cycle life is dictated by the concept of
operations and mission objectives by answering the
question: how many orbital periods, associated with
charging and discharging cycles, are proposed in the
concept of operations to fulfill the mission
objectives?

• As batteries have the strictest operational temperature

limits, batteries typically create a thermal requirement
that the structures and thermal subsystem leads must
design around. The EPS lead can help these other
subsystem leads by considering batteries with the
widest temperature range so that the other subsystem
leads need to adhere to a more forgiving requirement.

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis Battery Sizing

To determine the number of battery cells that must

be in the spacecraft, we must define the maximum
load and duration from the spacecraft system power
budget and profile, and the DOD and average voltage
are from the battery specifications.
750 • FRANCES ZHU

• The maximum load of the Artemis

CubeSat occurs during the Data Transmit
mode at 3.29 W.
• The duration of this mode lasts for 4
minutes.
• The DOD from the selected battery is
conservatively 50%.
• The average, nominal voltage is 3.6
Volts.
• Total Capacity Requirement = (3.29 W
* 0.0666 hr) / ( 0.5 * 3.6 V ) = 0.122
Amp-hr
• Battery Capacity Requirement = 0.122
Amp-hr * 3.6 V = 0.438 W-hr
• A single battery cell offers 3.35 Amp-
hr, more than satisfying the total capacity
requirement. Additionally, the Artemis
CubeSat Kit offers 4 cells in the battery
pack to accommodate more power-
hungry payloads.

Flywheel Energy Storage

Flywheels are rotors that rotate at a very high speed and maintain
energy as mechanical, rotational energy. The kinetic energy of
the rotor can be converted into electrical energy in which the
rotor’s speed decreases but surplus electrical energy can be
stored back into the rotor as mechanical energy for further use.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 751

The rotors are suspended by magnetic bearings and encased

in a vacuum to reduce energy loss to friction. State-of-the-art
research involves cooling superconductors and levitating magnet
rotors as a way to achieve a frictionless bearing to reduce
bearing losses and the complexity of traditional flywheel storage
systems [Andrare].

The main components of a typical flywheel By Pjrensburg License: CC

BY-SA 3.0.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=395
752 • FRANCES ZHU

5.8 Power Management and

Distribution

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=397#oembed-1

Created by Dr. Frankie Zhu of HSFL.

For the power generation and storage components to supply

power to the components, the electrical power system must
regulate the voltage and current to accommodate each

752
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 753

component’s specifications. The spacecraft power generation

technology has the option to directly distribute power to the
spacecraft subsystems components or to store energy and
distribute power from the energy storage technology. Either way,
the power must go through power conversion, management, and
distribution.

ISS Electrical Power Distribution. Author: NASA. License: Public

Domain. Image courtesy of Boeing.

The power conversion, management, and distribution

technology is the interfacing technology between the power
source and the spacecraft subsystem components. These
interfaces contribute to the EPS design requirements. The power
conversion, management, and distribution technology usually
reside on a centralized power distribution board that acts as this
interface. On this board, common components include voltage
regulators, current limiters, switches, shunts, and converters.
Source control components include shunt regulators, series
regulators, and shorting switch arrays. Power conditioning
754 • FRANCES ZHU

components include DC-DC converters, DC-AC inverters, and

regulators. Energy storage control components include chargers
and regulators. A schematic diagram of the electrical power
system assists systems engineers and EPS specialists in
graphically depicting the interfaces and detailing relevant
information; a schematic of the International Space Station EPS
architecture is shown in the figure above. You’ll see the end
nodes are power sources and the components running along the
power lines are power conversion, management, or distribution
components with a collection of these components composing
a printed circuit board. For large spacecraft, one must consider
that DC voltage is typically supplied at 28V (heritage from
aircraft) and long harnesses experience resistive power loss,
which must be accounted for.

When designing the power conversion, management, and

distribution (PDU in short) subsystem, you’re designing the
interfaces between the power consumers, power generators, and
energy storage components. The spacecraft PDU is likely going
to be custom designed for the unique configuration of the
payload and spacecraft bus components. The circuit design of
the PDU will likely necessitate printed circuit board design
software, like KiCAD or Eagle, schematic diagrams that display
the interfaces, and circuit design domain knowledge. Here are
some best practices when designing the PDU:

• DC switching – as a goal switches or relays should be

in a positive line. The negative wire should be
connected to the ground.

• ARC suppression – as near as possible to the source

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 755

of ARC

• Modular construction desirable

• Grounding – ground cable preferable to ground via
structure

• Maintain continuity between structural elements,

thermal blankets, etc

• Maintain shield continuity, single shield ground point

desirable

• Don’t overcomplicate
756 • FRANCES ZHU

Integrated Power Systems

Integrated power systems: a) energy storage as a sole power source, b)

power generation as a sole power source, requiring power conversion, c)
power generation and energy storage as complementary power sources,
requiring more complex power conversion, management, and
distribution. Created by Dr. Frankie Zhu of HSFL.

In the previous sections, we’ve discussed design drivers for

power consumption, individual technologies for power
generation and energy storage, and the design process for the
PDU. This section will discuss the various configurations for
integrated power systems and the design considerations for
which configuration to use for characteristics missions. The
various configurations are shown in increasing complexity.

As discussed briefly in the energy storage section, missions

that rely solely on energy storage as the power source have
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 757

finite lifetimes that count down once the power source is tapped
into. This integrated power system, particularly the power
management and distribution system, is typically simpler as the
discharge power supplied to the spacecraft bus is predictable;
more specifically, discharge voltage follows a known curve,
and discharge current is constant. Discharge relies only on the
energy storage system that is embedded in the spacecraft, which
was readily available for testing on the ground prior to launch.
Although RTGs were mentioned in the power generation
section, RTGs are essentially nuclear batteries. Their power
output and characteristics mimic the behavior of a battery,
producing nearly constant power.

Different charge /discharge behavior of supercapacitors and

rechargeable batteries. Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public
Domain Dedication. Image by Lade Entladekurve Vergleich.

For an integrated power system that relies solely on a power

758 • FRANCES ZHU

generation source, the system must also incorporate a power

conversion system, “such as converting between AC and DC;
or changing the voltage or frequency; or some combination
of these” [Wikipedia]. Solar cell arrays vary in power output
depending on the visibility and intensity of the sun. This high
power generation variability channeled directly to the power
distribution and management system can overload the circuit
and cause some catastrophic electrical failures, potentially
damaging other hardware. The use of solar cell arrays solely to
power spacecraft is very rare [KickSat] because if the spacecraft
enters eclipse, the spacecraft is in danger of powering off and
never turning back on. There must exist a power source during
an eclipse to keep the current flowing through the electrical
power system. These conditions also apply to the thermal power
generation methods.

Suggested Reading

Comparison of the Incident Solar Energy and

Battery Storage in a 3U CubeSat Satellite for
Different Orientation Scenarios
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 759

Breakdown of orbit related to eclipse for a CubeSat satellite. Creative

Commons License. Authors: Sergio Sanchez-Sanjuan, Jesus
Gonzalez-Llorente, Ronald Hurtado-Velasco.This is an Open Access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium provided the original work is properly cited.

The most common integrated power system configuration

includes both a power generation source and energy storage
for sustained, reliable access to power. The power conversion,
management, and distribution design will be more complex but
this configuration allows for more capabilities. The regenerative
power enables longer mission lifetimes, enabling end-of-mission
extended goals. The energy storage provides robustness to
eclipse and anomalies in power generation. The most common
pair of technologies is the solar cell and secondary battery,
which is the Artemis CubeSat kit’s configuration.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=397
760 • FRANCES ZHU

5.9 Power Budget and Profiling

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=399#oembed-1

To keep track of power consumption and generation, the EPS

subsystem lead can generate a power budget and mission profile.
This analysis will evaluate if the power generation and power
storage are sufficient to support the mission. If not, a new power
generation and/or storage system is selected and reanalyzed to
verify requirement satisfaction.

1. Define the mission’s concept of operations and time

in each phase,

760
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 761

Time Since Time in

Operational Mode
Deployment Phase

60
i. Initial Checkouts 30 minutes
minutes

30
ii. Initial Deployment 1.5 hours
minutes

90
iii. Sun Pointing/ Spacecraft Charging 2 hours
minutes

30
iv. Science Operations 3.5 hours
minutes

30
v. Radio Pointing 4 hours
minutes

120
vi. Sun Pointing/ Spacecraft Charging 4.5 hours
minutes

Return to iv and iterate science operations

loop until the mission is fulfilled

2. Define discrete modes of operations where different subsets

of avionics are on or off,
762 • FRANCES ZHU

Subsystems > Attitude

Command Stru
Sensing Thermal
Payload Communications and Data and
Mode v and Control
Handling Me
Control

Initial
Off On On On Off Off
Checkouts

Initial
Off Off Off On Off On
Deployment

Science
On On Off On Off Off
Operations

Radio pointing/
data uplink and Off On On On Off Off
downlink

Sun pointing/
spacecraft Off On Off On On Off
charging

Stationkeeping/
Orbit Off On Off On Off Off
adjustment

3. Define the subsystem components, which subsequently

defines each component’s voltage, current, peak power draw,
and average power draw
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 763

Peak Average
Subsystem Component Voltage Current power power
draw draw

Payload

Structure and Deployment

Mechanisms Mechanisms

Thermal Temperature
Control Sensor

Heater

Power
(including Battery
harness)

Telemetry and
Receiver
Control

Transmitter

Command
On-Board
and Data
Computer
Handling

Daughter
Boards

Attitude Inertial
Determination Measurement
and Control Unit

Torque Coils

4. Summarize the average power draw for each mode by

summing the individual power draw of each component in each
mode
764 • FRANCES ZHU

Radio
pointing/
Initial Initial Science data
Subsystem Component
Checkouts Deployment Operations uplink
and
downlink

Payload

Structure and Deployment

Mechanisms Mechanisms

Thermal Temperature
Control Sensor

Heater

Power
(including Battery
harness)

Telemetry and
Receiver
Control

Transmitter

Command
On-Board
and Data
Computer
Handling

Daughter
Boards

Attitude Inertial
Determination Measurement
and Control Unit

Torque Coils

Average
Power during
Mode

5. Derive the power generation profile over time of an orbit

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 765

using your solar cell specifications, orbit-defined solar

irradiance, and incident angles over time or STK. The following
power profile is an example profile taken from STK with default
solar cell specification for a 1U CubeSat surface area in ISS
orbit.
766 • FRANCES ZHU

Time (min) Power Generated (W)

0 3.004166667

1 2.9665

2 2.728

3 3.142666667

4 2.627333333

5 2.941833333

6 2.902833333

7 2.665333333

8 3.159833333

9 2.6665

10 3.014833333

11 2.9365

12 2.726

13 3.009833333

14 2.641166667

15 2.978833333

16 2.870833333

17 2.7025

18 3.244333333

19 2.641333333

20 2.897

21 2.921333333

22 2.6825
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 767

23 3.0465

24 2.675333333

25 3.018166667

26 2.967166667

27 2.726333333

28 3.126666667

29 2.623333333

30 2.940166667

31 2.8825

32 0.3241666667

33 0

34 0

35 0

36 0

37 0

38 0

39 0

40 0

41 0

42 0

43 0

44 0

45 0

46 0
768 • FRANCES ZHU

47 0

48 0

49 0

50 0

51 0

52 0

53 0

54 0

55 0

56 0

57 0

58 0

59 0

60 0

61 0

62 0

63 0

64 0

65 0

66 1.005166667

67 2.711333333

68 3.2025

69 2.631833333

70 2.9205
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 769

71 2.8985

72 2.6745

73 3.104

74 2.691333333

75 3.042333333

76 2.942

77 2.7195

78 3.071666667

79 2.634

80 2.976

81 2.8585

82 2.690333333

83 3.237666667

84 2.669

85 2.923166667

86 2.914833333

87 2.700333333

88 2.9925

89 2.678666667

90 3.003166667

6. Fill in the power profile with the modes throughout mission

time, power consumption associated with each mode, and the
integrated energy storage
770 • FRANCES ZHU

Orbit Time Energy Used Energy Energy Balance

Mode
Number (min) (Wh) Generated (Wh) (Wh)

Power
1 0 0 0.05006944444 0.05006944444
Generation

Power
1 1 0 0.04944166667 0.04944166667
Generation

Power
1 2 0 0.04546666667 0.04546666667
Generation

Power
1 3 0 0.05237777778 0.05237777778
Generation

Power
1 4 0 0.04378888889 0.04378888889
Generation

Power
1 5 0 0.04903055556 0.04903055556
Generation

Power
1 6 0 0.04838055556 0.04838055556
Generation

Power
1 7 0 0.04442222222 0.04442222222
Generation

Power
1 8 0 0.05266388889 0.05266388889
Generation

Power
1 9 0 0.04444166667 0.04444166667
Generation

Power
1 10 0 0.05024722222 0.05024722222
Generation

Power
1 11 0 0.04894166667 0.04894166667
Generation

Power
1 12 0 0.04543333333 0.04543333333
Generation

Power
1 13 0 0.05016388889 0.05016388889
Generation
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 771

Power
1 14 0 0.04401944444 0.04401944444
Generation

Power
1 15 0 0.04964722222 0.04964722222
Generation

Power
1 16 0 0.04784722222 0.04784722222
Generation

Power
1 17 0 0.04504166667 0.04504166667
Generation

Power
1 18 0 0.05407222222 0.05407222222
Generation

Power
1 19 0 0.04402222222 0.04402222222
Generation

Power
1 20 0 0.04828333333 0.04828333333
Generation

Power
1 21 0 0.04868888889 0.04868888889
Generation

Power
1 22 0 0.04470833333 0.04470833333
Generation

Power
1 23 0 0.050775 0.050775
Generation

Power
1 24 0 0.04458888889 0.04458888889
Generation

Power
1 25 0 0.05030277778 0.05030277778
Generation

Power
1 26 0 0.04945277778 0.04945277778
Generation

Power
1 27 0 0.04543888889 0.04543888889
Generation

Power
1 28 0 0.05211111111 0.05211111111
Generation
772 • FRANCES ZHU

Power
1 29 0 0.04372222222 0.04372222222
Generation

1 30 Pointing 0 0.04900277778 0.04900277778

Data
1 31 0.04762060333 0.04804166667 0.000421063333
Collect

Data
1 32 0.04896559333 0.005402777778 -0.04356281556
Received

Data
1 33 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit

Data
1 34 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit

Data
1 35 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit

Data
1 36 0.05491559333 0 -0.05491559333
Transmit

1 37 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 38 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 39 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 40 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 41 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 42 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 43 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 44 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 45 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 46 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 47 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 48 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 773

1 49 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 50 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 51 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 52 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 53 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 54 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 55 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 56 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 57 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 58 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 59 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 60 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 61 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 62 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 63 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 64 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

1 65 Nominal 0.01072893667 0 -0.01072893667

Power
1 66 0 0.01675277778 0.01675277778
Generation

Power
1 67 0 0.04518888889 0.04518888889
Generation

Power
1 68 0 0.053375 0.053375
Generation

Power
1 69 0 0.04386388889 0.04386388889
Generation
774 • FRANCES ZHU

Power
1 70 0 0.048675 0.048675
Generation

Power
1 71 0 0.04830833333 0.04830833333
Generation

Power
1 72 0 0.044575 0.044575
Generation

Power
1 73 0 0.05173333333 0.05173333333
Generation

Power
1 74 0 0.04485555556 0.04485555556
Generation

Power
1 75 0 0.05070555556 0.05070555556
Generation

Power
1 76 0 0.04903333333 0.04903333333
Generation

Power
1 77 0 0.045325 0.045325
Generation

Power
1 78 0 0.05119444444 0.05119444444
Generation

Power
1 79 0 0.0439 0.0439
Generation

Power
1 80 0 0.0496 0.0496
Generation

Power
1 81 0 0.04764166667 0.04764166667
Generation

Power
1 82 0 0.04483888889 0.04483888889
Generation

Power
1 83 0 0.05396111111 0.05396111111
Generation

Power
1 84 0 0.04448333333 0.04448333333
Generation
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 775

Power
1 85 0 0.04871944444 0.04871944444
Generation

Power
1 86 0 0.04858055556 0.04858055556
Generation

Power
1 87 0 0.04500555556 0.04500555556
Generation

Power
1 88 0 0.049875 0.049875
Generation

Power
1 89 0 0.04464444444 0.04464444444
Generation

From this analysis, we see that the battery capacity over the
orbit returns back to full charge, verifying that the spacecraft
is sufficiently supported by the electrical power system. If the
battery charge slowly drains every orbit, the EPS specialist must
find a power generation technology that produces more power,
or the systems engineer must modify the mission operations
timeline to spend longer periods in power generation mode. If
the power budget reveals a large surplus of power that’s just
being shunted or risks overcharging the battery, the systems
engineer may decide to utilize that surplus energy by powering
other operations or scaling down the power generation
technology to save on mass.

Suggested Activity

• Produce a power budget and profile

776 • FRANCES ZHU

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=399
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 777

5.10 Electrical Power System

Design Tools

authored by Amber Imai-Hong

Other than basic office software (like Microsoft Excel or Google

sheets), you will likely need other software to create schematic
diagrams and printed circuit board designs. Schematic diagrams
are generally good for systems engineers who need to
graphically depict connections between various subsystems, but
an electrical power system lead needs schematic diagrams to

1. Refine a conceptual design and selection of components to a

closer representation of the as-built hardware, revealing crucial
interfaces and

2. Define the routing of power and signal lines and the

placement of PDU components. From schematic diagrams, we
can create an electrical harness plan if needed. Schematics are
helpful tools for carefully planning and reviewing circuit
designs. A good, well-organized schematic includes design

777
778 • FRANCES ZHU

blocks for more complex circuits included on the board, and is

well labeled and documented.

These two levels of refinement lead to printed circuit board

design: the technical manifestation of a schematic diagram to
move the design closer to fabrication. The printed circuit board
design is the CAD equivalent for electronics: placing
components on a physical layout and connecting traces between
components. Designing printed circuit board designs is typically
reserved for electrical engineers or advanced technicians as the
process is tedious and initially inaccessible due to a steep
learning curve. Student teams generally minimize custom circuit
design by using plug-and-play components for simplicity and
more fool-proof integration but at the expense of suboptimal
EPS design. This section will attempt to expose you to these
software programs in the context of spacecraft design.

Schematic Diagram Software

• https://www.digikey.com/schemeit/design-starters/

• https://www.altium.com/solution/free-schematic-
capture-software

• https://www.schematics.com/

• https://skycad.ca/features.php

• https://circuit-diagramz.com/free-electrical-
schematic-diagram-software/
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 779

Printed Circuit Board Design Software

• https://www.electronics-lab.com/top-10-free-pcb-
design-software-2019/

Integrated Schematic and PCB Design Software

Most engineers use integrated Schematic and PCB design

software to design PCBs. This allows the designer to design the
schematic and layout the PCB in the same tool and links the
parts and traces. This is helpful to ensure that no parts or traces
get lost as the board design is linked to the schematic. More
premium software packages also allow the designer to analyze
the circuit for noise, power filtering, and radio frequency
interference. Some of the listed software packages are free to
use, some are free for students, and others are professional
software available for purchase.

• https://www.electroschematics.com/pcb-design-
software/

• https://www.circuitstoday.com/electronics-circuit-
drawing-softwares

• https://www.altium.com/

• https://kicad.org/download/

• https://www.autodesk.com/products/eagle/free-
download

• https://www.4pcb.com/free-pcb-layout-software

KiCAD and PCB Artist are free to use for everyone. Eagle is
free for students with an educational email address, or an email
780 • FRANCES ZHU

ending with “.edu” or the K12 equivalent. A very limited version

is available for free to hobbyists working on small projects, and
the full version license is available for purchase.

PCB Artist is a basic integrated schematic to PCB design

software that is great for beginners provided by Advanced
Circuits, a PCB manufacturer and assembly facility. PCB Artist
makes it very easy to output Gerber files for board
manufacturing if purchasing through Advanced Circuits. It lacks
some of the simulation features that Eagle has, however, for
most student projects it is sufficient. KiCAD and Eagle are more
complex software packages with added functionality. Due to the
added functionality, Eagle and KiCAD have a slightly higher
learning curve, however, PCB Artist, Eagle, and KiCAD have
great tutorials online to help facilitate learning the software.
Eagle is one of the industry-standard software packages for
board design, and most functions work great. This is not true for
auto-routing, don’t do it!

Altium is a high-end board design software package, with many

features including simulation and auto-routing. This is helpful
for complex boards with 8 or more layers and noise-sensitive
components. Altium is also an industry-standard software
package, however, many of the functions are not needed for a
student-level project.

Summary

In summary, the procedure to design the electrical power system

is to:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 781

1. Define the power consumption and electrical

characteristics of the spacecraft bus components
2. Define the necessary power generation and energy
storage required to fulfill the power consumption
requirements

3. Select the power generation and energy storage

methods

4. Analyze the system’s power budget and profile from

the beginning of the mission to the end of the mission
to ensure the selected components are sufficient to
supply power

5. Design a power conversion, management, and

distribution subsystem to interface the power sources
and power consumers

6. Procure and fabricate components

7. Conduct tests on isolated components

8. Conduct tests on integrated components

Reference Documents

Launch Services Program Level Dispenser and

CubeSat Requirements Document [NASA LSP-
REQ-317.01]
Electronic systems will be designed with the
782 • FRANCES ZHU

following safety features. These specifications are

applicable to all dispensers.
2.3.1 To prevent CubeSat from activating
any powered functions, the CubeSat power
system shall be at a power-off state from the
time of delivery to the LV through on-orbit
deployment.
2.3.1.1 Note: CubeSat powered
function includes a variety of
subsystems such as C&DH, RF
Communication, ADC, deployable
mechanism actuation. CubeSat power
systems include all battery assemblies
and solar cells.
2.3.1.2 Powered-on battery protection
circuitry may be permitted per
specification 2.3.6.
2.3.2 The CubeSat shall have, at a
minimum, one deployment switch, which is
actuated while integrated into the dispenser.
2.3.2.1 In the actuated state, the
CubeSat deployment switch shall
electrically disconnect the power system
from the powered functions.
2.3.2.2 The deployment switch shall
be in the actuated state at all times while
integrated into the dispenser.
2.3.2.3 In the actuated state, the
CubeSat deployment switch should be at
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 783

or below the level of any external

surface that interfaces with the dispenser
or neighboring CubeSat. This ensures
that the switch will not damage or
interfere with the contacting surface.
2.3.2.4 If the CubeSat deployment
switch toggles from the actuated state
and back, the satellite shall reset to a
pre-launch state, including reset of
transmission and deployable timers.
2.3.3 Real-Time Clocks (RTC) may be
permitted if they satisfy requirements 2.3.2.1
through
2.3.3.1 RTC circuits shall be isolated
from CubeSat’s main power system.
2.3.3.2 RTC frequencies shall be less
than 320 kHz.
2.3.3.3 RTC circuits shall be current
that is limited to less than 10 mA.
2.3.4 The RBF pin and all CubeSat
umbilical connectors shall be within the
designated access port locations if available on
the CubeSat’s dispenser. Please contact the
manufacturer for specific charging and
diagnostic port locations and procedures.
2.3.4.1 Note: Some dispensers do not
have access ports, therefore the RBF
must be removed before insertion into
the dispenser. It is advised that the
784 • FRANCES ZHU

CubeSat developer takes this possibility

into account when designing the power-
on and boot-up sequence.
2.3.5 The CubeSat shall include an RBF pin,
which cuts all power to the satellite once it is
inserted into the satellite.
2.3.5.1 Access to the CubeSat is not
guaranteed during or after integration.
The RBF pin shall be removed from the
CubeSat before integration into the
dispenser if the dispenser does not have
access ports.
2.3.5.2 The RBF pin shall protrude no
more than 6.5 mm from the CubeSat rail
surface when it is fully inserted into the
satellite.
2.3.6 CubeSats shall incorporate battery
circuit protection for charging/discharging to
avoid unbalanced cell conditions. Additional
manufacturer documentation and/or testing
will be required for modified, customized, or
non-UL-listed cells.
2.3.7 The CubeSat shall have at least three
independent RF inhibits to prohibit inadvertent
RF transmission.
2.3.7.1 Note: An inhibit is a physical
device between a power source and a
hazard.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 785

2.3.7.2 Note: A timer is not

considered an independent inhibit.
2.3.7.3 Note: Some launch vehicle
providers will only require one or two
independent inhibits depending on the
CubeSat’s RF power output. However,
the use of three independent inhibits is
highly recommended and can reduce
required documentation and analyses.
2.3.8 The CubeSat shall have at least three
independent inhibits to prohibit the inadvertent
release of any deployable structures such as
antennas or solar panels.

Reference Documents

Electrical Requirements Excerpt from NanoRacks

External CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface
Definition Document (IDD) [NR-NRCSD-S0004]

CubeSat electronic system designs shall adhere to

the following requirements.
4.2.1 Electrical System Design and Inhibits
786 • FRANCES ZHU

1) All electrical power storage devices shall

be internal to the CubeSat.
2) To minimize hazard potential, the
CubeSat shall not operate any system
(including RF transmitters, deployment
mechanisms or otherwise energize the main
power system) for a minimum of 30 minutes
after deployment. Satellites shall have a timer
(set to a minimum of 30 minutes and requiring
appropriate fault tolerance) before satellite
operation or deployment of appendages.
3) The CubeSat electrical system design
shall incorporate a minimum of three (3)
independent inhibit switches actuated by
physical deployment switches as shown in
Figure 4.2.1-1. The satellite inhibits scheme
shall include a ground leg inhibit (switch D3 in
Figure 4.2.1-1) that disconnects the batteries
along the power line from the negative
terminal to the ground. Note: This requirement
considers an inhibit as a power interrupt
device, and control for an inhibit (electrical or
software) cannot be counted as an inhibitor or
a power interrupt device. The requirement for
three (3) inhibits is based on the worst-case
assumption that the CubeSat contains a
potentially catastrophic hazard that exists in
the event of an inadvertent power-up while
inside the NRCSD-E. However, the electrical
system design shall incorporate an appropriate
number of inhibits dictated by the hazard
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 787

potential of the payload. If this requirement

cannot be met, a hazard assessment can be
conducted by NanoRacks to determine if an
exception can be granted and documented in
the unique payload ICA.
4) The CubeSat electrical system design
shall not permit the ground charge circuit to
energize the satellite systems (load), including
flight computers (see Figure 4.2.1-1). This
restriction applies to all charging methods.
5) The CubeSat shall have a remove before
flight (RBF) feature or an application before
flight (ABF) feature that keeps the satellite in
an unpowered state throughout the ground
handling and integration process into the
NRCSD-E. Note: The RBF pin is required in
addition to the three (3) inhibit switches. See
Section 4.1.2 for details on mechanical access
while the payload is inside the NRCSD-E.
6) The RBF/ABF feature shall preclude any
power from any source operating any satellite
functions with the exception of pre-integration
battery charging.
4.2.2 Electrical System Interfaces

1. There shall be no electrical or data

interfaces between the CubeSat and the
NRCSD-E. As outlined in Section 4.2,
the CubeSat shall be completely inhibited
while inside the NRCSD-E.
788 • FRANCES ZHU

4.4.7 Batteries
All cells and batteries on the CubeSat shall adhere
to the design and testing requirements for spacecraft
flight onboard or near the ISS as derived from the
NASA requirement document JSC 20793 Crewed
Space Vehicle Battery Safety Requirements. Specific
provisions for battery use are designed to ensure that
a battery is safe for ground personnel and ISS crew
members to handle and operate during all applicable
mission phases, particularly in the enclosed
environment of a crewed space vehicle. These NASA
provisions also ensure that the battery is safe for use
in launch vehicles, as well as in unpressurized spaces
adjacent to the habitable portion of a space vehicle.
The required provisions encompass hazard controls,
design evaluation, and verification. Evaluation of the
battery system must be completed prior to
certification for flight and ground operations. Certain
battery cell chemistries and battery configurations
may trigger higher scrutiny to protect against thermal
runaway propagation.
It is imperative that NanoRacks receive all
requested technical data as early as possible to ensure
the necessary safety features are present to control
the hazards associated with a particular battery
design and to identify all necessary verifications and
testing required (as documented in the unique
payload ICA). Redesign efforts greatly impact the
PD both in cost and schedule. Consult with
NanoRacks before hardware is manufactured. Cell/
battery testing associated with the verification of the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 789

safety compliance shall be completed as part of the

safety certification of the spacecraft. To comply with
the requirements herein, every battery design, along
with its safety verification program, its ground and/or
on-orbit usage plans, and its post-flight processing
shall be evaluated and approved by the appropriate
technical review panel in the given program or
project and captured in the unique payload ICA.
4.4.7.2 Battery Types
Although any battery may be made safe to fly in
the crewed space vehicle environment, there are
some batteries that are not practical to make safe. For
example, lithium-sulfur dioxide cells have built-in
overpressure vents that release SO2 (sulfur dioxide)
gas and other electrolyte components that are highly
toxic; thus, these are unacceptable in the habitable
area of a space vehicle. However, these chemistries
have been used safely in the non-pressurized areas of
crewed spacecraft. Often the cells used in batteries
for crewed space vehicles are commercially
available.
Battery types typically used in spacecraft include:

• Alkaline-manganese primary
• LeClanche (carbon-zinc) primary
• Lead-acid secondary cells having
immobilized electrolyte
• Lithium/lithium-ion polymer
secondary (including lithium-polymer
790 • FRANCES ZHU

variation)
• Lithium metal anode primary cells will
have the following cathodic (positive)
active materials
• Poly-carbon monofluoride
• Iodine
• Manganese dioxide
• Silver chromate
• Sulfur dioxide (external to habitable
spaces only)
• Thionyl chloride
• Thionyl chloride with bromine
chloride complex additive (Li-BCX)
• Iron disulfide
• Lithium-sulfur
• Mercuric oxide-zinc primary
• Nickel-cadmium secondary
• Nickel-metal hydride secondary
• Silver-zinc primary and secondary
• Zinc-air primary
• Sodium-sulfur secondary (external to
habitable space)
• Thermal batteries
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 791

4.4.7.3 Required Battery Flight Acceptance

Testing

• All flight cells and battery packs shall

be subjected to an approved set of
acceptance screening tests to ensure the
cells are able to perform in the required
load and environment without leakage or
failure. While the specific test procedures
vary depending on the type of battery, the
majority of lithium-ion or lithium
polymer cells or batteries used can be
tested to a statement of work issued by
NanoRacks (NR-SRD-139). Some
generic battery design requirements are
outlined below. Note: The battery test
plan and verification approach shall be
captured in the payload unique ICA. No
testing shall be performed without the
approval of NanoRacks.
4.4.7.4 Internal Short
Protection circuitry and safety features shall be
implemented at the cell level to prevent an internal
short circuit.

• Application of all cells shall be

reviewed by NanoRacks.
• Charger circuit and protection circuit
schematics shall be reviewed and
evaluated for required fault tolerance.
792 • FRANCES ZHU

4.4.7.5 External Short

Protection circuitry and safety features shall be
implemented at the cell level to prevent an external
short circuit.

• Circuit interrupters that are rated well

below the battery’s peak current source
capability shall be installed in the battery
power circuit. Interrupters may be fuses,
circuit breakers, thermal switches,
positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistors, or other effective devices.
Circuit interrupters other than fuses shall
be rated at a value equal to or lower than
the maximum current that the cell is
capable of handling without causing
venting, smoke, explosion, fire, or
thermal runaway.

• The battery case is usually grounded/

bonded to the structure; the interrupters
should be in the ground (negative) leg of
a battery where the negative terminal is
connected to the ground. Where the
circuit is “floating,” as in plastic battery
cases used in portable electronic devices,
the circuit interrupters can be placed in
either leg. In either case, the circuit
interrupters should be placed as close to
the cell or battery terminals as the design
allows, maximizing the zone of
protection.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 793

• All inner surfaces of metal battery

enclosures should be anodized and/or
coated with a non-electrically conductive
electrolyte-resistant paint to prevent a
subsequent short hazard (if applicable).

• The surfaces of battery terminals on

the outside of the battery case should be
protected from accidental bridging.
• Battery terminals that pass through
metal battery enclosures should be
insulated from the case by an insulating
collar or other effective means.

• Wires inside the battery case should be

insulated, restrained from contact with
cell terminals, protected against chafing
and physically constrained from
movement due to vibration or shock.

• In battery designs greater than 50 Vdc,

corona-induced short circuits (high-
voltage induced gas breakdown) shall be
prevented.
4.4.7.6 Overvoltage and Undervoltage
Protection

• Protection circuitry and safety features

shall be implemented at the cell level to
prevent overvoltage or undervoltage
conditions of the cell.
794 • FRANCES ZHU

4.4.7.7 Battery Charging

• It should be verified that the battery

charging equipment (if not the dedicated
charger) has at least two levels of control
that prevent it from causing a hazardous
condition on the battery being charged.
Note: This does not apply if the CubeSat
will not be charged at NanoRacks.
4.4.7.8 Battery Energy Density

• For battery designs greater than 80 Wh

energy employing high specific energy
cells (greater than 80 watt-hours/kg, for
example, lithium-ion chemistries) require
additional assessment by NanoRacks due
to potential hazard in the event of single-
cell, or cell-to-cell thermal runaway.
Note: Any system over 80 Wh requires
additional design scrutiny and testing
(likely including destructive thermal
runaway testing). It is possible that this
additional testing may be avoided by
implementing design features in the
system, such as splitting up the cells into
distinct battery packs less than 80 Wh
and physically isolating them at opposite
ends of the CubeSat (so that thermal
runaway cannot propagate between
packs). Other methods such as reducing
the state of charge of the batteries at the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 795

time of delivery can be explored with the

JSC Battery Safety team to reduce the
risk of a thermal runaway event.
4.4.7.9 Lithium Polymer Cells

• Lithium polymer cells (i.e., “pouch

cells”) shall be restrained at all times to
prevent inadvertent swelling during
storage, cycling, and low pressure or
vacuum environments with pressure
restraints on the wide faces of the cells to
prevent damage due to pouch expansion.
Coordinate with NanoRacks for guidance
on the specific implementation.
4.4.7.10 Button Cells

• Button cell or coin cell batteries often

are used in COTS components to power
real-time clocks (RTCs), watch-dog
circuits, or secondary systems for
navigation, communication, or attitude
control. These batteries shall be clearly
identified by part number and UL listed
or equivalent. Note: Flight acceptance
screening testing of these cells typically
is not required; only a functional test of
the system needs to be reported.
NanoRacks confirms requirements upon
documentation of all coin cell part
numbers in the unique payload ICA.
796 • FRANCES ZHU

4.4.7.11 Capacitors Used as Energy Storage

Devices

• Capacitors are used throughout today’s

modern electronics. Capacitors used as
energy storage devices are treated and
reviewed like batteries. Hazards
associated with leaking electrolytes can
be avoided by using solid-state
capacitors. Any wet capacitors that
utilize liquid electrolytes must be
reported to NASA. The capacitor part
number and electrolyte must be
identified, along with details of how the
capacitor is used and any associated
schematics. Note: NanoRacks will advise
on any required flight acceptance
screening testing once the information
has been captured in the payload unique
ICA.
4.4.9.4 Electrical Bonding

• All spacecraft components shall be

electrically bonded per SSP 30245 to
ensure the spacecraft is free from
electrical shock and static discharge
hazards. Typically, spacecraft
components may be bonded by either
nickel plating or chemical film-treated
faying surfaces or dedicated bonding
straps.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 797

JSC 20793 Crewed Space Vehicle Battery Safety

Requirements

4.2.2 Qualification Testing

This section addresses the qualification testing of
the flight battery.
1. Qualification testing shall be performed
to the worst-case relevant flight environments
with margin. The qualification sample of
batteries should be randomly sampled from
units from the flight lot that have passed
acceptance testing.
2. Environmental tests shall include, at a
minimum, extreme temperature exposures,
vacuum, and vibration tests. The margin used
for qualification tests will be provided by the
respective projects or programs or from
SSP41172 for ISS environments. Appendix A
may be used as a guideline for qualification
vibration tests (QVTs) for cells and batteries if
there are non-project-provided environments.
The margin proposed here should be consistent
with the program’s margin policies. In the
event, none are provided, as a guideline, 6 db
above the maximum expected is typically
used. The qualification of the battery should
include testing the batteries to environmental
and vibration levels that are higher than the
mission requirements. The number of flight
798 • FRANCES ZHU

missions that the batteries will be used for,

along with the location of the battery in the
spacecraft, should determine the period and
level of vibration. As a minimum, the
qualification test program should include the
following:

▪ Functional
baseline test
(open-circuit
voltage (OCV),
mass, capacity or
load check,
internal
resistance, visual
inspection).

▪ Vibration to
qualification
levels.
▪ Functional
baseline test
recheck.
3. Charge/discharge cycles (for rechargeable
batteries) or a load test (for primary batteries)
at 20 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) margin above
and below worst-case hot and worst-case cold,
respectively.
4. Functional baseline test recheck.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 799

5. Vacuum (approx. 0.1 psi) or equivalent

leak checks.
6. Functional baseline test recheck. For
batteries used in a pressurized volume or
environment, exposure to a vacuum
environment (approximately 0.1 psi) for a
minimum of 6 hours should be carried out. For
batteries used in an unpressurized volume or
environment, thermal vacuum cycles must be
performed with the deep vacuum levels below
1 × 10–4 Torr (instead of the 0.1 psi used for
habitable volume/pressurized environments).
Alternatively, the thermal cycles and vacuum
environment tests can be performed
independently. If the acceptance test vibration
levels and spectra used to screen cells for
manufacturing defects are not enveloped by
the mission vibration levels, a separate
qualification for acceptance vibration test
(AVT) should be performed to verify that the
screening levels do not degrade cell reliability.
The qualification batteries should pass all cell
and battery acceptance tests as described in
Section 4.2.3 prior to subjecting them to
qualification tests. For custom battery designs,
safety (abuse) testing performed during
engineering evaluation should be repeated at
qualification with pass/fail criteria for the
qualification tests determined based on
information derived during engineering
evaluation.
800 • FRANCES ZHU

7. Flight cell lot destructive testing shall

consume a randomly selected sample size that
is, at minimum, 3 percent of the flight lot size
or three cells, whichever is greater for each
destructive test. The destructive test sample
size need not exceed 350 cells. This is to
adequately populate the test matrix necessary
to confirm critical safety and performance
characteristics, especially those features that
are critical for mission and crew safety. For
COTS batteries, cells can be obtained from the
disassembly of a sample from the battery flight
lot. To achieve statistically significant results,
all initial destructive tests must be populated
with a minimum of three cells. The maximum
sample size was established to define as a
reasonable limit.
8. The operation of cell safety devices, if
used as a control at the battery level, shall be
verified by a qualification test at the battery
level or at a level that accurately simulates the
level at which the control is required to
confirm the operation of the safety device. The
pass/fail criteria for these qualification tests
should be established after engineering
evaluation tests are completed.
9. To verify cell manufacturing quality does
not vary within the lot, cell lot destructive
testing shall include a minimum of 3 randomly
selected cells (or 3 cells from 1 randomly
selected COTS battery) that has passed cell (or
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 801

battery) acceptance screening. The cell/battery

should be downgraded from flight class to
uncontrolled class prior to the DPA.
Supporting the DPA with a prior CT scan
examination is recommended. The pass/fail
criteria for the DPA should be established after
the engineering DPAs are completed.
Variations of components and methods used in
cell construction can be detected by DPA and
grounds for lot rejection.
10. Qualification testing shall be performed
at the battery level, using flight equivalent
builds. Multiple qualification units may be
used to run different tests in parallel. Tests may
be re-sequenced to accommodate schedule and
resource constraints as long as the intent of the
test is not compromised. Battery designs
deemed non-critical need only provide
verification evidence as required to complete
the Unique Hazard Report for the subject
battery system.
4.2.3 Acceptance Testing
This section addresses the acceptance testing of
the flight battery.
1. Cell lots intended for custom flight
batteries shall undergo 100-percent acceptance
screening that includes, at minimum, visual
inspection of bare cell with shrink-wrap
removed if present, mass, OCV retention,
alternating current (AC), and direct current
802 • FRANCES ZHU

(DC) resistance. Work Instruction EP-WI-031

provides an example of an OCV retention
screen.
2. Batteries intended for the flight shall
undergo flight acceptance (nondestructive)
testing, which will include an evaluation of
OCV, mass, capacity (for rechargeable
chemistries) or load check (for primaries),
internal resistance, visual inspection, vibration
to flight acceptance levels, and thermal/
vacuum Testing. As a minimum, the flight
acceptance test program should include the
following:
3. Functional baseline test (OCV, mass,
capacity (for rechargeable chemistries or load
check for primaries), internal resistance, and
visual inspection).
4. Vibration to flight acceptance levels (see
Appendix A for more details).
5. Functional baseline test recheck.
6. Vacuum (approx. 0.1 psi) or equivalent
leak checks.
7. Functional baseline test recheck. For
batteries used in a pressurized volume or
environment, exposure to a vacuum
environment (approximately 0.1 psi) for a
minimum of 6 hours.

▪ For batteries
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 803

used in an
unpressurized
volume or
environment,
thermal vacuum
cycles must be
performed with
the deep vacuum
levels below 1 ×
10–4 Torr
(instead of the
0.1 psi used for
habitable volume/
pressurized
environments).
Alternatively, the
thermal cycles
and vacuum
environment tests
can be performed
independently.
Details of
recommended
flight acceptance
tests are provided
under each
battery chemistry
section in Section
6 with a detailed
example in
Section 6’s
804 • FRANCES ZHU

lithium-ion
section. For those
chemistries not
listed in Section
6, early
consultation with
program
technical staff is
recommended.
Battery designs
deemed non-
critical need only
provide cell
verification in the
form of UL (or
similar)
certification data
or acceptance test
results, battery
system functional
performance, and
verification of
hazard control
features.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=401
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 805

Software Lab for Power Systems

Using a Power Budget

**The following video is a duplicate video also found in section
5.9

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2319#oembed-1

Purpose

• Understand the role of the power subsystem in the

context of spacecraft as a whole and between other
subsystems

• Recognize possible sources of power in space and

power generation technologies

• Analyze a power budget and profile

805
806 • FRANCES ZHU

• Use Systems Tool Kit (STK) to assist in power

budgeting and planning

Background and Key Concepts to Consider:

Application of: 5.4 Power Design Process and Drivers, 5.5

Power Generation, 5.6 Consumable Power Storage, 5.7
Rechargeable Power Sources, 5.9 Power Budget, and Profiling

Artemis CubeSat Kit Specific

Artemis CubeSat Kit description of the power

system:
The collection of electrical components handling
power distribution is known as a Power Distribution
Unit, or PDU. The circuit board holding the PDU is
known simply as the PDU board. The PDU board
used in this kit is designed by Hawaii Space Flight
Laboratory.
In this kit, the EPS subsystem generates power
through solar cells and stores them in a battery pack
(INR18650-35E). The board containing the batteries
is known as the battery board, which is designed by
PyCubed in this kit.

• Power generation requirement of 2.5 W

• Solar cell selection of ANYSOLAR’s SolarBITs with

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 807

25% efficiency

◦ Surface area of 23 x 8 [mm] or 184 mm2

(per cell)

◦ Mass of 0.5 grams (per cell)

◦ Total of 120 solar cells across 4 available

faces

• Solar irradiance at Earth, I0 = 1360.8 W/m2

• Incidence angle across all solar arrays, qi= 54.7

degrees

◦ Optimal Incidence angle from each solar

panel: 45 degrees

◦ Three panels partially pointing to the sun

achieves 1.73 times the amount of power of
a single head-on panel

• The total surface area across the 3 CubeSat faces is

30,000 mm2. The solar cells need to cover at least
42% of the CubeSat faces to satisfy the 2.5 W power
generation requirement.

• Batteries

◦ Rated below 50 Watt-hours, no pressurized

containers within the kit

◦ Each cycle is an interval between the

charge (charge current 1,020mA) with
100mA cut-off and the discharge (discharge
current 3,400mA) with 2.65V cut-off.
Capacity after 500cycles.
808 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Capacity ≥ 2,010mAh (60% of Standard

Capacity)

Links to the Artemis CubeSat Kit Github: https://github.com/

hsfl/artemis

Recall the basic procedure for designing the electrical power

system:

1. Define the power consumption and electrical

characteristics of the spacecraft bus components

2. Define the necessary power generation and energy

storage required to fulfill the power consumption
requirements

3. Select the power generation and energy storage

methods

4. Analyze the system’s power budget and profile from

the beginning of the mission to the end of the mission
to ensure the selected components are sufficient to
supply power

5. Design a power conversion, management, and

distribution subsystem to interface the power sources
and power consumers

6. Procure and fabricate components

7. Conduct tests on isolated components

8. Conduct tests on integrated components

The lab activity will walk through the process used in step 4.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 809

Required Materials & Setup

• Reference Artemis CubeSat Kit Power Budget in

Google Sheets/Excel

• Specifications and datasheets for spacecraft

components

◦ For power characteristics

◦ Typically available from manufacturers’

websites or contacting sales/company
representatives

• STK Basic/Free – Orbit Reporting

• STK Pro – Solar Panel Reporting (later)

Procedure

Preliminary Lab Procedures

Reference the Artemis Power Budget

The Artemis Power budget will be used as a reference for this

lab. Make your own copy of the Artemis Power Budget. Find the
link to the Artemis Power budget here. (https://docs.google.com/
spreadsheets/d/1zAzSkb1dDCZ5vp6M6qFJnNpzGOnZbC5tQ-
V8leDakmM/edit?usp=sharing). With the budget open in
Google Sheets, click on “File” and either “Make a Copy” or
“Download” as a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (.xlsx). As
needed, modify the spreadsheet accordingly to the spacecraft of
interest or budgeting. Note that there are several sheets in the
810 • FRANCES ZHU

spreadsheet. Sheets are numbered according to the suggested

order to follow/view the budget and analysis.

Spacecraft Components and Specifications

Note: Reference the sheet, “0. Power Allocation”

For the spacecraft, all components that use power should be

listed in the power budget. Be sure to include all components per
subsystem, and include the specific part name/number. Use this
information to update columns A through C:

• Subsystem

◦ E.g. Payload, communication subsystem

(listed as COMMS), on-board computer
subsystem (listed as OBC), attitude
determination and control subsystem (listed
as ADCS), thermal subsystem, electrical
power subsystem (listed as EPS)

• Component

◦ Hardware parts that comprise a subsystem.

E.g. The thermal subsystem has heaters and
thermal sensors.

• Part Name/Datasheet

◦ Feel free to link the specifications or

datasheet as needed.

Gather specification sheets detailing electrical characteristics for

components of the spacecraft. Specifications to look out for
when working on a power budget can include:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 811

• Operating Conditions

• Voltage
• Current

• Consumption (peak and average power draw)

• Capacity

In some cases, if this information does not seem readily

available on websites for parts, a sales/company representative
of the manufacturer may be contacted for more information.
Note: “0. Power Allocation” summarizes the entire power
budget and also will be referenced later in the procedure for
updated calculations.

List of parts from the “0. Power Allocation” sheet, as listed in columns
A-C.
812 • FRANCES ZHU

Spacecraft Operations and Power Modes

Define and consider the mission, concept of operations, and

operating modes of the spacecraft. Look at the beginning of
the mission to the end of the mission. What kind of actions
need to happen during operations? Are there different operating
conditions the spacecraft must operate in? This will help
organize the power budget into different power modes. See Step
1 in 5.9 Power Budget and Profiling for an example.

Main Lab Procedures

Consider the Power Usage by Mode

Subsystem (On/Off)

Note: Reference the sheet, “1. Subsystem (On/Off)”

The power budget will first be broken down first in simple terms
– whether a component will be on or off during the modes of
operation. Consider which components will be on/off to make
sure operations proceed. Ensure the list of Parts (subsystems,
components, and part name/datasheet in columns B through D)
are updated. For the different power modes designated (as
described in the pre-lab procedures), update the Power Usage by
Mode section. The different power modes should be listed per
column in row 3, starting from column E. For each mode, go
down the list of the components on the spacecraft. Insert…

• “On” if the component will be used

• “Off” if the component does not need to be used

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 813

… in the mode of interest. Repeat as necessary for all the modes

in each column. Note: It might help to consider first the primary
subsystems needed for any active actions or passive actions
(such as continuously running parts of the command and data
handling subsystem to compute and relay commands) or vice
versa. The sheet uses the color green and bolded, italicized text
to indicate whether or not a component is “On” during modes.

List of parts that are on or off, for the Initial Startup and Restart modes,
respectively from the “1. Subsystem (On/Off)” sheet. In the Initial
Startup mode, only the COMMs Deployment component and OBC are
on.

See also Step 2 in 5.9 Power Budget and Profiling for an

example.

Power Usage by Mode

Note: Reference the sheet, “2. Power by Mode”

Next, based on the On/Off schedule developed from the previous

sheet, numbers will not be inputted to estimate the average
814 • FRANCES ZHU

power used per mode. Using the same information in the on/off
schedule (copy and paste or duplicate the sheet, “1. Subsystem
(On/Off)” as necessary)…

• Replace the “On” terms with the amount of wattage

the component is expected to use based on
specifications.

• Replace the “Off” terms with zero (0) wattage.

• For each mode, sum the total amount of power usage

expected.

For the list of parts listed as “On” in the “1. Subsystem (On/Off)” sheet,
cells have been updated with the amount of wattage to be used (taken
from the part specifications information). From the “2. Power by Mode”
sheet.

Optional: Plotting the average power per mode on a bar graph

may help visualize the comparison of how much power each
mode uses.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 815

Bar graph of the Power Consumption by Mode for the Artemis CubeSat
Kit power budget. Each bar represents a different power mode

(See also Step 4 in 5.9 Power Budget and Profiling for an

example.)

Mode Plot Data

Note: Reference the sheet, “3. Mode Plot Data”

“Derive the power generation profile over time of an orbit using

your solar cell specifications, orbit-defined solar irradiance, and
incident angles over time or STK. The following power profile
is an example profile taken from STK with default solar cell
specification for a 1U CubeSat surface area in ISS orbit.”

Data from STK Simulation

Note: Data from STK can be extracted via the Reports and
Graphs Feature, to a .csv file.

• Refer to the Systems Tool Kit (STK) Lab Instructions

816 • FRANCES ZHU

for more help.

• Orbit Simulation – 1 orbit and 24 hours

◦ Insert model into STK simulation, set up
basic orbit

▪ Factors like a position in space

will affect power generation –
how often are solar panels facing
the sun?

• Solar Panel Simulation

◦ (Later) Using a model with solar panels –

need surface area of solar panels and report
from STK

▪ Calculate solar panel efficiency

Plots

• Power Usage in Each Mode vs. Time (24 hr)

• Power Usage in Each Mode vs. Time (One Orbit)

• Power Usage / Generation by Mode vs. Time (24 hr)

• Power Usage / Generation by Mode vs. Time (One

Orbit)

• Power Generated over 24 hrs

• Power Generated over One Orbit

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 817

Typical Mode Sequence

Results

• Lowest Charge (Wh)

• Highest Charge (Wh)

• Average Charge (Wh)

• Highest Discharge Rate (W)

• Highest Charge Rate (W)

• Average Power Usage (W)

• Average Power Generated (W)

Typical Mode Sequence (Power)

Note: Reference the sheet, “3a. Typical Mode Sequence

(Power)”

Typical Mode Sequence (Energy)

Note: Reference the sheet, “3b. Typical Mode Sequence

(Energy)”

Power Allocation

Summarizing the power budget overall by:

• Peak Power Usage by component

◦ Find the maximum value per component in

the sheet, “2. Power by Mode”.
818 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Use the “=MAX()” function to search by

component/row.
• Duration per orbit by component

• Average Power Consumption per orbit (Wh) by

component

• % of Power Budget

Lab Review and Deliverables

Goal(s):

• Modify the Artemis Power Budget starting with

information on the spacecraft components, with a
different payload selected. Work through the budget
to integrate the payload components.

• Determine overall power allocation based on the

developed power budget.

• Determine solar panel efficiency based on

simulations via STK.

• Plot and characterize power/energy usage and

generation for one orbit and over 24-hour periods.

• Ensure the selected components are sufficient to

supply power.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 819

References and Other Work

Artemis Power Requirements

3.1 The CubeSat power system shall generate power in LEO and
provide sufficient power to all other bus components

• 3.1.1 The solar panels shall generate a minimum of

2.5W to charge the battery

• 3.1.2 The power distribution system shall supply

sufficient power to all the other subsystems

• 3.1.3 The battery shall have a capacity of at least

10Wh

Design Tools

Section 5.10 Electrical Power System Design Tools

820 • FRANCES ZHU

Hardware Lab for Power

Systems

An interactive H5P element has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view it online
here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2316#h5p-167

Power: Introducing the Subsystem Components

and Simulating Power Phases

Purpose

• Assemble the subsystem charging circuit and

reinforce understanding of the components.

• Measure the state and rate of charge during the phases

820
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 821

of the Power System: on the shelf, within the

refrigerator, degradation, and charging.
• Measure and compare the charging cycle and
efficiency of the Power System.

◦ Expected X hours of daylight in the orbit

and X luminosity from the Sun.

Background and Key Concepts to Consider

Application of: Chapter 5: Power System, 5.1: Definition, 5.5:
Power Generation, 5.7: Rechargeable Power Sources

Battery Terminology (via 5.6 Consumable Power Storage):

• Ampere-hour (Ah) – TOTAL CAPACITY OF

BATTERY (e.g. 40 Amps for 1 hr = 40 Ah)

• Depth of discharge (DOD) – percent of battery

capacity used in discharge (75% DOD means 25%
capacity remaining, DOD usually limited for long
cycle life)

• % DOD = WhLOADCxVAVG100

◦ Wh Load = Watt-hours delivered to load =

(Load in Watts) (Duration in hours)

◦ C = Capacity of battery in amp-hours

◦ VAVG=Average battery discharge voltage

• For long cycle life, DOD may be limited to 50% to

75%
822 • FRANCES ZHU

• Watt-hours – stored energy of the battery, equal to Ah

capacity times average discharge voltage
• Charge rate – rate Ah which battery can accept a
charge. Rule of thumb = Capacity (Ah)/15 hr

• Average discharge voltage – number of cells times

cell discharge voltage (1.25 V for most cells)

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis CubeSat Kit description of the Power

System:
The purpose of the Electrical Power System (EPS)
is to manage the storage and distribution of power
throughout the satellite.
The collection of electrical components handling
power distribution is known as a Power Distribution
Unit, or PDU. The circuit board holding the PDU is
known simply as the PDU board. The PDU board
used in this kit is designed by Hawaii Space Flight
Laboratory.
In this kit, the EPS subsystem generates power
through solar cells and stores them in a battery pack
(LG MJ1 18650). The board containing the batteries
is known as the battery board, which is designed by
PyCubed in this kit. The components for the EPS are:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 823

• Four of 50 Watt-hour Lithium-Ion

Batteries (integrated through the
PyCubed Battery Board)
• Four Solar Panels, on four out of six
faces of the satellite

◦ Average Power per Panel:

.92 Watts
◦ Regulated Lines (always
on): 3.3 Volts, 5 Volts
◦ Regulated Switched Lines:
3.3 Volts, 5 Volts, 12 Volts
◦ With attached Solar Cells
Links to the Artemis CubeSat Kit Github:
https://github.com/hsfl/artemis

Required Materials & Setup

Artemis CubeSat Components

• Four 50 Wh Lithium-Ion Batteries

824 • FRANCES ZHU

• PyCubed Battery board

• Power Distribution Unit (PDU) board

• One Solar Panel

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 825

• Electrical Jumper/Dupont Wires (for testing and

connecting to pins)

Color is irrelevant, but it is highly recommended to use

different colors to allow for easier reference.

Lab Equipment

◦ Multimeter

◦ AC Bench Power Supply and electrical

probes/test leads

◦ Small, flathead screwdriver

◦ Lamp/Light for Sun Simulation

826 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ (Electrostatic Discharge) ESD protective

mat and antistatic wrist strap (safety)
▪ Antistatic bags for transporting
electrical components

Procedure

Preliminary Lab Procedures

Handling and Connecting the Battery Board

The battery board has two faces, one with four battery slots and
the reverse with a much flatter profile. The order in which the
batteries are inserted into the battery board is very important.
Take note of the different battery slots, labeled consecutively as
J1, J2, J3, and J4 on the battery board. Also, notice the positive
and negative terminals per battery slot.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 827

The four battery slots on the Battery Board are labeled with J4, J2, J3,
and J1 from top to bottom.

The batteries need to be installed in the order J1, J2, J3, and
J4. Just like normal household batteries, the positive will go to
positive and negative to negative. Insert the positive end of the
battery first.
828 • FRANCES ZHU

(left) The top two battery slots labeled J4 and J2 go from positive (left)
to negative (right). The bottom two battery slots labeled J3 and J1 go
from negative (left) to positive (right). (right) The batteries have a flat,
negative end opposite to the non-flat, positive end.

Use gentle force to push the batteries into the slots in the correct
order.

A full battery board will have the four batteries

inserted, in the order following J1, J2, J3, and J4.

**NOTE: When removing batteries, using a small pry tool or

pocket screwdriver to gently remove the batteries is the easiest
way to do so. Keep in mind not to touch the metal part of the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 829

pry tool to the positive and negative terminals of the battery. It

will potentially cause a short into the board and a spark that will
scare you more than it will hurt. Please be careful!!! **

Use a multimeter on the DC voltage setting to test the voltage

across all of the batteries. Probes can be placed on the outer
perimeter of the battery slots, on the copper section. Probing at
points on the silver solder or on the plastic will not give voltage
readings.

Use the multimeter leads to test the voltage across

each battery. Be sure to probe at the metal terminals
and not the solder or plastic of the battery slot(s).

Successful testing will give voltage readings on the multimeter.

830 • FRANCES ZHU

Probe across each battery to read its voltage using a multimeter on the
DC voltage setting.

The batteries are considered “uncharged” around 2.9 V, and the

entire battery board will shut off if the voltage reaches that value
or lower in ANY of the batteries. Readings across the entire
battery board with four batteries inserted may read up to 7.2 V.
If batteries alone get readings for voltage but there are no output
readings for the board, then the board may be faulty.

PDU Board

• The solar charging circuit is located on the PDU

board

• It has a wider voltage range than the previous version

and has been proven to work under lamps, sun, and
by the power supply

• With maximum light, expect a .03-.04V charge

increase in the battery pack every 15 minutes
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 831

• You will need to connect to three connectors on the

PDU
◦ Inhibit Switch (J18, bottom left of top of
board) – closes the solar charging circuit
allowing the batteries to charge. Without
this connected, the solar charging circuit
will not work.

◦ Solar input (J12, left side of bottom of

board) – USB charging

◦ Battery Charge (J17, top right of bottom of

board) – attach batteries to this connector.
832 • FRANCES ZHU

Using a power supply, I would recommend using 7.5V and .5A.

The circuit can take more voltage, however, the batteries draw a
large amount of current from the power supply when over 8v.

Put the PDU J18 connector into J18. This will close the solar
charging circuit and allow power to flow to the batteries.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 833

Place 2 pin to stripped wire connector into J12 of the PDU board.
834 • FRANCES ZHU

Connect BBJ9 wire to J9 on the battery board.

Connect BBJ10 to the battery board J10. This will close the
circuit on the battery board and allow power to flow to or from
the batteries. Without this connector, the batteries cannot be
used.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 835

Connect either end of BBJ9 to J17 on the PDU.

Now connect a power supply to the wire coming out of J12

836 • FRANCES ZHU

(USB charge) of the PDU. Power should be connected to the top

pin and ground connected to the bottom pin.

Measure the battery voltage at the test points on the battery

board.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 837

Set the power supply to 9V and .5 amps. Turn on the power

supply and measure the voltage coming out of the batteries
at the same points while the power supply is on. The power
supply should be showing from .2 to .4 amps at 9V. The lower
the original battery voltage, the higher the amps. The battery
voltage should increase from .05 to .2 volts.
838 • FRANCES ZHU

Handling and Connecting a Solar Panel

The satellite will use Solar Panels on the outside structure to

charge the batteries in space. For this tutorial, one solar panel
will be connected to the PDU board and battery board to
demonstrate how the system will charge in space.

Just like the PDU board, the solar panel has a negative and
positive point/hole(s) for testing and powering purposes. There
are two locations at the corners of the solar panels to test. During
this testing, it is irrelevant which ones you choose to use, just
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 839

keep in mind the positive terminal is the hole with the black line
traced around it, while the negative is the adjacent, plain hole.

A solar panel has 30 solar cells attached to it. At the two corners with
the row of nine cells (not two cells), there are positive and negative
testing/connection points. Positive points have a black traced line, while
negative points do not.

Keeping in mind the positive and negative on the board you want
to now test with the corresponding leads on the multimeter in the
DC voltage setting.
840 • FRANCES ZHU

(Left) Location of test terminals. (Middle) The positive terminal is

indicated, with a black outline around the hole. (Right) The negative
terminal is indicated, as the plain hole adjacent to the positive terminal.

Using the multimeter and a good working board, readings will

approximate 2.7 V. Measurements will vary from board to board
and depending on the light environment you are testing in.

The voltage for a single solar panel, tested at the positive and negative
holes, reads at approximately 2.7 V under ambient, indoor light.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 841

To see the difference between indoor lighting and outdoor

lighting, you can now test your solar panel in the sunlight. Test
the solar panel exactly the same way with a multimeter after
taking it outside. You will notice by just being in the sun briefly,
the voltage will increase. Measurements will vary from panel to
panel and your testing environment’s lighting.

The voltage for a single solar panel, tested at the positive and negative
holes, reads at approximately 9.2 V under outdoor sunlight.

Connecting the Solar Panel to the PDU Board

• Connect the solar panel board to the PDU board

◦ Using the wire SP1J2, connect the four-pin

side to the solar panel J2 and the two-pin
side to the PDU J1

◦ Also, connect PDU J18 to the PDU J18

connector
842 • FRANCES ZHU

• Connect the battery board to the solar panel board

◦ Using wire BBJ9, plug the four-pin end into

the battery board J9 and one of the two-pin
ends into the PDU J17

◦ Also, connect BBJ10 to the battery board

J10
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 843

The circuit is now ready for solar charging.

• Place the solar panel towards the sun and measure the
initial voltage.

• Place the negative end of the multimeter on any

negative end on the battery board.

• Place the positive end on the same cell holder positive

end that the negative end is placed on.
844 • FRANCES ZHU

Now we wait……………………

• 10-15 minutes should be enough to see some change.

• Every 15 minutes the battery pack will be charged
.03-.04 volts with maximum light.

Main Lab Procedure

Testing the Charging Circuit

Charging the Batteries via Solar Power

• Charging under ambient light vs. outdoors, reading

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 845

battery voltage levels using a multimeter.

Simulating the Phases

(Setting up the area for the lamp and charging battery/solar

panels. Measure the state and rate of charge per phase.
Depending on the time for each phase, scale the lab time
accordingly or try to have different “stations” set up with each
kit, so groups only have to rotate around and share data.)

• A battery’s state of charge or percent of total capacity

discharged = est. by measuring the voltage of a cell

◦ Analog to Digital converter on an onboard

computer or battery board

◦ For lithium-ion batteries, the voltage for a

significant portion while discharging can
read the same voltage level, which makes
determining the true capacity difficult and
potentially inaccurate.

◦ Estimating the state of charge is very

difficult due to but not limited to
nonlinearity with respect to voltage,
hysteresis, or memory effects due to the
previous cycling, variation to temperature,
and on. Today, algorithms for estimating
the state of charge are state-of-the-art
research, utilizing advanced techniques
such as machine learning techniques.

On the Shelf Phase

846 • FRANCES ZHU

Within a Refrigerator Phase

• Refrigerators mitigate the effects of self-discharge

• Household refrigerator or freezer

Degradation Phase

• Self-discharge

Charging Phase

• With sun lamp, to charge the panels

Clean Up

(Turning everything off, disconnecting everything, making sure

it’s done safely!)

Lab Review and Deliverables

• Comparisons here! Ask about expectations vs. reality.

What is the efficiency/error when compared?

Safety and Best Practices Tips

• Workbenches must be clear of paper and other debris,

preventing debris from contaminating the electronic
board(s) and potentially short-circuiting the exposed
circuitry, especially metal shards.

• When working with electrical components, it is best

to place them atop a (grounded) ESD protective mat
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 847

and wear an antistatic wrist strap.

• When transporting ESD-sensitive components you

should place them in antistatic bags.

• As a precaution, electrical components should be

connected in order of positive to negative and
reversed when disconnecting.

References and Other Work

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis Power Budget

Artemis Power Budget

Power Budget – Typical Mode Sequence
Summary
** need efficiency and estimates
848 • FRANCES ZHU

Settings

Parameter Value

Time Step (min) 1

Max Charge (Wh) 29.6

Min Charge (Wh) 0

Min Safe Charge (Wh) 5.92

Initial Charge (Wh) 29.6

Results (24 Hours)

Parameter Value

Lowest Charge (Wh) 29.24

Highest Charge (Wh) 29.60

Average Charge (Wh) 29.52

Highest Discharge Rate (W) 0.65

Highest Charge Rate (W) 3.25

Average Power Usage (W) 0.70

Average Power Generated (W) 1.81

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 849

Results (First Orbit)

Parameter Value

Lowest Charge (Wh) 29.25

Highest Charge (Wh) 29.60

Average Charge (Wh) 29.52

Highest Discharge Rate (W) 0.64

Highest Charge Rate (W) 3.24

Average Power Usage (W) 1.03

Average Power Generated (W) 1.77

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis Requirements

All cells and batteries on the CubeSat shall adhere

to the design and testing requirements for spacecraft
flight onboard or near the ISS as derived from the
NASA requirement document JSC 20793 Crewed
Space Vehicle Battery Safety Requirements.
850 • FRANCES ZHU

3.1 The CubeSat power system shall generate

power in LEO and provide sufficient power to all
other bus components
3.1.1 The solar panels shall generate a minimum
of 2.5W to charge the battery
3.1.2 The power distribution system shall supply
sufficient power to all the other subsystems
3.1.3 The battery shall have a capacity of at least
10Wh
For our system, we have the following:

• power generation requirement of 2.5

W,
• solar cell selection of ANYSOLAR’s
SolarBITs with 25 % efficiency,
• solar irradiance at Earth, I0 = 1360.8
W/
• incidence angle across all solar arrays,
qi= 54.7 degrees
The total surface area across the 3 CubeSat faces
is 30,000 mm^2. The solar cells need to cover at
least 42 % of the CubeSat faces to satisfy the 2.5 W
power generation requirement. Each solar cell has a
surface area of 23 x 8 [mm] or 184 mm^2 with a
mass of 0.5 grams. We need at least 69 cells to meet
this requirement or 23 cells per face. To cover 5
available faces, the entire CubeSat will have 115
solar cells with a total mass of 57 grams, or about 5
% of our mass budget.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 851

A= * cos(54.7 deg) * 0.25 = 0.0127

or 12,724
A=(2.5W) (1360.8W) cos(54.7deg)(0.25)=
0.0127 or 12,724

• Each cycle is an interval between the

charge (charge current 1,020mA) with
100mA cut-off and the discharge
(discharge current 3,400mA) with 2.65V
cut-off. Capacity after 500 cycles.
• Capacity ≥ 2,010mAh (60% of
Standard Capacity)
852 • FRANCES ZHU

Solar panel configuration for Artemis CubeSat kit.

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis Battery Sizing

To determine the number of battery cells that must
be in the spacecraft, we must define the maximum
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 853

load and duration from the spacecraft system power

budget and profile, and the DOD and average voltage
are from the battery specifications.

• The maximum load of the Artemis

CubeSat occurs during the Data Transmit
mode at 3.29 W.
• The duration of this mode lasts for 4
minutes.
• The DOD from the selected battery is
conservatively 50%.
• The average, nominal voltage is 3.6
Volts.
• Total Capacity Requirement = (3.29 W
* 0.0666 hr) / ( 0.5 * 3.6 V ) = 0.122
Amp-hr
• Battery Capacity Requirement = 0.122
Amp-hr * 3.6 V = 0.438 W-hr
• A single battery cell offers 3.35 Amp-
hr, more than satisfying the total capacity
requirement. Additionally, the Artemis
CubeSat Kit offers 4 cells in the battery
pack to accommodate more power-
hungry payloads.
854 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 855

6. Communications

authored by Dr. Zhu with major contributions from Dr. Daniel

Selva of Texas A&M

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of the

telecommunications subsystem in the
context of spacecraft as a whole and
between other subsystems
• Calculate the equations of
transmission and reception as a function
of spacecraft parameters
• Review different modulation schema,
technologies, and constraints

855
856 • FRANCES ZHU

• Produce a link budget

Communications Chapter Content

Learning Objectives

Definition

6.1 Subsystem Responsibilities

6.2 General Design Process

6.3 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Artemis Requirements

◦ Suggested Activity

6.4 General Arrangement and Design Drivers

6.5 Fundamentals in Signals

◦ Analog/Digital Signals

▪ Quantization

▪ Sampling

▪ Aliasing

▪ Nyquist Theorem

◦ Coding
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 857

▪ Source Coding

▪ Channel Coding
◦ Modulations

▪ Amplitude Modulation (AM)

▪ Frequency Modulation (FM)

▪ Phase Modulation

▪ Digital Modulation

▪ Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation

▪ Digital vs. Analog Modulation

◦ Polarization

◦ Bit Error Rate (BER)

6.6 Link Budget

◦ Antenna Gain

◦ Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

◦ Free Space Losses

◦ Frequency Selection

◦ Noise

▪ Signal Noise

▪ System Noise
▪ Environmental Noise

◦ Link Margin
858 • FRANCES ZHU

6.7 Technologies

◦ Antennas
◦ Diplexer

6.8 Communications Analysis and Link Budget

◦ Suggested Activity

◦ Appendix: Optical Communications

▪ Optical Modulation

▪ Detection

▪ Noise in Optical Communications

▪ Optical Link Budgets

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 859

6.1 Definition

Authored by Dr. Zhu with major contributions from Dr. Daniel

Selva of Texas A&M

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

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The communications subsystem in a spacecraft combines the

communication link between the spacecraft and the ground.
There are antennas and transceivers on both the spacecraft and
on the ground to transmit and receive signals. The ultimate goal
is to guarantee a communication link between the spacecraft and
mission control for required phases of the mission to download
clean payload data and upload spacecraft commands.

859
860 • FRANCES ZHU

An illustration of a spacecraft sending information to and receiving

information from a DSN antenna. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.

Signals are carried through space by electromagnetic waves

defined at a certain radiofrequency. These radio waves are
transmitted and received by antennas and transceivers/
transponders, which must then be translated into digital
electrical signals. A communication link must travel from the
original data, through data filtering, encoding algorithms, and
modulation hardware, through space, through antenna and
receiver hardware, to demodulation, decoding, and
decompression algorithms to finally reach mission operators.
This same process is true for mission operators to send
commands to spacecraft. We will focus this chapter on the
spacecraft side of communications but briefly discuss ground
stations when the context is appropriate.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 861

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862 • FRANCES ZHU

6.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

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The communications subsystem is responsible for:

• Sending payload data to ground driven by the mission

requirements,

◦ Mission dependent

◦ Wide range of data rates, bandwidth,

criticality, …

• Sending spacecraft data (e.g. health, position,

attitude) to ground for operations, and

◦ Attitude and acceleration data: sun sensors,

star sensors, gyros, accelerometers, etc.

◦ Housekeeping data: temperatures,

862
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 863

pressures, voltages, currents, etc

• Receiving commands from the ground for operations

A basic satellite communications scenario. The satellite relays the

received signals to the ground segments located within its footprint.
Image by Mostafa Alazab Elkhouly.

The communications subsystem specialist is responsible for:

• Defining a communication architecture, which

includes spacecraft bus, and ground segments

◦ Selecting a radio frequency and getting the

license for that radiofrequency
◦ Juggling the number and position of ground
stations available to use
864 • FRANCES ZHU

In this video, the zigzag lines represent information passing between the
spacecraft and the DSN antennas. Image credit: Screenshot from DSN
Now/NASA/JPL-Caltech.

• Selecting and coding the compression, encoding, and

modulation of signals to balance loss and bandwidth

• Select communications technology that adheres to

mass, volume, power constraints, and regulations and
fulfills mission requirements

• Verifying that the communication link budget closes

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 865

based upon the selected technologies and ground

station architecture

A student positioning an Auris ground station antenna. Image by

Aerospace MTU.

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866 • FRANCES ZHU

6.3 General Design Process

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Given the payload and housekeeping data necessary to downlink

from the satellite, the COMMS specialist must define a
communication architecture with many free parameters. This
process follows:

1. Choose a radio frequency. This frequency dictates the

maximum bandwidth available and depends on the class
of the mission. Many CubeSat missions apply for amateur
or experimental class frequencies.

866
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 867

High Frequency: A Big Picture of High-Frequency position in the entire

electromagnetic spectrum. Image by Arkrishna.

2. Choose a modulation scheme. The modulation scheme

determines the required signal-to-noise ratio.

3. Choose coding algorithms, which affect not only the

signal-to-noise ratio but also the data rate.

4. Analyze the available contact time the satellite will

get using the available ground stations, orbit, and
constellation design if relevant. Contact time is directly
proportional to how quickly spacecraft can downlink data
and frequently mission operators can issue commands.

After defining multiple options for each aspect of the

communication architecture, for each alternative:

1. Compute the required data rate from all sources

868 • FRANCES ZHU

(depends on orbit)

2. Use the link budget equation to size the antenna/

transmitter so we have enough margin over the
signal-to-noise ratio. This ensures all alternatives
meet requirements

Once alternative architectures are defined, use other metrics

such as total subsystem cost or risk to select one alternative.
Note: Often, this is an iterative process, and we may change our
requirements depending on feasibility.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 869

6.4 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

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For the spaceflight mission, the Communications system must

be designed to support the data uplink and downlink needs of
the payload and spacecraft bus. Requirements include technical
specifications for the:

• Above all, the communications system as a whole

must have a link budget that closes and, optimally,
has a positive margin.

◦ The main drivers in a link budget are power

available for transmission, antenna gain
(geometry and mass), the temperature of
components, and orbit (losses). These

869
870 • FRANCES ZHU

parameters will be expanded upon in the

section about link budgets.
◦ Losses from the system come from the
temperature of the components. The
thermal subsystem may need to adhere to
requirements imposed by the
communications subsystem.

Gain of the transmitter and receiver amplifier. Attenuation in the

atmosphere propagation. Depointing losses. Polarization mismatch
losses. Losses in transmitting and receiving equipment. Image by Source
Forge.

• Data rate between the spacecraft and ground station

in downlinking payload data and uplinking mission
operation commands or software. This metric is very
much like the CDH requirement of throughput but
instead of the payload to flight computer interface,
the data rate is the spacecraft to ground station
interface.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 871

• Contact time with ground stations (and data rate)

dictates the total data a spacecraft is able to downlink.
Contact time depends on the number and location of
ground stations, and the spacecraft’s orbit.

◦ Given that the spacecraft can communicate

with the ground, the payload generates a
certain amount of data that is necessary to
downlink to fulfill the mission. This higher-
level requirement contributes to the data
rate and contacts time requirements.

KSAT gives access to our extensive Global Ground Network consisting

of stations located at both poles and at handpicked mid-latitude locations
to ensure continuous access to your satellites. Image by KSAT.

• Directionality (omnidirectional vs directional) of the

antenna dictates the attitude determination and
control system’s obligation to point the spacecraft
during communications. This pointing maneuver also
affects the way we carry out mission operations.
872 • FRANCES ZHU

Radiation Patterns of Omnidirectional and Directional Antennas. CC BY

4.0 Chilukuri, Sandhya, et al. “Simulation studies on an energy-efficient
multipath routing protocol using directional antennas for manets.”
International Journal of Wireless & Mobile Networks 4.4 (2012): 123.

• Sufficient noise or loss in signals is a requirement that

could be imposed by the principal investigator. The
communications specialist then needs to
accommodate this noise or loss in the coding and
modulation design.

Constraints in designing the communications system include:

• Radiofrequency allocated for spacecraft transmission

is controlled and licensed by the FCC. This licensing
process can be quite restrictive and tedious, which
drives the design of the radio technology and the
schedule.
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 873

Required Documents

• The CubeSat Design Specification

Rev. 14 explicitly states in their
operational specification:
• 2.4.1 Operators shall obtain and
provide documentation of proper licenses
for use of radio frequencies.

◦ 2.4.1.1 Note: For amateur

frequency use, this requires
proof of frequency
coordination by the IARU.
Applications can be found at
www.iaru.org.
• 2.4.2 CubeSats shall comply with their
country’s radio license agreements and
restrictions.
• 2.4.2.1 Note: CubeSat operators
should refer to the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) to
determine what licenses and approvals
are needed for their country
874 • FRANCES ZHU

United States radio spectrum frequency allocations chart as of January

2016. Image by U.S Department of Commerce.

• The time between deployment and radio frequency

transmission is externally required by launch
providers.

◦ The NanoRacks External CubeSat Deployer

IDD specifies in the Deployment Switches:

◦ 4.1.4-5) The CubeSat deployment switches

shall reset the payload to the pre-launch
state if cycled at any time within the first 30
minutes after the switches close (including
but not limited to radiofrequency
transmission and deployable system
timers).

• The number of ground stations you have access to

and the level of access you have. Unless you built
your own ground station, you will most likely need to
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 875

utilize someone else’s ground station or network.

Working with others has constraints that depend on
their availability, their cost, and your relationship
with the controlling agency.

◦ International Ground Stations (IGS)

Network operated by our US and
International Cooperator (IC) ground
station network

◦ Amazon Web Services Ground Station

under Amazon

◦ SatNOGS, an open Source global network

of satellite ground-stations, owned and
operated by the community

Current SatNOGS network as of 17.12.2020 10:47 AM HST. Image by

Satnogs Network.

During manufacturing and assembly, you as the communications

specialist need to handle multiple components, ranging from
the communications board, antenna, amplifiers, radios, etc. You
will likely work with the power systems specialist as the
876 • FRANCES ZHU

communications system is power-hungry. The handling of the

communications systems follows best practices of electrical
power system components.

Open-air radio testing or link testing, which does the following:

Capturing the configuration/settings of the radio modem to a file.
Verifying the radio modem is transmitting the correct RF power output
level. The frequency of the radio modem is correctly set. The serial port
parameters are correct The over-the-air baud rate is correct and
compatible with the system the modem will be used in. Verifying and
recording the DC power consumption Determining the packet-error rate
on the bench or in the field. Image by Raveon.

During testing, the coding and modulation software must be

loaded and tested with the hardware. To verify end-to-end
communications between the spacecraft radio and your receiver,
a proper distance is placed between the radio and receiver, and
the losses that would occur between space and ground are
simulated by attenuators, attached to either end [NASA
MAVEN]. The signals are monitored on a computer to see 1) if
signals are picked up and 2) the amount of loss in the received
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 877

signals. Integrating this code into the general spacecraft software

will involve the command and data handling specialist.

During transport and handling, the flight computer is off and

self-contained within the satellite. There is no requirement the
communications specialist needs to adhere to from this phase.

Satellite orbit visualization and pass prediction. Image by Florian

Mauracher on Github.

From the time of delivery through on-orbit deployment, the

communications specialist must ensure orbit tracking and
ground station software is ready to go. Once the spacecraft is
deployed, the communications specialist should update TLE,
orbital elements, into their ground station software so that the
directional ground station can slew toward the direction of the
spacecraft accurately. For omnidirectional or directional ground
stations, updating the TLEs will inform mission operators of
when the spacecraft is passing overhead within a communicable
range.
878 • FRANCES ZHU

Artemis Kit Specific

The CubeSat
3 communications
.5 system shall transmit
telemetry from LEO

The radio shall

transmit detectable
3.5.1
telemetry in amateur
radio frequency (UHF)

The ground stations

3.5.2 shall receive UHF and
process true telemetry

The link budget shall

3.5.3 have a margin of at least
5 dB

Suggested Activity

“What kind of communication requirements must

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 879

you impose on your system to fulfill your science

mission?”

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880 • FRANCES ZHU

6.5 General Arrangement and

Design Drivers

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As can be concluded from the requirements section, the

communications subsystem is intimately connected to the
payload and command and data handling subsystems, the orbit,
and the ground segment. Regardless of the mission, there’s a
power system and command and data handling system to
support the power and data needs of the communications system.
There’s a radio receiver, transmitter, and likely an antenna and
amplifier.

880
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 881

Overview of the NEAR Spacecraft Communication System. Image by

Pisacane.

The antennas need unobstructed access to the space

environment. The internal electronics, like the amplifiers, filters,
diplexers, receivers, etc. typically collect on a dedicated
communications board. This board is connected to the central
computer that is controlled by the command and data handling
system. The communications board typically has all the coding
and modulation onboard to process raw signals. This processing
can also happen on the central computer.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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882 • FRANCES ZHU

Deep Space Network: A Discussion on

NASA’s Vital Lifeline to Spacecraft. Video
by NASA/JPL

The ground segment is not the spacecraft bus communications

specialist’s responsibility but coordinating with the ground
segment lead is. For context, typically, NASA and other large
agencies have a network of ground stations, like the Deep Space
Network, that cover a range of frequencies and offer continuous
coverage. Smaller groups, like universities or companies, must
provide their own ground station network or purchase access to
a network. A fantastic community to tap into and contribute to
is the SatNOGS community-operated ground station network.
By involving amateur radio operators all over the world, small
satellites that wouldn’t get the time of day on the Deep Space
Network can get information back. Building and operating
ground stations, like spacecraft, have become more and more
feasible for DIY enthusiasts.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 883

SatNOGS Network – Ground Station Avia. Image by Satnogs Network.

884 • FRANCES ZHU

6.6 Fundamentals in Signals

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This section will walk through the fundamentals of signals,

signal processing, and link budgets in the context of spacecraft.
We’ll start from the way information is structured (low level) to
the way information is transmitted (high level). These concepts
are important to your principal investigator, who is relying on
you to communicate quality payload data.

Analog/Digital Signals
Most information that satellites measure and transmit is
continuous in nature. For example, the spectral radiance of an
image (payload data) or the temperature of the battery
(telemetry). Information can be transmitted through analog
(continuous) or digital (discretized, bits) signals. Analog/Digital

884
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 885

conversion transforms continuous quantities into bits. Both

analog and digital communications are used in satellites, but
most current satellite communications systems are digital
because digital modulations are usually more robust to noise.

Two methods of converting analog signals to digital signals. Image by

Dan Boschen.

Quantization

Quantization is the conversion of a continuous physical quantity

(e.g. voltage) into a digital number (bits). This involves
quantization, which introduces quantization (rounding) error.
The quantized value is given by the following equation:

Where is the range of the physical variable, is the number

of bits, and is the physical variable.
886 • FRANCES ZHU

The simplest way to quantize a signal is to choose the digital amplitude

value closest to the original analog amplitude. This example shows the
original analog signal (green), the quantized signal (black dots), the
signal reconstructed from the quantized signal (yellow), and the
difference between the original signal and the reconstructed signal (red).
The difference between the original signal and the reconstructed signal
is the quantization error and, in this simple quantization scheme, is a
deterministic function of the input signal. Image by Gregory Maxwell.

An illustrative example: say we have temperature measurements

that range from -100C to +100C. If we encode it with only 3 bits,
that defines 8 levels. The quantization step is 200C/8 levels=25C
(!).

• Any temperature between -100C and -75C is encoded

as 000.

• Any temperature between -75C and -50C is encoded

as 001

• …

• Any temperature between +75C and +100C is

encoded as 111

Obviously, we need more bits because 25C is not an acceptable

resolution. Typical resolutions are 8- 16 bits for most physical
measurements – more is possible.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 887

Sampling

Analog signals are continuous in time. To discretize them, we

need to sample them at certain discrete time instants. The
sampling frequency is the frequency with which we take
samples of the continuous signal. For example, in Ariane 5,
all functional sensors are sampled by the OBC at 4Hz (every
250ms).

Difference between quantization and sampling. Image by Dan Boschen.

The differences between sampling and quantization are

[DifferenceBetween]:

• “In sampling, the time axis is discretized while, in

quantization, y-axis or the amplitude is discretized.

• In the sampling process, a single amplitude value is

selected from the time interval to represent it while,
888 • FRANCES ZHU

in quantization, the values representing the time

intervals are rounded off, to create a finite set of
possible amplitude values.

• Sampling is done prior to the quantization process.”

Aliasing

How often do we need to sample? It depends on how quickly the

signal changes (its bandwidth). If we don’t sample fast enough,
our sample may not be representative of reality.

For example, two sinusoidal signals with very different

frequencies may look the same when sampled at a low
frequency.

A graph showing aliasing of an f=0.9 sine wave by an f=0.1 sine wave

by sampling at a period of T=1.0. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Mox Fyre.

To counter aliasing, we follow the Nyquist theorem that states

we must sample at least at = 2B (B=bandwidth).

Nyquist Theorem

The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem states:

“If a function contains no frequencies higher than hertz,

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 889

it is completely determined by giving its ordinates at a series of

points spaced seconds apart.”

Or in other words, we must sample at least at (in

practice: 2.2B) where B is the band limit to guarantee a perfect
reconstruction of the original continuous signal. Scientists and
engineers use this theorem to decide how frequently to sample
a phenomenon. If the scientific subject of interest occurs at
Hertz, then the payload should sample at Hertz. If the
attitude dynamic mode occurs at Hertz, then the IMU should
sample at Hertz.

• If then we can low-pass-filter at B, and

reconstruct the original signal perfectly

• If then there is overlap (aliasing) and we

can’t reconstruct.

The figure on the left shows a function (in gray/black) being sampled
and reconstructed (in gold) at steadily increasing sample densities, while
the figure on the right shows the frequency spectrum of the gray/black
function, which does not change. The highest frequency in the spectrum
is ½ the width of the entire spectrum. The width of the steadily
increasing pink shading is equal to the sample rate. When it
encompasses the entire frequency spectrum it is twice as large as the
highest frequency, and that is when the reconstructed waveform matches
the sampled one. Image by Jacopo Bertolotti.
890 • FRANCES ZHU

Coding

Reduction of redundancy and irrelevancy in coding schema. Kinsner,

Witold. “Is entropy suitable to characterize data and signals for
cognitive informatics?.” International Journal of Cognitive Informatics
and Natural Intelligence (IJCINI) 1.2 (2007): 34-57.

Source coding and channel coding are two different kinds of

codes used in digital communication systems. They have
orthogonal goals:

• The goal of source coding is data compression

(decrease data rate).

• The goal of channel coding is error detection and

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 891

correction (by increasing the data rate).

Joint source-channel-multimedia coding. Kinsner, Witold. “Is entropy

suitable to characterize data and signals for cognitive informatics?.”
International Journal of Cognitive Informatics and Natural Intelligence
(IJCINI) 1.2 (2007): 34-57.

Source Coding

Source coding aims to code data more efficiently to represent

information. This process reduces the “size” of data. For analog
signals, source coding encodes analog source data into a binary
format. For digital signals, source coding reduces the “size” of
digital source data [Bouman].

Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression

892 • FRANCES ZHU

allows perfect reconstruction of the original signal. It is used

when it is essential to maintain the integrity of the data. Lossless
coding can only achieve moderate compression (e.g. 2:1 – 3:1)
for natural images. Many scientists push for this in satellite
missions. Examples include zip and png files.

Example of lossy compression. Image by Tyler Brown via WordPress.

In lossy compression, some information is lost and perfect

reconstruction is not possible, but usually, a much higher
reduction in bit rate is achieved. It is used when bit-rate
reduction is very important and integrity is not critical. Lossy
source coding can achieve much greater compression (e.g. 20:1
– 40:1) for natural images. Examples include jpg (images) and
mp3 (audio) files.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 893

Example of run-length encoding with original data and compressed

representation. Image by Professor G R Sinha.

Lossless compression methods usually exploit the structure of

the information. A lossless compression algorithm is run-length
encoding. Run-length coding is advantageous in which the data
has sequences of the same data value occurring in many
consecutive data elements. There are relatively long chains of
0’s or 1’s (infrequent changes). There are combinations of bits
that are more likely than others. For example, in run-length
encoding (RLE), runs of data are stored as a single value (count)
rather than the original run, like so:

[1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,…] → [1,10,2]

Note that this is only useful if there are many long runs of data
(e.g. simple black and white images with mostly white)

Another type of lossless compression is Huffman coding where

if some symbols are more likely than others, we can use fewer
bits to encode the more likely combinations. That will result in
reductions in bit rate without losing any information.
894 • FRANCES ZHU

A source generates 4 different symbols {\displaystyle

{a_{1},a_{2},a_{3},a_{4}}}{a_{1},a_{2},a_{3},a_{4}} with
probability {\displaystyle {0.4;0.35;0.2;0.05}}{0.4;0.35;0.2;0.05}. A
binary tree is generated from left to right taking the two least probable
symbols and putting them together to form another equivalent symbol
having a probability that equals the sum of the two symbols. The process
is repeated until there is just one symbol. The tree can then be read
backward, from right to left, assigning different bits to different
branches. Image courtesy of Alessio Damato

The final Huffman code is:

Symbol Code

a1 1

a2 10

a3 110

a4 111

The standard way to represent a signal made of 4 symbols is by

using 2 bits/symbol, but the entropy of the source is 1.74 bits/
symbol. If this Huffman code is used to represent the signal,
then the average length is lowered to 1.85 bits/symbol; it is still
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 895

far from the theoretical limit because the probabilities of the

symbols are different from the negative powers of two.

The Huffman coding algorithm follows:

• Assign 0 to the most likely symbol, the others start

with 1.

• Assign 10 to the most likely symbol, the others start

with 11.

• Continue…

Prefix codes: How do we tell when one symbol starts if they are
variable in length? Prefix codes (like Huffman) don’t require any
markers despite the variable length, because they are designed
so that there is no possible confusion.

Channel Coding

Channel coding exists to ensure that the data received is the

same as the data sent. “Wireless links suffer from interference
and fading which causes errors, so to overcome this the
transmitter adds additional information before the data is sent.
Then at the receiver end, complex codes requiring sophisticated
algorithms decode this information and recover the original
data” [AccelerComm]. The act of detecting and correcting errors
relies on a key idea: add redundancy bits strategically to avoid
errors.

How do we detect an error? Imagine we add a parity bit at the

end of every N bit so that the sum of all bits including the parity
bit is always 0. Then we can detect one error:
896 • FRANCES ZHU

• 01010101 → sum=0, OK no errors. (or there could be

2 errors!)
• 11101100 → sum=1, NOK. There’s an error (but
can’t correct it)

How do we correct an error? Imagine that we simply transmit

each bit 3 times. Then there are two possible symbols: 000 and
111. We say that the code has a distance of 3 because 3 bits need
to change in order to change a valid symbol into another

• If we receive 100, 010, 001 → correct to 000

• If we receive 110, 101, 011 → correct to 111

Channel Coding loop where parity is not only added but the receiver
verifies if an error was detected, an automatic repeat request (ARQ)
message is sent. Image by Springer Link.

If we detect an error, we can request a retransmission. This

is sometimes called backward error correction. This is in
opposition to forward an error correction (FEC) in which the
error correction is embedded in the transmission.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 897

Properties of FEC codes:

• Distance: Min number of bits needed to transform

between two valid symbols

• Number of errors detected/corrected

• Rate: Number of data bits / Total number of bits

• Code gain: Gain in dB in link budget equation for

equal BER (bit error rate)

Two major types of error-correcting codes:

• Block codes:

◦ Hamming codes

◦ Reed-Solomon

• Convolutional codes:

◦ Viterbi

“Hamming codes are a family of linear error-correcting codes.

Hamming code is the shortened Hadamard code. Hamming
codes can detect up to two-bit errors or correct one-bit errors
without detection of uncorrected errors. By contrast, the simple
parity code cannot correct errors and can detect only an odd
number of bits in error. Hamming codes are perfect codes, that
is, they achieve the highest possible rate for codes with their
block length and minimum distance of three”.
898 • FRANCES ZHU

The Hamming(7,4) code (with r = 3). Graphical depiction of the four

data bits and three parity bits and which parity bits apply to which data
bits. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by C. Burnett.

All Hamming codes have distance 3, can detect 2 errors, and

correct 1. Hamming code message lengths come in (
): (total bits, data bits). For example:

• Hamming(3,1) is a message with triple repetition

• Hamming(7,4) is a message that adds 3 bits of

redundancy to every 4 bits of data

◦ The rate of a block code is defined as the

ratio between its message length and its
block length. For this block code, the rate is
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 899

4/7.

Parity bits are added at positions 1, 2, 4, 8…The rest are data

bits. Each parity bit covers a different subset of bits: parity bit 1
covers all bit positions which have the least significant bit set (1,
3, 5, …)

The following general algorithm generates a single-error correcting

(SEC) code for any number of bits. Shown are only 20 encoded bits (5
parity, 15 data) but the pattern continues indefinitely. The key thing
about Hamming Codes that can be seen from a visual inspection is that
any given bit is included in a unique set of parity bits. To check for
errors, check all of the parity bits. Image by Artillar.

Intuitively, 1 error can be corrected thanks to the distance of 3

between valid symbols. Since each bit is assigned to a unique set
of parity bits, we can identify which bit is wrong by identifying
the bit for which all parity bits are the wrong d2. The position of
the wrong bit is equal to the sum of positions of all parity bits
that are wrong: 1(p1) + 4(p3) = 5 (d2).
900 • FRANCES ZHU

Hamming code example. CC-BY SA 4. Image by Artillar.

Another channel coding algorithm is called the Reed-Solomon

error correction code. Instead of bits, the Reed-Solomon
algorithm works on symbols (usually 8-bit blocks). This is better
for burst errors because of multiple erroneous bits → 1
erroneous symbol. The code turns k data symbols into n > k
symbols using polynomials.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 901

Reed-Solomon coding for Fault-Tolerance. Accelerate Reed-Solomon

coding for Fault-Tolerance in RAID-like system by Shuai Yuan.

• Encoding: Two steps

◦ Interpret message as
coefficients of a polynomial of degree

◦ Evaluate the polynomial at n different

points:

• Decoding: Based on regression (find a polynomial

that goes through the n points)

For example, Reed-Solomon (255,223) adds 32 redundant

symbols for every 223 data symbols. It can detect 32 errors
and correct 16. Read-Solomon is used exhaustively in space,
especially in concatenation with convolutional codes (e.g.
Voyager, Meteosat, Timed).
902 • FRANCES ZHU

Deep-space concatenated coding system. Notation: RS(255, 223) + CC

(“constraint length” = 7, code rate = 1/2). CC BY-SA 4.0. Image by
Kirlf.

Codes Used by NASA Missions Andrews, Kenneth S., et al. “The

development of turbo and LDPC codes for deep-space applications.”
Proceedings of the IEEE 95.11 (2007): 2142-2156. Image by IEEE
Explore.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 903

Modulations

Suggested Reading

DSN Telemetry System, Data Decoding

Information between satellite and ground station is transmitted

by changing some property (amplitude, frequency, or phase)
of a high-frequency carrier signal c(t) in a way that encodes
the information in the message m(t). This is called modulation.
There is a modulation schema for analog and digital signals that
we’ll review in this section.

Why do we need modulation? Why can’t we just transmit our

train of pulses (bits)?

• These are very low-frequency signals

• Low-frequency signals would require extremely large

antennas

• Low-frequency signals have huge atmospheric losses

Modulations are based upon modifying sinusoidal function. The

three parameters in a sinusoid that can be changed are its
amplitude, frequency, and phase.
904 • FRANCES ZHU

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Animated diagram representing the difference

between radio waves modulated by amplitude
and by frequency. CC BY-SA 2.5. Image by
Berserkerus.

“Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used

in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting
messages with a radio carrier wave. In amplitude modulation,
the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied
in proportion to that of the message signal” [Wikipedia]. This
modular algorithm is easy to implement but has poor noise
performance.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 905

The illustration of amplitude modulation (AM) depicts a comparison

between an information signal, carrier signal, and an AM signal. CC
BY-SA 3.0. Image by Ivan Akira.

Let’s say the carrier signal at the licensed radio frequency has
the form: . The analog signal is m(t) with
bandwidth B, typically . Examples of analog signals are
audio around 4kHz and video at 4Mhz. The amplitude
modulated signal at the licensed radio frequency is
.

Double-sided spectra of baseband and AM signals. CC BY-SA 3.0.

Image by Splash.
906 • FRANCES ZHU

Amplitude modulation requires:

• A local oscillator to generate the carrier high-

frequency signal

• A mixer to mix (multiply) the two signals

• An amplifier

This simple diode modulator delivers excellent results when used for
high percentage modulation at low signal levels. Image by
Instructables.

Demodulating the signal requires:

• A local oscillator to generate a proxy of the carrier

signal

• A mixer to multiply

• A low-pass filter to keep only the low-frequency part

of the received signal
• A diode to remove the DC part
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 907

The combination of capacitor C and resistor R behaves like a low-pass

filter. The input signal contains both the original message and the carrier
wave where the capacitor helps in filtering out the RF carrier waves. The
capacitor gets charged during the rising edge and discharges through the
resistor R in the falling edge. Thus the capacitor helps in giving an
envelope of the input as output. Image by Instructables.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

The modulation of an analog signal into an analog carrier using

Frequency modulation (FM). CC BY-SA 4.0. Image by Michel Bakni.

“Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information

in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of
the wave. The technology is used in telecommunications, radio
broadcasting, signal processing, and computing. In radio
transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it
has a larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio
908 • FRANCES ZHU

frequency interference better than an equal power amplitude

modulation (AM) signal” [Wikipedia].

Frequency spectrum and waterfall plot of a 146.52 MHz carrier,

frequency modulated by a 1,000 Hz sinusoid. The modulation index has
been adjusted to around 2.4, so the carrier frequency has a small
amplitude. Several strong sidebands are apparent; in principle, an
infinite number are produced in FM but the higher-order sidebands are
of negligible magnitude. CC BY-SA 4.0. Image by Wtshymanski.

Let’s again assume a carrier signal of the form:

. The analog signal that we are trying
to convert is of form m(t) with bandwidth B, typically
. The frequency modulated signal takes the form:

The spectrum of an FM signal is hard to compute analytically

even for simple messages. FM modulation and demodulation
are similar to AM in principle but require integrators and
differentiators. Frequency modulation requires a frequency lock
loop, which can be implemented with resistors, capacitors, and
op-amps for example. “Direct FM modulation can be achieved
by directly feeding the message into the input of a voltage-
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 909

controlled oscillator. For indirect FM modulation, the message

signal is integrated to generate a phase-modulated signal. This
is used to modulate a crystal-controlled oscillator, and the result
is passed through a frequency multiplier to produce an FM
signal. In this modulation, narrowband FM is generated leading
to wideband FM later and hence the modulation is known as
indirect FM modulation. A common method for recovering the
information signal is through a Foster-Seeley discriminator or
ratio detector. A phase-locked loop can be used as an FM
demodulator. Slope detection demodulates an FM signal by
using a tuned circuit that has its resonant frequency slightly
offset from the carrier. As the frequency rises and falls the tuned
circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting
FM to AM” [Wikipedia].
910 • FRANCES ZHU

Phase-Locked Loop Frequency Modulator (PLL FM). The input FM

signal and the output of the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) are
applied to the phase detector circuit. The output of the phase detector is
filtered using a low pass filter, the amplifier, and then used for
controlling the VCO. When there is no carrier modulation and the input
FM signal is in the center of the passband, the VCO’s tune line voltage
will be at the center position. When deviation in carrier frequency
occurs (that means modulation occurs) the VCO frequency follows the
input signal in order to keep the loop in the lock. As a result, the tune
line voltage to the VCO varies and this variation is proportional to the
modulation done to the FM carrier wave. The voltage variation is
filtered and amplified in order to get the demodulated signal. Image by
Circuits Today.

Phase Modulation

“Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation pattern for

conditioning communication signals for transmission. It encodes
a message signal as variations in the instantaneous phase of a
carrier wave. Phase modulation is one of the two principal forms
of angle modulation, together with frequency modulation. The
phase of a carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
signal level (amplitude) of the message signal. The peak
amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal are maintained
constant, but as the amplitude of the message signal changes, the
phase of the carrier changes correspondingly. Phase modulation
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 911

is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an integral

part of many digital transmission coding schemes that underlie
a wide range of technologies like Wi-Fi, GSM and satellite
television” [Wikipedia].

The modulating wave (blue) is modulating the carrier wave (red),

resulting in the PM signal (green). Image by Potasmic.

Let’s again assume acarrier signal of the form:

. The analog signal that we are
trying to convert is of form m(t) with bandwidth B, typically
. The frequency modulated signal takes the form:
912 • FRANCES ZHU

Phase Modulator circuit diagram. Image by McGraw-Hill Companies.

Phase modulation requires a phase lock loop control system.

“There are several different types; the simplest is an electronic
circuit consisting of a variable frequency oscillator and a phase
detector in a feedback loop. The oscillator generates a periodic
signal, and the phase detector compares the phase of that signal
with the phase of the input periodic signal, adjusting the
oscillator to keep the phases matched” [Wikipedia]. Most digital
modulation techniques involve PM.

Digital Modulation

Instead of modulating an analog signal, digital modulation

transforms a binary signal. The carrier signal is still an analog
signal. In digital modulation, we use a finite number of analog
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 913

signals (pulses) to represent pieces of a digital message i.e. we

encode 00 as .

• For example, we can encode a 0 as and a 1

as

◦ This is Frequency Shift Keying (FSK). In

FSK, different symbols (e.g. 0, 1) are
transmitted at different frequencies

▪ In binary FSK, there are only 2

frequencies (0: , 1: )

▪ We can also have 4-FSK, 8-FSK,

etc.

▪ 4-FSK: 00: , 01: , 10: ,

11:
914 • FRANCES ZHU

Example of binary FSK. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by K.Tims.

• Or we can encode a 0 as and a 1 as

◦ This is Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK). In

ASK, symbols correspond to different
amplitudes.
◦ In binary ASK, we use 2 amplitudes, 0: ,
1: where typically

◦ We can also have 4-ASK, 8-ASK

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 915

▪ 4-FSK: 00: , 01: , 10:

, 11:

An example of binary ASK. Image by Mathworks.

• Or we can encode a 0 as and a 1 as

◦ This is Phase Shift Keying (PSK). In PSK,

symbols correspond to different amplitudes.

◦ In binary PSK (BPSK), we use 2 phases, 0:

, 1: where typically and

◦ We can also have 4-PSK (QPSK), 8-

PSK…

▪ QPSK: 00: 00 = 0,01: 01 = ,

10: , 11:
916 • FRANCES ZHU

In this modulator, the carrier assumes one of two phases. A logic 1

produces no phase change and a logic 0 produces a 180° phase change.
Image by IDC Online.

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

“Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) conveys two analog

message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing
(modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using the
amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation scheme or
amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation scheme. The
two carrier waves of the same frequency are out of phase with
each other by 90°, a condition known as orthogonality or
quadrature. The transmitted signal is created by adding the two
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 917

carrier waves together” [Wikipedia]. QAM applies to both

analog and digital information or message signals.
918 • FRANCES ZHU

Step by step modulation demonstration of analog QAM from

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 919

two carrier waves, modulating waves, intermediate waves, and

final product. Image by The Free Dictionary.

Let’s again assume a carrier signal of the form:

and the 90 degree phase lag is of the form:
. “In a QAM signal, one carrier lags
the other by 90°, and its amplitude modulation is customarily
referred to as the in-phase component, denoted by I(t). The other
modulating function is the quadrature component, Q(t). So the
composite waveform is mathematically modeled as”:

Digital 16-QAM with example constellation points.

Image by Chris Watts.

“As in many digital modulation schemes, the constellation

diagram is useful for QAM. In QAM, the constellation points
are usually arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and
horizontal spacing, although other configurations are possible
(e.g. Cross-QAM). Since in digital telecommunications the data
is usually binary, the number of points in the grid is usually a
920 • FRANCES ZHU

power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …). Since QAM is usually square, some of

these are rare—the most common forms are 16-QAM, 64-QAM,
and 256-QAM. By moving to a higher-order constellation, it is
possible to transmit more bits per symbol. However, if the mean
energy of the constellation is to remain the same (by way of
making a fair comparison), the points must be closer together
and are thus more susceptible to noise and other corruption;
this results in a higher bit error rate and so higher-order QAM
can deliver more data less reliably than lower-order QAM, for
constant mean constellation energy. Using higher-order QAM
without increasing the bit error rate requires a higher signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) by increasing signal energy, reducing noise, or
both” [Wikipedia].

Digital vs. Analog Modulation

In summary, analog and digital modulation modify an

information signal with a carrier signal. The carrier signal is
always a sinusoid at the licensed radiofrequency. The
information signal can either be analog or digital, which defines
the name of the modulation scheme.

The advantage of analog amplitude modulation conserves

bandwidth and analog frequency modulation spreads
information bandwidth over larger RF bandwidth. Digital pulse-
code modulation (particularly phase-shift keying) uses RF
power most efficiently.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 921

Spacecraft and Ground Configuration for BPSK Reed-Solomon,

Convolutional, and Concatenated Coding Date, Andrew O’Dea, and
Timothy T. Pham Date. “Telemetry Data Decoding.” (2013).

“All modern spacecraft utilize pulse code modulation (PCM)

to transfer binary data between the spacecraft and the mission
operations. The data are phase-modulated onto an RF carrier
(PCM/PM) or used to switch the phase of a subcarrier by plus
or minus 90-degrees. The subcarrier is then phase modulated on
the carrier for transmission via the space link. This modulation
scheme is referred to as PCM/PSK/PM. Phase modulation is
used because it has a constant envelope that enables non-linear
amplifiers to be used. Non-linear amplifiers tend to be more
efficient than the linear amplifiers that would be necessary if
the envelope (amplitude) were used to carry information. Phase
modulation is also immune to most interference that corrupts
signal amplitude” [O’Dea & Pham].
922 • FRANCES ZHU

Polarization

A “vertically polarized” electromagnetic wave of wavelength λ has its

electric field vector E (red) oscillating in the vertical direction. The
magnetic field B (or H) is always at right angles to it (blue), and both are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation (z). CC BY-SA 3.0 Image
by Dan Boschenr.

Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field vector,

. Waves can have different shapes: linear and circular. The
shape is traced by the end of the vector at a fixed location, as
observed along the direction of propagation.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 923

Circular polarization on rubber thread converted to linear polarization.

CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Zátonyi Sándor.

Bit Error Rate (BER)

The Bit Error Rate is the probability that an error will be made
in one bit when decoding a symbol. It is a measure of the quality
of the communications, and one of the main requirements of a
communications system. The other one is the data rate (i.e. the
quantity of data). As an example, assume this transmitted bit
sequence:

0110001011
924 • FRANCES ZHU

and the following received bit sequence:

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1,

The number of bit errors (the underlined bits) is, in this case,
3. The BER is 3 incorrect bits divided by 10 transferred bits,
resulting in a BER of 0.3 or 30%. Typically, BER is on the
order of . Lower BERs can be accepted for non-critical
applications.

BER depends on two main parameters:

• The signal to noise ratio (typically expressed in terms

of ), which is the ratio of Bit Energy to Noise
Density.

• The modulation that is chosen: for example, for the

same BER, BPSK and QPSK require 3dB less of
than 8PSK.

“In a communication system, the receiver side BER may be

affected by transmission channel noise, interference, distortion,
bit synchronization problems, attenuation, wireless multipath
fading, etc. The BER may be improved by choosing a strong
signal strength (unless this causes cross-talk and more bit
errors), by choosing a slow and robust modulation scheme or
line coding scheme, and by applying channel coding schemes
such as redundant forward error correction codes. The
transmission BER is the number of detected bits that are
incorrect before error correction, divided by the total number
of transferred bits (including redundant error codes). The
information BER, approximately equal to the decoding error
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 925

probability, is the number of decoded bits that remain incorrect

after the error correction, divided by the total number of decoded
bits (the useful information). Normally the transmission BER
is larger than the information BER. The information BER is
affected by the strength of the forward error correction code”
[Wikipedia].

Quantization Effects on Decoder Performance. Date, Andrew O’Dea,

and Timothy T. Pham Date. “Telemetry Data Decoding.” (2013).

Let’s walk through computation of BER=f( ) for Binary

Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK). We have a BPSK with a carrier
signal where where t is time and T is period, and information
signal given by:

and

Assume that the channel (i.e. the atmosphere and transceiver

926 • FRANCES ZHU

electronics) adds a Gaussian white noise n(t) of the mean of 0

and variance of

Then, the probability distribution of the received signal is a

Gaussian centered around +A or −A depending on which symbol
was transmitted.

The probability distribution of getting the bit that was intended in a

transmission. Gaussians around + 1 and – 1. If the variance is large
enough, these probability distributions overlap (blue region). A symbol
in that region would be ambiguous. Image by Alan Fielding.

Note that the two probability distributions overlap. If they didn’t,

we could come up with a perfect decision rule that would always
tell us what is the right symbol from the voltage in the receiver.
This could be the case for noise with smaller variance or of a
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 927

different shape, like a triangular noise with a bandwidth less than

A.

The best imperfect rule that minimizes the probability of error

is found with the Maximum A Posterior rule. Intuitively, in this
simple case, we should just decide that a 1 was sent if the voltage
received is positive, and 0 if it is negative. In general, this is
a well-known classification problem (a.k.a. hypothesis testing)
whose answer is known. Given this decision rule, the residual
probability of error (BER) is:
928 • FRANCES ZHU

Typically, is expressed in terms of

The BER can be computed for other modulations using a similar

approach. For

example:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 929

Bit-error rate (BER) vs Eb/N0 curves for different digital modulation

methods is a common application example of Eb/N0. Here an AWGN
channel is assumed. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Splash.

Adding coding schemes (Reed Solomon, Viterbi) to a

modulation has the effect of pushing the BER= curve
towards the left (less power required for a given .

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1295
930 • FRANCES ZHU

6.7 Link Budget

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1297#oembed-1

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1297#h5p-72

An Introduction to Satellite Link Budget – Part 1. Video courtesy of YouTube.

The link budget equation is the fundamental relationship driving

the design of the communications architecture. It links together
the requirements (data rate, BER) with the main design
parameters of both the satellite communications subsystem and
the ground segment. This section will describe the components
of this equation and how to modify the link budget to close.

930
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 931

These design questions include:

• How big should the antennas be?

• How much power should we transmit?

• How much noise can we accept on the receiver?

• What radio frequency should we choose to transmit?

Note that this is a single equation linking 9 parameters, so there

are multiple possible combinations of values that can satisfy the
requirements:

• = transmitter power (Watts)

• = transmitter-to-antenna line loss (unitless, Watts/

Watts)

• = transmit antenna gain (unitless, Watts/Watts)

• = space loss (unitless, Watts/Watts)

• = transmission path loss (unitless, Watts/Watts)

• = receiver antenna gain (unitless, Watts/Watts)

• = Boltzmann’s constant (Joules/Kelvin)

• = system noise temperature (Kelvin)

These values can be combined into intermediate expressions.

• Power flux density at distance R:

• Effect of atmosphere and circuit losses:

932 • FRANCES ZHU

• Receiver power:

• Energy per bit:

• Noise:

Combining all those expressions, we find the link budget

equation:

The link budget equation is often expressed in the log domain

and using the following definitions:

• Definition: Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power:

• Definition: Free space losses

• Definition: Gain to Noise temperature

In this case, all parameters must be in dB

Antenna Gain
“In electromagnetics, an antenna’s power gain or simply gain
is a key performance number which combines the antenna‘s
directivity and electrical efficiency. In a transmitting antenna,
the gain describes how well the antenna converts input power
into radio waves headed in a specified direction. In a receiving
antenna, the gain describes how well the antenna converts radio
waves arriving from a specified direction into electrical power”
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 933

[Wikipedia]. There are two antennas in the link budget: one in

transmission and one in reception.

Directivity and maximum effective aperture diagram. Image by AJAL

A.

Regardless, the general expression for antenna gain is:

Where

• is the efficiency of an antenna, defined by the

power going out of the antenna over the power going
into the antenna

• are the number of steradians in a sphere, which is

used for calculating mean radiation regardless of
directivity

• is the wavelength

• is the effective aperture area

• is the directivity associated with the transmitter or

934 • FRANCES ZHU

receiver

The angular resolution achieved by an aperture is:

where for circular aperture, for rectangular

aperture.

Antenna gain pattern. Image by Electronics 360.

Gains for different shapes of antennas are:

• Omnidirectional antenna: (0 dB)

• Parabolic antenna of aperture D:

◦ Typical values for

• Helical antenna:

where L is the length of the antenna

◦ This gain is obtained when the radius R is

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 935

equal to

Various shapes of the patch antenna. Kiruthika, R., and T.

Shanmuganantham. “Comparison of different shapes in microstrip patch
antenna for X-band applications.” 2016 International Conference on
Emerging Technological Trends (ICETT). IEEE, 2016.
936 • FRANCES ZHU

Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

EIRP is a measurement showing performance at a specific point only

(i.e, the measurement at a specific angle (Phi, Theta). Image by Share
Tech Note.

Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is the primary

design parameter on the transmitter side. EIRP is the product
of transmitted power and the gain of the transmitting antenna.
“Effective isotropic radiated power is the hypothetical power
that would have to be radiated by an isotropic antenna to give the
same (“equivalent”) signal strength as the actual source antenna
in the direction of the antenna’s strongest beam” [Wikipedia].
This means that there is a trade-off between antenna size and
transmitted power. We can compensate for a small antenna by
transmitting more power and vice-versa, where you want to be in
that trade-off depends on cost and other metrics and constraints
(e.g. volume constraints). Formally:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 937

Where is the output power of the transmitter (dBm)

is the cable loss (dB)

Illustration of the definition of equivalent isotropically radiated power

(EIRP). The axes have units of signal strength in decibels. R_a is the
radiation pattern of a given transmitter driving a directional antenna. It
radiates a far-field signal strength of S in its direction of maximum
radiation (main lobe) along the z-axis. The green sphere R_iso is the
radiation pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna that radiates the same
maximum signal strength as the directive antenna does. The transmitter
power that would have to be applied to the isotropic antenna to radiate
this much power is the EIRP. Image by Chet Vorno.

Free Space Losses

“Free-space path loss is the attenuation of radio energy between
938 • FRANCES ZHU

the feed points of two antennas that results from the combination
of the receiving antenna’s capture area plus the obstacle-free,
line-of-sight path through free space (usually air)” [Wikipedia].
Formally:

Where is the distance between antennas. “The free-space path

loss is the loss factor in this equation that is due to distance and
wavelength, or in other words, the ratio of power transmitted to
power received assuming the antennas are isotropic and have no
directivity” [Wikipedia].

In free space, the intensity of electromagnetic radiation decreases with

distance by the inverse square law, because the same amount of power
spreads over an area proportional to the square of the distance from the
source. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Borb.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 939

“The free-space loss increases with the distance between the

antennas and decreases with the wavelength of the radio waves
due to these factors” [Wikipedia]

• Intensity ( ) – the power density of the radio waves

decreases with the square of the distance from the
transmitting antenna due to the spreading of the
electromagnetic energy in space according to the
inverse square law

• Antenna capture area ( )– the amount of power

the receiving antenna captures from the radiation field
is proportional to a factor called the antenna aperture
or antenna capture area, which increases with the
square of the wavelength. Since this factor is not
related to the radio wave path but comes from the
receiving antenna, the term “free-space path loss” is a
little misleading.

Frequency Selection
Within licensing constraints, the selected radio frequency affects
the free space loss, bandwidth, size, antenna gain, cost, and
complexity of electronics for you to consider:
940 • FRANCES ZHU

The frequencies that are typically used for various space

missions are:

• S-Band — 2-3 GHz

◦ Space operation, Earth exploration, Space

research

• X-Band — 7-8 GHz

◦ Earth exploration, Space research

• Ku-Band — 13-15 GHz

◦ Space research

◦ Loss from rain

• Ka-Band — 23-28 GHz

◦ Inter-satellite, Earth exploration

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 941

Atmospheric absorption percentages throughout the electromagnetic

spectrum. Image courtesy of NASA.

Noise
Noise is any signal that isn’t part of the information sent. Noise
can come into the link budget from the original signal, from the
system, and from the environment.

Link budgets usually start with the transmitter power and sum all the
gains and losses in the system accounting for the propagation losses to
find the received power. Then the noise level at the receiver is estimated
so we can take the ratio of the signal power to the noise power and work
out the performance of the link. Image by Mike Willis.
942 • FRANCES ZHU

Signal Noise

Signal noise can come in the form of amplitude noise – error

in the magnitude of a signal and phase noise – error in the
frequency/phase modulation. The communications system
receives this signal from the payload and various other
subsystems so we will glaze over this.

Signal noise injected onto electrical communication will add or detract

from the expected signal value. Image by Predig.

System Noise

The communications system has noise in its components in

the form of passive noise and active noise (amplifiers, mixers,
etc…). All real components generate “thermal noise” due to
the random motion of atoms. Passive devices’ thermal noise is
directly related to the temperature of the device, its bandwidth,
and the frequency of operation. Noise is generated by the
thermal vibration of bound charges. A moving charge generates
an electromagnetic signal. Passive components include resistive
loads (power loads) and cables & other such things (like
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 943

waveguides). The total noise on the receiver (T) has

contributions from antenna and receiver:

If the line between antenna and receiver is lossy L < 1, it will

also contribute noise:

where is the antenna noise temperature and it depends on

the frequency and on where the antenna is pointing at and is
the noise factor of the receiver. Usually, receivers can be made
less noisy on the ground antenna. Noise temperature provides a
way of determining how much thermal noise is generated in the
receiving system. The physical noise temperature of a device,
, results in a noise power of where:

= Boltzmann’s constant = ; K in dBW

= -228.6 dBW/K

= Noise temperature of source in Kelvin

= Bandwidth of power measurement device in hertz

Satellite communications systems work with weak signals, so

reduce the noise in the receiver as far as possible. Generally,
the receiver bandwidth is just large enough to pass the signal.
Methods to keep the receiver temperature cool include liquid
helium or other thermal solutions.
944 • FRANCES ZHU

An example of system noise temperature. Image by Dr. Akin.

Environmental Noise

Noise from the space environment can affect the transmitted

signal from the galaxy, sun, atmosphere, precipitation, and man-
made sources.

“Cosmic noise originates from the stars present in outer space.

Distant stars are also very high-temperature bodies and are also
termed the sun. The noise generated from the star is similar to
that generated by the sun. Cosmic noise is also known as black
body noise. Not only the stars but the galaxies and other virtual
point sources like quasars and pulsars in outer space produce
cosmic noise” [ElectronicsDesk].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 945

The Cosmic Microwave Background temperature fluctuations from the

7-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe data were seen over the
full sky. The image is a mollweide projection of the temperature
variations over the celestial sphere. The average temperature is 2.725
Kelvin degrees above absolute zero (absolute zero is equivalent to
-273.15 ºC or -459 ºF), and the colors represent the tiny temperature
fluctuations, as in a weather map. Red regions are warmer and blue
regions are colder by about 0.0002 degrees. This map is the ILC
(Internal Linear Combination) map, which attempts to subtract out noise
from the galaxy and other sources. The technique is of uncertain
reliability, especially on smaller scales, so other maps are typically used
for detailed scientific analysis. Image courtesy of NASA.

“Solar noise is generated by the sun. As the Sun is a large body

with extremely high temperature thus it emits or releases high
electrical energy in noise form over a broad frequency range.
However, the intensity of the produced noise signal changes
timely. This is so because the temperature change of the sun
follows 11 years of the life cycle. Hence large electrical
disturbances occur after the period of every 11 years. While
in other years the noise level is comparatively low”
[ElectronicsDesk]. Solar phenomena, like solar flares and
coronal mass ejections, can interrupt satellite communications
946 • FRANCES ZHU

by bursts of radiation that can damage or reset the satellite’s

electronics.

NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory captured this image of a solar

flare, as seen in the bright flash. A loop of solar material, a coronal mass
ejection (CME), can also be seen rising up off the right limb of the Sun.
Image credit: NASA/SDO/Goddard.

The atmosphere can affect satellite communications in various

ways. Rain causes loss, particularly in the Ku band. Lightning
creates electromagnetic interference that can also affect signals.
Snow affects communications less than rain, due to the
difference in density.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 947

Clear atmosphere attenuation of electromagnetic radiation as a function

of frequency. Indicated are also the dominant absorption molecules and
the Planck law for a 300 K temperature. National Research Council.
Assessment of millimeter-wave and terahertz technology for detection
and identification of concealed explosives and weapons. National
Academies Press, 2007.

Man-made noise comes in many, many forms. Humans transmit

radio frequencies that can interfere with incoming spacecraft
signals, thus the need for the Federal Communications
Commission to regulate the number of waves knocking around
in our atmosphere. Potential active threats to satellite
communications include anti-satellite ballistic missiles and
jamming, which is very rare [Takaya-Umehara].
948 • FRANCES ZHU

Atmospheric noise as a function of frequency in the LF, MF, and HF

radio spectrum according to CCIR 322. The vertical axis is in decibels
above the thermal noise floor. It can be seen that as the frequency drops
atmospheric noise dominates other sources. Image by RSGB.

Link Margin
As the communications specialist, you shouldn’t just make sure
the link budget closes, you should design the link to have some
positive margin with respect to (e.g. 3dB).

Where

In summary, this section described the various parameters that

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 949

compose the link budget and discussed methods to either reduce

losses or increase the gain. Thankfully, there are many tools
available to calculate the exact link budget that keeps track of
all of these moving parameters (last section of this chapter) but
hopefully, you have general intuition as to how to improve the
link budget.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1297
950 • FRANCES ZHU

6.8 Technologies

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1299#oembed-1

Simplified Block Diagram of Spacecraft Radio Frequency Subsystem.

SCHEMES, A. COMPARISON OF MODULATION. “CCSDS-SFCG
EFFICIENT MODULATION METHODS STUDY.” (1993).

The hardware and software for communications differ on the

950
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 951

spacecraft and ground, given the available space and power.

Typically, the ground antenna is larger than the spacecraft
antenna to increase the gain along with the link budget and there
are fewer mass constraints on the ground. The ground antennas
also transmit at much higher power for the same reasons,
increasing the gain with fewer power constraints. For this
section, we will focus on spacecraft technology, like antennas,
transceivers, filters, and diplexers.

Antennas

Antenna concept. Image by Share Tech Note.

Antennas are circuits (wires, apertures) that interact with EM

waves by transforming electrical fields into currents (and vice-
versa). Antennas receive & transmit RF (radio frequency)
952 • FRANCES ZHU

energy. The size/type selected is directly related to frequency/

required gain.

Various sizes and shapes of antennas. Image by QPH.

There are different types of antennas:

• Dipole
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 953

A CubeSat with antennae made of measuring tape. Image by Net DNA.

Dipole Antenna 3D Radiation Pattern. Image by Raymaps.

• Parabolic
954 • FRANCES ZHU

The radar antenna for the tiny RainCube satellite folds up into a
10-by-10-by-15-centimeter canister. Upon deployment, its 30 ribs
extend like an umbrella to form a parabolic dish. Image by JPL/NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 955

Parabolic dish antenna radiation pattern. Image by Antenna Magus.

• Patch

BEESAT-3 CubeSat and its components (image credit: TU Berlin).

956 • FRANCES ZHU

Yagi Antenna 3D Radiation Pattern. Image by Raymaps.

• Helical

Illustration of the GATOSS nano-satellite with its helical antenna

deployed. Image by ESA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 957

Helical antenna radiation pattern. Image by Mathworks.

• Yagi

The fabricated antenna on 1U Cube with various lift angles. Liu, Sining,
et al. “A Printed Yagi Antenna for CubeSat with Multi-Frequency Tilt
Operation.” Electronics 9.6 (2020): 986.
958 • FRANCES ZHU

Yagi Antenna 3D Radiation Pattern. Image by Raymaps.

• Horn
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 959

Deployment sequence of the reflector antenna. The antenna is initially

stowed in a 1.5 U volume. (Top) CAD model of the antenna
deployment. (Bottom) Photos of the deployment sequence. Chahat,
Nacer, et al. “CubeSat deployable Ka-band mesh reflector antenna
development for earth science missions.” IEEE Transactions on
Antennas and Propagation 64.6 (2016): 2083-2093.

Horn Antenna Radiation Pattern. Image by Raymaps.

An omnidirectional antenna radiates isotropically in all

960 • FRANCES ZHU

directions so that the emitted power density at a distance

is:

Most antennas are directional, i.e., the intensity of the radiated

power depends on the direction.

The gain patterns illustrate the directionality or directivity of the

antenna. The directivity of an antenna produces a higher gain in
that direction but the satellite must be pointing that axis toward
the ground station more precisely to get that improved gain, a
trade-off in ADCS complexity.

Transponder/Transceiver

A satellite communication system is mentioned, where the role of a

transponder is clearly magnified. Image by Daenotes.

“A communications satellite‘s transponder is the series of

interconnected units that form a communications channel
between the receiving and the transmitting antennas. It is mainly
used in satellite communication to transfer the received signals.
A transponder is typically composed of” [Wikipedia]:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 961

• An input band-limiting device (an input band-pass

filter),
• An input low-noise amplifier (LNA), designed to
amplify the signals received from the Earth station
(normally very weak, because of the large distances
involved.)

• A frequency translator (normally composed of an

oscillator and a frequency mixer) is used to convert
the frequency of the received signal to the frequency
required for the transmitted signal,

• An output band-pass filter,

• A power amplifier (this can be a traveling-wave tube

or a solid-state amplifier).

Example of a PakSat-1’s components with a communication system that

includes transponders, an antenna array, and a horn. Image by Blogspot.
962 • FRANCES ZHU

Diplexer/Multiplexer

Diplexer does multiplexing and demultiplexing of wide frequency bands

with much appropriate difference. The figure shows L and H bands at S
port. Image by R F Wireless.

A diplexer “separates two different frequency bands in the

receive path and combines them in the transmit path. These
frequency bands usually will be wide apart in the frequency
domain for the diplexer to work satisfactorily. It is often referred
to as RF power combiner/divider with the added functionality of
filtering. Broadband Filters are used to pass appropriate bands at
Tx and Rx path” [RFWireless]. The multiplexer is the extension
to more than two frequency bands.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 963

Diplexers configuration on a satellite. Image by Lemmy Morgan.

“There are many different kinds of diplexers. Passive diplexers

offer a little more than combiners. They take two signals (one
from the satellite and another from the ANT) that won’t interfere
964 • FRANCES ZHU

with each other and put them on the same cable. Active diplexers
add power to the line to limit the amount of loss that happens
when signals move through a system. Active diplexers can also
shift frequencies so that they work together. When a diplexer
does this, the diplexer would also be a modulator”
[LemmyMorgan].

Amateur radio diplexer. Image by Ukamsat.

Duplex

An example of a duplexer operation. Image courtesy of Averse.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 965

A duplexers use of the single antenna by both transmitter and

receiver parts of a single device or two devices is known as a
duplexer. In other words, a duplexer is a device that couples the
transmitter and receiver to the antenna while producing isolation
between transmitter and receiver. Both transmit and receive
paths usually will have frequency bands very nearer, hence
narrowband filters are used to separate these frequencies”
[RFWireless].

The ISIS VHF uplink/UHF downlink transceiver is a full-duplex

communication system for CubeSat TT&C applications. The radio can
operate in commercial and amateur bands of the VHF/UHF frequency
spectrum. It is low power, low mass, and highly configurable, offering
the flexibility of changing data rates and frequencies in flight. Image by
Cubesat Shop.

Amplifier

An RF power amplifier “is a type of electronic amplifier that

converts a low-power radio-frequency signal into a higher power
966 • FRANCES ZHU

signal. Typically, RF power amplifiers drive the antenna of a

transmitter. Design goals often include gain, power output,
bandwidth, power efficiency, linearity (low signal compression
at rated output), input and output impedance matching, and heat
dissipation” [Wikipedia].

An RF power amplifier. CC BY 2.0. Image by Jeff Keyzer.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 967

Filter

Bandpass filter in microstrip using edge-coupled halfwave resonators.

The via fences on each side are not part of the filter but form part of the
enclosure. The substrate thickness is about 0.5mm, and the metallization
thickness is perhaps 20μm. The passband is at the bottom of the Ku
band, so the substrate dielectric constant must be about 3.5. For scale:
the pitch of the via fences is precisely 1mm. Image by Größe dieser
Vorschau.

“Radiofrequency (RF) filters represent a class of electronic

filter, designed to operate on signals in the megahertz to
gigahertz frequency ranges (medium frequency to extremely
high frequency). Such filters are commonly used as building
blocks for duplexers and diplexers to combine or separate
multiple frequency bands.

Four general filter functions are desirable” [Wikipedia]:

• Band-pass filter: select only a desired band of

frequencies

• Band-stop filter: eliminate an undesired band of

frequencies

• Low-pass filter: allow only frequencies below a

cutoff frequency to pass
968 • FRANCES ZHU

• High-pass filter: allow only frequencies above a

cutoff frequency to pass

A graph of amplifier bandwidth at different gains. Adding negative

feedback limits the amplification but improves the frequency response
of the amplifier. Image by Petteri Aimonen.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1299
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 969

6.9 Communications Analysis

and Link Budget

“the following video is a duplicate video also found in section

6.7”

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1301#oembed-1

969
970 • FRANCES ZHU

An example of a link budget in diagram form. Image by Dr. Akin.

“You will also need the following information that you and your
customer can supply [Bill Sepmeier]:

• Latitude and longitude of the uplink and downlink

earth stations.

• Planned data or information rate.

• Modulation type (BPSK or QPSK)

• Forward error correction rate (1/2 or 3/4)

• Spread Factor – if any (use only for spread spectrum

systems)

• Uplink and Downlink frequencies.

• Uplink and Downlink antenna sizes.

• Uplink and Downlink antenna efficiency.

• Uplink and Downlink transmit and receive gains at
frequency.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 971

• Minimum digital signal strength (EB/No) for desired

Bit Error Rate (BER) performance.

Once the above information is available, it is a simple matter to

plug the data into the spreadsheet and calculate the link budget.”

Link budget calculators for both an RF and an optical

communications system:

• https://www.satsig.net/linkbugt.htm

• http://www.satcoms.org.uk/satellite-link-budget-
calculator.asp

• https://www.tutorialsweb.com/satcom/satellite-link-
budget-calculator.htm

• https://spacegrant.colorado.edu/COSGC_Projects/
co3sat/downloads/
CS1-COM100.03%20AMSAT%20IARU%20Link%2
0Budget.xls
• https://cedarweb.vsp.ucar.edu/wiki/images/7/75/
Cubesat_Link-Budget.xls

• https://www.maximintegrated.com/content/dam/files/
design/tools/tech-docs/5142/AN5142-link-budget.xls

• https://www.rfwireless-world.com/downloads/RF-
Link-Budget.xlsx

• https://sourceforge.isae.fr/projects/satlinktool-a-tool-
for-analysing-geo-satcom/wiki/Link_Budget
972 • FRANCES ZHU

Suggested Reading

http://rfic.eecs.berkeley.edu/~niknejad/ee242/pdf-
lock/NIST_LinkBudgetCalc_2_4_konglk.xls

Suggested Activity

Produce a link budget

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1301
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 973

Software Lab for

Communications Creating a Link
Budget

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2321#oembed-1

COMMS Link Budget

Purpose

• Understand the role of the telecommunications

subsystem in the context of spacecraft as a whole and
between other subsystems

• Calculate the equations of transmission and reception

973
974 • FRANCES ZHU

as a function of spacecraft parameters

• Review different modulation schemes, technologies,

and constraints

• Produce a link budget

Background and Key Concepts to Consider

Application of: 6.7 Communication System Link Budget, 6.9

Communications Analysis, and Link Budget

Artemis CubeSat Kit Specific

Artemis CubeSat Kit description of the

communication system:

• Orbit: Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

• The COMMS subsystem in this kit
consists of a long-range radio transceiver
(RFM23BW) and an antenna.

Links to the Artemis CubeSat Kit Github: https://github.com/

hsfl/artemis

Required Materials & Setup

• Reference Hiapo CubeSat Link Budget in Google

Sheets/Excel, AMSAT / IARU Annotated Link Model
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 975

System (Ver 2.5.3)

◦ Original spreadsheet from amsat.org (Jan

King, VK4GEY/W3GEY) for amateurs and
other non-commercial satellite developers

• Specifications for Communication System (Section

6.9)

◦ Latitude and longitude of the uplink and

downlink earth stations.

◦ Planned data or information rate.

◦ Modulation type (BPSK or QPSK)

◦ Forward error correction rate (1/2 or 3/4)

◦ Spread Factor – if any (use only for spread

spectrum systems)

◦ Uplink and Downlink frequencies.

◦ Uplink and Downlink antenna sizes.

◦ Uplink and Downlink antenna efficiency.

◦ Uplink and Downlink transmit and receive

gains at frequency.

◦ Minimum digital signal strength (EB/No)

for desired Bit Error Rate (BER)
performance.
976 • FRANCES ZHU

Procedure

Preliminary Lab Procedures

Reference the Hiapo Link Budget

The Hiapo link budget will be used as a reference for this

lab. Make your own copy of the Hiapo link budget. Find the
link to the Hiapo link budget here. (https://drive.google.com/
file/d/1pdoSMoNtH0IDnnRHbHyQdmk1c2Npr_Ba/
view?usp=sharing). With the budget open in Google Sheets,
click on “File” and either “Make a Copy” or “Download” as
a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (.xlsx). As needed, modify the
spreadsheet accordingly to the spacecraft of interest or
budgeting. Note that there are several sheets in the spreadsheet.
Sheets are numbered according to the suggested order to follow/
view the budget and analysis.

Note: Depending on the readability and functionality of the

spreadsheet, Excel may be preferred to using Google Sheets.
Instructions in the spreadsheet were originally written for users
viewing the file in Excel.

Description of Link Budget Template

“This spreadsheet system is an attempt to provide a new kind

of learning tool. It is intended, clearly, to be a working link
model in order to allow satellite system designers to design
and then document fully the RF radio links associated with
Command (uplink) and Telemetry (downlink) equipment. It is,
however, also intended to be a tutorial on the RF portion of a
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 977

satellite system. The model makes liberal use of “pop-up” notes

and “tools” to enhance the understanding (and hopefully the
knowledge) of the Link Model Operator (that’s you). After you
use the model for a while, let me know if I have been successful.
– Jan A. King, W3GEY and VK4GEY; [email protected]”

Link Budget Spreadsheet Organization

The sample spreadsheet provided has been created to help guide

users through using the file. Pay attention to the provided notes
and instructions per page, especially those in the introductory
sheets!

Note: Names and colors correlate to those as created in the

original/sample spreadsheet. Categories were created to help
identify the kinds of information and data within the entire
spreadsheet file. (Add brief description or parameters of each
sheet under the bullet points. May need to move information into
Main Lab Procedure after skimming sheets/list.)

Introduction & Instructions

• Title Page

◦ Formal documentation for spreadsheet,

some instructions

• I.I.R.R. (Introduction, Instructions for Use,

References, Revisions)

◦ Detailed instructions on how to use the

spreadsheet and the color key on how to
read the spreadsheet.
978 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ These instructions are most relevant for

Excel users (not Google Sheets, as some
features work slightly differently)

Environmental & Data Parameters

• Orbit (System Orbit Characteristics)

◦ Orbit options: (1) LEO, (2) HEO, (3) GEO,

(4) Deep Space

◦ Scroll down to the option to use.

• Frequency (UPLINK & DOWNLINK Frequency

Choices)

◦ Uplink and downlink selections

Ground Station & Antenna Hardware, Gains & Losses

• Transmitters (System Transmitters & Line Losses)

◦ Uplink Transmitter System (At Ground

Station)

◦ Downlink Transmitter System (At

Spacecraft)

◦ Transmitter power, lines, line lengths, and

losses

• Receivers (System Receivers and Line Losses)

◦ Uplink Receiver System (At Spacecraft)

◦ Downlink Receiver System (At Ground

Station)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 979

◦ System noise temperature, lines, line

lengths, gains, and losses
• Antenna Gain (System Antenna Gains (Directivities))

◦ Antenna gain, directivity, and beam width

◦ Considers uplink and downlink

◦ Select type of antenna for ground station

and spacecraft

▪ From a list of options, pick the

best match

▪ Options 1 – 4 for
ground station

▪ Options 1 – 7 for
spacecraft

▪ User-defined – last
options in the list

• Antenna Pointing Losses (System Antenna Pointing

Losses)

◦ a.k.a Antenna’s Loss in Gain, or “roll-off”

◦ How gain or directivity of an antenna

changes the further away from the direction
of peak gain

◦ The function of user input for antenna

pointing losses, angle, pointing error

◦ Pay attention to figures in the first row

(continues to the right)
980 • FRANCES ZHU

• Antenna Polarization Loss (System Polarization Loss

and Cross Polarization Isolation)
◦ Polarization properties of the ground station
and spacecraft antenna

• Atmos. & Ionos. Losses (Atmospheric and

Ionospheric Losses)

• Modulation-Demodulation Method

Final Results: Uplink & Downlink Budget, Summary

• Uplink Budget (Command)

• Downlink Budget (Telemetry)

• System Performance Summary

Additional Tools

• Antenna Patterns (Commonly Used Spacecraft

Antenna Radiation Patterns)

• Beam Roll-Off Tool

• Beam Roll-Off Plot

• Line Loss Tools & Tables (Transmission Line Loss

Tools and Tables)

• VSWR Loss Tool (Losses Resulting from Antenna

Mismatch – Measured Using Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio (VSWR) Method)

• GEO Azimuth Calc Data

• Orbit Shape Data

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 981

“The notes within the spreadsheet are crucial for using it as a

tool. It is important to note that interconnected equations in one
worksheet (W/S) may refer forward or back to data located in
other worksheets. Loss of this connection could be critical.”

The users will:

• Begin using the spreadsheet from ‘Title Page’ and

‘I.I.R.R.’ (under Introduction & Instructions).

• Proceed through each Speciality W/S (under

Environmental & Data Parameters, and Ground
Station & Antenna Hardware, Gains & Losses),
adding data, in sequence. Then select the next tab at
the bottom of the W/S.

• The final results of the model are in the “Uplink”,

“Downlink” and “System Performance Summary”
sheets.

• The Tools W/Ss is located beyond the “System

Performance Summary” W/S and may be explored
and used as they may be helpful to you.

All following sheets after the Introduction & Instructions will be

detailed more in the Main Lab Procedures section. Full notes are
copied in the References and Other Work section of the lab, to
help with the readability of the notes left in the spreadsheet.
982 • FRANCES ZHU

A sample Title Page was filled out, for the Hiapo CubeSat.

Title Page

Review and update information about your satellite program and

spacecraft. Use Notes #1 – 8 to help update the information in the
cells.

The following lists or summarizes some notes on the Title Page,

explaining part of how to use the spreadsheet. The full list of
notes is also listed in the References section.

Note #1

◦ Use the title page for formal documentation

for your satellite program

▪ Especially important for tracking

changes and versions of
generated/modified spreadsheets

◦ NONE of the cells are protected – be

careful in modifying!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 983

◦ Keep a master copy of the spreadsheet as a

backup/for creating new versions
◦ Color key

• RED text with a YELLOW background

▪ Indicates notes, results,

and titles

▪ Do not modify

▪ The exception to
modifying:

▪ “University
name” and
“Project
name”

▪ On Title sheet
ONLY, when
filling out
sheet for the
first time
(copies across
all sheets)

• BLACK text

▪ Indicates labels or
contains formulas

▪ Do not modify
984 • FRANCES ZHU

• BLUE text or BLUE text with BLUE background

▪ User-input

• Modify these cells!

▪ With background indicates

criticality for CORRECT
information on spacecraft or
ground station

Note: This simplified color key is generally applicable

throughout! As the user, look out for BLUE cells to edit. More
colors are explained in the I.I.R.R. sheet.

Note #2 – 7

• (Read on the Title page sheet.)

Note #8

• After entering all data, including Approvals, proceed

to the “I.I.R.R.” W/S and then the “Orbit &
Frequency” W/S.

Review the I.I.R.R. sheet

(a.k.a. Introduction, Instructions for Use, References, Revisions)

Thoroughly read through the I.I.R.R. sheet for in-depth

instructions and the cells color key used throughout the entire
spreadsheet. This sheet contains important information!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 985

Note: Remember this information while using the spreadsheet

and refer back to it as needed. The colors explained here are used
consistently throughout.

Main Lab Procedures

List each cell to modify (blue text or cell background) in the

bullet point list per sheet. Screenshot a sample of each sheet for
identification.

Environmental & Data Parameters

Orbit

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• LEO option #1

◦ …

Frequency

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …

Ground Station & Hardware, Gains & Losses

Transmitters

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …
986 • FRANCES ZHU

Receivers

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …

Antenna Gain

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …

Antenna Pointing Losses

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …

Antenna Polarization Loss

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …

Atmos. & Ionos. Losses (Atmospheric and Ionospheric Losses)

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …

Modulation-Demodulation Method

Cells to expect to modify and pay attention to…

• …
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 987

Final Results: Uplink & Downlink, Summary

Uplink Budget

• …

Downlink Budget

• …

System Performance Summary

• …

Additional Tools

Antenna Patterns

• …

Beam Roll-Off Tool

• …

Beam Roll-Off Plot

• …

Line Loss Tools & Tables

• …
988 • FRANCES ZHU

VSWR Loss Tool

• …

GEO Azimuth Calc Data

• …

Orbit Shape Data

• …

Clean Up

• Be sure to save the file and pay attention to file

versions and names.

• If other CASES or TESTS are to be used in the

spreadsheet tool, create and rename new versions.
Use names that will be descriptive enough for future
reference.

Lab Review and Deliverables

Goal(s):

• Modify the Hiapo Link Budget starting with

information on the spacecraft and the communication
system. Work through the budget to integrate the
changes.
• Calculate the equations of transmission and reception
as a function of spacecraft parameters.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 989

• Produce a link budget with up-to-date information on

your spacecraft.

Safety and Best Practices Tips

Alternative Activities

References and Other Work

Note: For notes copied from the spreadsheet, some spelling

corrections have been made.

Artemis Communication Requirements

The CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14 explicitly states in

their operational specification:

• 2.4.1 Operators shall obtain and provide

documentation of proper licenses for use of radio
frequencies.

• 2.4.1.1 Note: For amateur frequency use, this requires

proof of frequency coordination by the IARU.
Applications can be found at www.iaru.org.

• 2.4.2 CubeSats shall comply with their country’s

radio license agreements and restrictions.
• 2.4.2.1 Note: CubeSat operators should refer to the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to
determine what licenses and approvals are needed for
990 • FRANCES ZHU

their country

3.5 The CubeSat communications system shall transmit

telemetry from LEO

• 3.5.1 The radio shall transmit detectable telemetry in

amateur radio frequency (UHF)

• 3.5.2 The ground stations shall receive UHF and

process true telemetry

• 3.5.3 The link budget shall have a margin of at least 5

dB

Notes: Title Page

Note #1

• It is intended that this Link Model can be used as a

formal part of the documentation of your satellite
program. The “Title Page” Worksheet (W/S) of this
Excel Workbook is the means by which this is carried
out. If you are using the model in this capacity it
becomes important to be able to track changes. You
will find that many versions of the model will be
generated as new designs arise and old ones are
modified. This W/S is intended to contain sufficient
information to allow the project personnel to clearly
identify which version of the workbook you are using
at the time. Of course, self-discipline is always
important in documenting software.

• First, it should be noted that NONE of the cells in this

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 991

workbook are protected. So, anything can be

changed (or unintentionally erased). So, the very first
thing you should do is make several copies of this
model so that there is always a master copy
available. That version should not be changed from
the state in which you receive it. Only use it to make
more copies. The development of this system uses a
few basic principles involving the use of color. These
will be explained in detail in the next W/S. The
basics, however, need to be explained in this note.

• 1) RED text on a YELLOW background is intended

to draw your attention to important cells -usually
results and titles. They are not to be modified, except
on this sheet, University name and Project name
should be modified the first time you use them. This
need only be done on this W/S as these cells will be
copied, as appropriate, to the other W/S of the model.
If your project is not associated with a university
then, of course, you can simply modify the header of
this W/S accordingly BUT, don’t change the cell
numbers into which you place your data or the names
will not be propagated into the rest of the model
correctly.

• 2) BLACK text should never be modified. Black text

is either used for labels or contains formulas.
Modification of black text will result in the loss of the
formula once you hit “Enter.” That’s not good.

• 3) Cells with BLUE text are intended for link model

operator (that’s you) modification. If the cell has a
992 • FRANCES ZHU

blue background, that means it is critical that you

enter the correct data for your spacecraft or ground
station into that cell.

Note #2

• Communication System Engineer: This cell should be

modified to incorporate the name of the person acting
as the communications engineer for your project.

• Project Manager: This cell should be modified to

incorporate the head of the project and the person
who will have final authority for the validity of all
documents associated with your program.

Note #3

• Orbit Type: Modify this area to include a very brief

but, accurate description of your orbit on just the first
line of this box. If the orbit changes you should
modify this cell. Also, note that the date in Cell [F13]
is not linked to any of the data in the “Orbit &
Frequency” W/S so if you change data in that W/S
you should change this summary as well. That must
be done manually. Cell [F14] is linked to the “Orbit &
Frequency” W/S and provides feedback as to whether
an LEO, HEO, or GEO orbit has been selected. The
choice is made in the “Orbit & Frequency” W/S at
Cell [C3].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 993

Note #4

• Model Under Investigation: In this cell, you should

describe the basic characteristics of the spacecraft, its
properties, or its frequency that are unique to this
particular CASE you are evaluating. Update this cell
every time you want to run a new CASE but be
careful not to save this on top of the filename you
used for the old case.

Note #5

• Model/ Case No., Rev No.: You are encouraged here

to invent a file naming/numbering system that is
appropriate for your project. Hopefully, this model
will be one of the documents you will use. It should
be given a document number consistent with that
system and with your project drawing tree.
IMPORTANT: Somewhere within this name should
be the exact filename which you will use when you
SAVE this particular version of the link model. So
before you hit the “SAVE” or “SAVE AS” key the
last time, make sure you have modified this cell to
include that same name.

• If your project has a documentation specialist or

someone responsible for project configuration and
control, that person should complete this box. If the
link model has entered a formal phase then, once the
model is deemed correct and accurate, that person
should also check the box at Cell [I20].
994 • FRANCES ZHU

Note #6

• Date Last Modified: Update this date whenever you

SAVE the W/S if you have modified any of the
BLUE cells.

• Date W/S Formulas Last Modified: If you choose to

modify any of the formulas to improve upon this link
model then modify the date in this cell consistent with
the date of the change. This will keep you from
confusing old and new versions of the link model.
Clearly, once the project is under “formal”
configuration control (e.g., after CDR) the formulas
should not be changed.

Note #7

• Approvals: If the project is under formal control and

this document is used within your documentation
system, then the approval boxes below should be
used. In the approval process, when appropriate, each
responsible project person should review this
workbook and then approve it by placing a capital
“X” in the cell associated with their function. Upon
“ENTER” the cell will change from RED to GREEN.
Once all approvals have been granted, the “document
released” indicator will be enabled.

Note #8

• After entering all data, including Approvals, proceed

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 995

to the “I.I.R.R.” W/S and then the “Orbit &

Frequency” W/S.

Notes: Orbit

Note B14

LEO Orbit – Option #1

• Option #1 is intended for LEO Orbits. You may find

some of the calculations carried out here to be useful
for orbit as well as link analysis. The link model
operator should enter the critical values associated
with the apogee and perigee height of the orbit. From
that data, the worksheet calculates the semi-major
axis and the eccentricity of the orbit, which are proper
Keplerian elements. The operator may also wish to
enter the orbit inclination, Argument of Perigee,
Right Ascension of Ascending Node, and Mean
Anomaly values. Given this information, the
worksheet will determine the period of the orbit and
the first derivatives for the AoP and RAAN. These
will determine how the orbit will propagate over
time. Another useful parameter is also calculated by
the worksheet. Assuming only the orbit inclination
can be changed, the worksheet determines the correct
value of inclination for a sun-synchronous orbit,
given the other orbital elements provided.

• Most importantly for the link analysis, the link model

operator must enter the minimum acceptable
996 • FRANCES ZHU

elevation angle, found to be suitable at the ground

station site. Then, the maximum slant range to the
spacecraft will be calculated. This is the range used
by the link model in determining path loss. In
addition, the elevation angle is used in subsequent
worksheets to estimate the atmospheric losses. In
fact, any elevation angle can be entered and the
corresponding slant range to the satellite is
calculated. This will allow an investigation of link
performance as a function of elevation angle or slant
range.

• The figure is provided to help the operator envision

the geometry associated with the link.

• Now that the orbital properties have been selected,

move to the “Frequency” W/S to the “Uplink &
Downlink Frequency Choices.”

Note C38

High Earth Orbit (HEO) – Option #2

• Option #2 is intended for High Earth Orbits using

elliptical orbits. The link model operator selects …

Note K68

EARTH ANGULAR DIAMETER ()

• This is the Earth’s diameter (not counting the

atmosphere) as seen from the spacecraft.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 997

Note K69

S/C POINTING VECTOR ()

• Note that we depict here only the in-orbit plane

component. There is, generally, an out-of-plane
component as well. The pointing vector shown is
also to the center of the Earth. The link model
operator may wish to calculate the pointing vector
from the antenna boresight axis to the ground station
location.

• To assist in completing this calculation, see Ref. 7

(I.I.R.R. W/S), pages 63-71.

Note K70

WORST CASE SQUINT ANGLE

• This is the angle from the symmetry axis of the

spacecraft antenna to the furthest point away from the
spacecraft but still on the Earth’s surface.

Note K71

RX ANTENNA POINTING LOSS

• The link model operator must calculate and verify

that the antenna pointing error is consistent with the
S/C pointing vector given in Cell [K69] and takes into
consideration the location of the ground station on the
Earth. This is a 3D math problem. Once this overall
angle is determined it may be used in the antenna
998 • FRANCES ZHU

pointing losses W/S to determine the RX antenna

pointing loss. That will automatically be transferred
to this sheet and to the Uplink and Downlink Budget
W/Ss.

Note K71

TX ANTENNA POINTING LOSS

• The link model operator must calculate and verify

that the antenna pointing error is consistent with the
S/C pointing vector given in Cell [K69] and takes into
consideration the location of the ground station on the
Earth. This is a 3D math problem. Once this overall
angle is determined it may be used in the antenna
pointing losses W/S to determine the RX antenna
pointing loss. That will automatically be transferred
to this sheet and to the Uplink and Downlink Budget
W/Ss.

Note D85

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) – Option #3

• The GEO Orbit Option W/S allows the link model

operator to select a GEO Orbit Slot and the location
of two satellite users (one for the uplink and one for
the downlink). The W/S calculates the slant range to
each user as well as the azimuth and elevation bearing
to the satellite from each user. As an additional
output, the Earth central angle from the sub-satellite
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 999

point to the user location is also provided. The slant

range results are forwarded to the frequency W/S for
computation of the link path loss.

Note B102

Spacecraft Slot (Longitude)

• Spacecraft Slot Latitude is 0° by Definition.

Note O96

Downlink Note

• This data entry allows a downlink to the same user or

to a different user location.

Note G115

Deep Space Mission – Option #4

• The link model operator enters the mission target

object and the range to the deep space spacecraft in
astronomical units (AU). No orbital mechanics
calculation is carried out. The computed range (in
kilometers) will be used for path loss calculations in
the next W/S.

• After the orbit option has been selected move on to

the “Frequency” W/S.

Note F121

Current Range to S/C

1000 • FRANCES ZHU

• This value should be estimated or calculated from

other available resource data.

Notes: Frequency

Note B7

• The link model operator enters the uplink and

downlink frequency selection at Cell [L10] and Cell
[L16] respectively. If options 1,2 or 3 are not desired,
an operator-defined choice is provided at Cell [C13]
and Cell [19]. The path loss for each choice is given
in column G. The data from this W/S is forwarded to
other subsequent sheets.

• After the frequencies have been selected move on to

the “Transmitters” W/S.

Notes: Transmitters

Note B6

• This W/S is used to evaluate the losses associated

with the ground station and spacecraft transmitter
systems.

• The operator first enters the transmitter power output

in watts. The W/S provides the power converted to
dBm and dBW. The subsequent W/Ss will use dBW.

• The operator must then estimate the line lengths for

all of the cables in series between the transmitter and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1001

the antenna. Line losses can also be determined by

using the “Line Loss Toos & Tables” W/S near the
end of this workbook. The operator then must enter
the estimated insertion losses for any filters,
directional couplers, hybrids or other devices used in-
line between the transmitter and the antenna.

• The W/S calculates the total line losses and the power
that is actually delivered to the antennas.

• Once you know the losses of your transmitter systems

and the power delivered to the antennas move on to
the “Receivers” W/S.

Notes: Receivers

Note C6

• This W/S is used to evaluate the losses, noise

temperatures, and overall performance of the
spacecraft and ground station receivers.

• The analysis begins by explaining how the total noise

temperature of the receiver system is calculated from
the individual temperatures and losses that are
known. Just as with the transmitter system, the
individual losses of all lines and in-line components
must be known, determined, or estimated. The W/S
will walk the operator through each entry that is
required. Cable losses may also be determined by
using the “Line Loss Tool & Tables” W/S located
near the end of the workbook.
1002 • FRANCES ZHU

• There are two separate work areas here. One is for

the spacecraft command receiver and the second is
for the ground station telemetry receiver.

• The “bottom line” of this W/S is the system noise

temperature for each receiver.

• Two tools are also provided in this W/S. The first

allows you to translate from Noise Figure to Noise
Temperature or the reverse. The second is a tool to
be used for estimating the sky temperature of a
ground receiver.

• Once you have determined the noise temperature for

your receivers move on to the “Antenna Gain” W/S.

Note I28

GLNA = The gain of the LNA in linear (non-dB) units

• In the equation given here, the gain of the LNA

should be expressed in its “unlogged” form (e.g. an
amplifier with a gain of 20 dB has a linear gain of
100). If you know the gain of the amplifier in dB
then to get the linear gain: G=10^((Gain in dB)/10).
This worksheet allows you to enter the gain of the
LNA in dB and it calculates the linear gain for you.

• NOTE: A classic error made by beginners is to

assume that the system performance is increased
directly by the gain of the low noise amplifier. This
is incorrect. Fundamentally, the noise produced by
the amplifier can be thought of as being ahead of the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1003

gain. Therefore, the gain of the amplifier increases

both the signal and the noise proportionately. There
is a small improvement in overall performance (S/N
or Eb/No) given by the gain of the LNA, as can be
seen in the last term of the above equation. But, the
amount of this advantage is also dependent upon the
noise temperature of the 2nd stage. For a modern
system, the net improvement for, say, an X10 gain
increase (10 dB) is usually only a few degrees K, if
that. This is an undetectable improvement. See for
yourself by trying examples using this worksheet.

Note G57

Antenna or “Sky” Temperature

• The Sky Temperature as seen by a spacecraft must be

viewed from its unique perspective. The antenna at
the spacecraft “sees” within its beamwidth (or its
“field-of-view”) two possible components
(2020-04-17 11:36:32)

◦ The sky itself which is nominally at 2.7 K

but, at frequencies below 2 GHz also
includes galactic noise (see note at Cell
[G128]) which explains how much higher
values can occur).

◦ The Earth. The average Earth temperature

used is 290K, however, the Earth may be
“warmer” due to man-made noise sources
that can be distributed on the surface of the
1004 • FRANCES ZHU

planet. This is particularly true at lower

frequencies in the VHF-UHF range. The
actual value that should be used for the
Earth’s temperature is not well understood
but, it certainly varies with location and
time.

• There is a math exercise to be accomplished here.

The spacecraft’s Sky Temperature value must be
computed as follows. Determine the fraction of the
antenna’s beamwidth that is filled by the Earth. This
fraction of the field-of-view is given a value of (at
least) 290K. Then determine the fractional remainder
of the antenna field-of-view. It will see the actual
sky, which is either taken to be 2.7K at frequencies
above 2 GHz or some higher value due to Galactic
noise at lower frequencies. The sky temperature will
be the weighted average of these two noise
components. [For example, if 25% of a particular
spacecraft antenna’s field-of-view included the Earth
(at 290K) and 75% of the antenna’s field-of-view saw
cold sky (at 2.7K) then the Sky Temperature for the
spacecraft would be .25(290K)+.75(2.7K) = 74.5 K].
To do this properly, of course, involves Integral
Calculus, taking into account the antenna pattern roll-
off characteristics and the variations in antenna
temperature over the sky within the field of view.
Typically, however, simpler mathematical estimates,
as given above, are used.

• A special case that arises frequently is that of a

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1005

geostationary satellite using a spot beam antenna that

has 100% of its field-of-view filled by the Earth’s
surface. In this case, the first order Sky Temperature
value is simply 290K. However, when the spot beam
gets small enough that it illuminates “features” of the
Earth’s surface, then determining the local physical
temperature of the Earth could have some meaning.
This fine structure exercise, however, is likely not to
be productive. Just use a value of 290K.

Note U56/V52

TO

• The performance of a low noise amplifier (LNA)

[also called a preamplifier] is often expressed in two
forms: Its noise figure (NF) in dB or its noise
temperature in °K. The translation between the two
depends upon the reference temperature of the system
(To). To can be selected in Cell [J59]. For
convenience, it is re-displayed at Cell [U56].

• This calculator allows you to translate from one

parameter to the other, depending upon which
parameter is specified to you.

Note I99

GLNA = The gain of the LNA in linear (non-dB) units

• In the equation used, the gain of the LNA should be

expressed in its “unlogged” form (e.g. an amplifier
1006 • FRANCES ZHU

with a gain of 20 dB has a linear gain of 100). If you

know the gain of the amplifier in dB then to get the
linear gain: G=10^((Gain in dB)/10). This worksheet
allows you to enter the gain of the LNA in dB and it
calculates the linear gain for you.

• NOTE: A classical error made by beginners is to

assume that the system performance is increased
directly by the gain of the low noise amplifier. This
is incorrect. There is a small improvement in overall
performance given by the gain of the LNA as can be
seen in the last term of the above equation. But, the
amount of this advantage is also dependent upon the
noise temperature of the 2nd stage. For a modern
system, the net improvement for, say, an X10 gain
increase is usually only a few degrees K, if that. This
is an undetectable improvement.

Note H107

Cable or Waveguide “Line” Losses

• The greatest improvement in downlink system

performance can be made at this location within the
receiver chain. The line losses between the antenna
and the Preamplifier (LNA) should be minimized by
locating the LNA directly at the feed point of the
antenna, if at all possible. Any cable used should be
of high quality and the VSWR of the antenna should
be as close to 1:1 as possible.

• It is, however, highly desirable to also include a

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1007

bandpass filter just in front of the LNA. This reduces

out-of-band signal interference which can otherwise
dense the LNA. The filter, however, also has an in-
band insertion loss which must be accounted for in
the losses between the antenna and the LNA.

Note G128

Antenna or “Sky” Temperature

• For a ground station antenna, the Sky Temperature

value must include not only the noise intercepted by
the ground station antenna coming from the colder
sky into which the antenna is looking but, it has to
include any terrestrially generated noise that may be
generated in the proximity of the station. This noise
most likely enters the system via the sidelobes of the
ground station antenna. This condition is worse when
the ground station antenna is at low elevation angles
and pointed in the direction of the source of the
noise. Under these conditions, the full gain of the
antenna “sees” the noise source at maximum
“temperature.” On campuses around the world these
days, the largest source of “sky noise” is generated by
the sum of all computers that are within the “radio
range” of the ground station. Finding and eliminating
these sources of noise is a major component of the
ground station design process.

• At VHF frequencies (and to a lesser extent, at UHF

frequencies) galactic noise can be observed even with
1008 • FRANCES ZHU

small antennas. The sky brightness is highest in

directions that intercept the disk (or plane) of the
Milky Way. At 146 MHz this value can be as high as
1700K and as low as 80K. For more information
regarding this source of noise see Ippolito, Louis J.,
“Radio Propagation in Satellite Communications,”
Van Norstrand Reinhold, pp. 136-138.

Note G136

Cable/Waveguide D Length

• This is the cable run from the output of the

Preamplifier (LNA), down the tower, to the ground
station and terminating at the input to the
Communications Receiver. This cable has a
moderate impact on the overall noise temperature of
the system and should be a high-quality, low-loss
cable. The loss of this cable is modeled as a
reduction in the gain of the preamplifier. This loss
and the noise temperature of the Communications
Receiver have a small but, measurable impact on the
system noise temperature. The temperature effects at
this location in the receiver chain may be improved
by 1) increasing the gain of the LNA, 2) reducing the
feedline loss, or 3) improving the noise figure or
temperature of the Communications Receiver’s first
stage of gain.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1009

Note P135

Estimated or Measured Noise Level

• Using a spectrum analyzer or the receiver’s signal

strength meter, try to determine the noise power from
the terrestrial source generating the noise. The
receiver’s “white noise” floor, set by its own LNA is
likely to be in the range of -130 to -140 dBm in a 10
kHz bandwidth. This is the noise you would “hear”
with no interference and listening to the receiver
speaker or on headphones. You can determine this
level by removing the antenna from the LNA input
and replacing it with a 50-ohm dummy load
(resistor). You will only be able to measure the
terrestrial noise source if the terrestrial noise source
power is considerably above the white noise floor set
by the receiver’s LNA. If the terrestrial noise source
is small or not detectable then you can ignore this
contribution by setting the value here equal to (or less
than) the receiver’s white noise floor power level set
by its LNA (P = k x TLNA x B).

Notes: Antenna Gain

Note B5

• This W/S takes some explaining. Most spacecraft

links are made or broken by the antennas used to
support them. Transmitters and receivers are quite
straightforward devices (in link modeling terms);
1010 • FRANCES ZHU

antennas are not. Several of the W/Ss here address

various properties of antennas. This W/S addresses
the properties known as gain and directivity. The
directivity of an antenna is a measure of how the
antenna concentrates the transmitter’s power in a
particular direction in relation to some coordinate
system fixed on the antenna. The directivity of a
highly directive antenna is typically taken to be the
peak value (sometimes called the boresight
directivity). It is usually measured as the ratio of the
power directed in the peak direction divided by the
same power when it is radiated isotropically (i.e.,
equally in all directions). Some antennas will have
losses associated with getting the power from the
antenna input to the radiating element. The gain of an
antenna is the directivity (measured in dB above an
isotropic radiator [dBi]) minus the antenna feed losses
(also measured in dB). It is sometimes important to
be able to make the distinction between directivity
and gain. And, frequently they are confused with one
another. For satellite systems operating in the
amateur satellite service, the term gain is more
frequently used.

• This W/S provides the operator with antenna options

for both the ground station and the spacecraft. You
should be able to pick among them and find one that
is similar to what you will use in your system. If you
are using something different, you may choose the
“User Defined” option which is either 4 or 5
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1011

depending on if the antenna is a ground station or a

spacecraft antenna. Then, you must enter the gain
and beamwidth of the antenna (basically, you must
fill in the missing blue values). So the first action for
the operator is to select a generic antenna type for
uplink and downlink, spacecraft, and ground station.
Thus, four antennas are involved in your system (at
least). If you are using a simplex satellite transceiver,
you may technically have only three antennas. So, in
this worksheet enter both spacecraft antennas as being
the same. The next step is quite educational. For the
ground station, you may design your antenna using
the basic parameters given in the various tables in this
worksheet. As always, modify only the blue text
cells. For example, a crossed yagi antenna is
designed here by simply selecting the length of the
antenna in wavelengths. The number of elements
required in each plane and the antenna gain and
beamwidth is derived in the table. [BTW, for a yagi
design, the gain values achieved here are slightly on
the optimistic side, based on experience]. In order to
design a helix, you will need to input the number of
turns to be used, the turn spacing, and the diameter of
the helix in wavelengths. The outputs are the gain
and the beamwidth. For a parabolic reflector (dish)
the inputs are the dish diameter and the aperture
illumination efficiency. The outputs are again, gain
and beamwidth. The frequency used in all cases is
the one you selected in the “Orbit & Frequency” W/S.
1012 • FRANCES ZHU

• For spacecraft antennas, there are a total of seven

options provided. Option 6 is provided so that the
link model operator has at least one high gain
spacecraft antenna option. You may model other high
gain antennas as though they were a “dish” antenna
by adjusting the diameter and/or aperture efficiency
of the dish until the desired gain of your actual
antenna is achieved. Option 7 is a user-defined
option. You must provide the gain and beamwidth
values for the antenna you choose in Cells H32 and
L32 for the uplink (and Cells H49 and L49 for the
downlink) respectively. For the spacecraft antennas,
there are no user-definable design parameters, except
for the parabolic reflector (see NOTE at Cell G31).
As most of the options available are primarily Omni
antennas, their designs are fairly fixed. That’s not
entirely true for antennas like the quadrifilar helix,
however, as the…

Note K11

Uplink Ground Station Polarization

• Operator Enter RHCP, LHCP, Linear

• NOTE: Linear antennas are discouraged.

Note K24

Uplink Spacecraft Polarization

• Operator Enter RHCP, LHCP, Linear

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1013

Note G31

Uplink Spacecraft Parabolic Reflector Gain

• Link Model Operator Must Set Antenna Parameters at

Cells T31 and V31.

Note K31

Uplink Spacecraft Parabolic Reflector Beamwidth

• Link Mode Operator Must Set Antenna Parameters at

Cells T31 and V31.

Note K41

Downlink Spacecraft Polarization

• Operator Enter RHCP, LHCP, Linear

Note G38

Downlink Spacecraft Parabolic Reflector Gain

• Link Model Operator Must Set Antenna Parameters at

Cells T48 and V48.

Note K38

Downlink Spacecraft Parabolic Reflector Beamwidth

• Link Mode Operator Must Set Antenna Parameters at

Cells T48 and V48.
1014 • FRANCES ZHU

Note K58

Downlink Ground Station Polarization

• Operator Enter RHCP, LHCP, Linear

• NOTE: Linear antennas are discouraged.

Notes: Antenna Pointing Losses

Note B3

• This W/S also deals with spacecraft and ground

station antennas. In this case, we are looking at how
the directivity (or gain) of an antenna changes as we
move away from the antenna’s direction of peak
gain. It is typical to refer to the antenna’s loss in
gain, as it might be viewed from a distant location
and as the antenna is rotated relative to the observer,
to be the gain “roll-off” of the antenna. If the antenna
gain used in the link analysis is the peak gain of the
antenna (and it always is) then any roll-off (typically
measured in dB) is considered a loss. The beamwidth
of an antenna is typically taken to be twice the angle
between the boresight and the direction where the
power has a roll-off value of a factor of 2 (that is, -3
dB).

• The gain of an antenna, as a function of some angle

(θ) away from the boresight, must be expressed by
assigning a coordinate system into which the antenna
is placed. In the case of a spacecraft antenna, which
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1015

is more-or-less omnidirectional, we primarily care

about the location of the antenna with respect to some
symmetry axis of the satellite. Figures 1 and 2 here,
define the overall geometry of the uplink and
downlink and the antenna placements assumed in this
link model.

• Ground Station Antennas: For the uplink, the

pointing loss of the ground station antenna is due to
an error in pointing,θ1. The antenna is always
operated close to the boresight and the gain roll-off
starts off slowly but then rapidly increases. The angle
is measured relative to the boresight direction. It
doesn’t usually matter much in which direction the
angle varies with respect to the boresight (e.g., in
azimuth or in elevation). The gain of this class of
antennas usually falls off in the same manner
regardless of the error direction. Some high gain
antenna arrays such as fan beam antennas and offset
fed dishes do not have this symmetry property around
the boresight so, this comment can’t be totally
generalized. If such antennas are employed, a more
complex model might be warranted. θ4 on the
downlink is defined in exactly the same manner as
θ1.

• Spacecraft Antennas: On the spacecraft side, one

doesn’t typically think of the orientation of the
spacecraft relative to the remote observer as being a
pointing “error” for LEO systems. Rather, we may
think of the ground station observer to be at some
1016 • FRANCES ZHU

vector orientation with respect to the spacecraft’s

coordinate system. The spacecraft antenna itself must
also be placed into that same coordinate system. For
the uplink, θ2 is a projection of the vector into one
particular plane of the spacecraft. Generally, it is a
plane that contains the symmetry axis of the
spacecraft system. The specific orientation of each of
the antenna options as they might be placed on the
spacecraft is shown in Figure 3 through Figure 8.
Also shown in these figures is a rough, uncalibrated
polar representation of the antenna gain relative to the
spacecraft symmetry axis. θ3 is defined in the same
manner as θ2. It is important to note that all except
one of the antenna options have a gain pattern that is
symmetric with respect to the Z-axis of the spacecraft
body. The orientation of the antenna options
provided is such that if one were to rotate the
spacecraft about Z and maintain the projection of the
angle to the remote observer in the fixed plane in
which we are observing here, then the gain of the
antenna would not change. One antenna, the dipole
is actually oriented differently. It has been assumed
that the dipole is mounted perpendicular to the
spacecraft Z-axis. In this one case, the projection of
the angle toward the direction to the user cuts the
pattern differently, for any arbitrary rotation about Z.
So, we must say that the gain given here is only valid
if the remote observer vector were to lie in the X-Z
plane. This particular plane will give the maximum
variation in the link performance due to a rotation of
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1017

the spacecraft. All other “cuts” of the dipole gain will

be less dramatic. So, this placement for the dipole
and the projection…

Note B30

Antenna Loss Determination

• Notice that below are tables containing the same

antenna options as having been presented in the
“Antenna Gain” W/S. However, you will also
observe that the cells containing the option selection
numbers now have black text. The tables are related
to providing the operator with a clear understanding
of the key antenna characteristics already chosen
while evaluating the antenna pointing errors and
losses. The operator must now select point errors for
the ground station antennas and vector values for the
direction of the ground station relative to the
spacecraft coordinate system. These are the angles
θ1, θ2, θ3, and θ4. The tables provide the pointing
loss associated with these angle selections. These
loss values are then entered automatically into the
“Uplink” and “Downlink” W/Ss.

• An interesting capability exists using this worksheet.

It is now possible to plot the resultant link
performance, say the Eb/No, as a function of the
ground station vector in the spacecraft coordinate
system as the spacecraft rotates. This allows one to
determine over what fraction of 4p steradians the link
1018 • FRANCES ZHU

will “close.”

• Once you have selected the four antenna pointing

losses, move on to the “Antenna Polarization Loss”
W/S.

Note R32

• Please do not modify numbers or formulas in these

columns.

• This column contains the functional relationships

between the angles, θ1 thru θ4, and the gain roll-off.
The equations use a variety of forms and are taken
from different sources.

• You SHOULD modify the equation at Cell R60 and/

or Cell R82 if you specify your own “User Defined”
antenna. The equation you provide should define the
antenna loss as a function of the viewing angle θ and
in the appropriate spacecraft plane. Currently
“plugged” into these cells is data for an isotropically
radiating antenna.

Notes: Antenna Polarization Loss

Note B6

• This worksheet also relates to antennas. It focuses on

characterizing the polarization properties of the
ground station and spacecraft antennas. An antenna
may generate E-field and H-field radiation in a fixed
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1019

relationship relative to the body of the antenna. Such

an antenna is characterized as having linear
polarization. If the E-field is oriented parallel to the
local horizon on Earth the antenna is said to be
horizontally polarized. If the B-field is oriented
parallel to the local horizon then the antenna is
vertically polarized. If two independent planes of
elements are used in an antenna system and the power
is divided equally between them and the elements are
fed 90° out of phase from one another and if the
elements are oriented perpendicular to one another,
then a circularly polarized EM wave will be
generated. In such a case, the E-field and the H-field
components of the wave will rotate in space as the
EM field propagates away from the radiating
antenna. The rotation rate is at the carrier frequency.
So, a 100 MHz circularly polarized signal will make
100,000,000 full rotations per second. If the phase of
the first element leads the phase of the signal to the
second element so as to generate a clockwise rotation
as viewed from the back of the antenna, looking in
the direction of the “launched” wave, then the
polarization is said to have right-hand circular
polarization (RHCP). If the phase is swapped, then
the rotation will be counter-clockwise in the same
reference system and the antenna is said to have left-
hand circular polarization (LHCP).

• There is also an in-between polarization case. If an

antenna has two planes of orthogonal elements as
1020 • FRANCES ZHU

discussed above but, the power delivered to the two

planes is not equal, then the antenna will generate
elliptical polarization. The E- and H- fields still
rotate at the carrier frequency as in circular
polarization but a non-rotating elliptically polarized
wave is generated. The ellipse will have a fixed
orientation with respect to the antenna radiators.
Usually, the major axis of the ellipse will line up with
the element receiving the most power. If at a distant
location, a horizontally polarized element is used to
receiver the signal from an elliptically polarized
antenna, and if the horizontal antenna can be rotated
slowly between horizontal and vertical it will be
noticed that a maximum signal attitude and a
minimum signal attitude can be found. These two
angles correspond to the major and minor axes
(respectively) of the polarization ellipse. One
important issue in link analysis is, how much power
loss is associated with the polarization properties of
BOTH the transmit and the receive antennas? The
measure of ellipticity for a given transmit or receive
antenna is known as its axial ratio. The axial ratio is
equal to 10 times the log to the base 10 of the ratio of
the power measured in the major axis divided by the
power measured in the minor axis. Thus, the axial
ratio of a perfectly circularly polarized antenna is
10log(.5/.5) = 0. And a linear antenna has an axial
ratio of 10log(1/0) = infinity since all of the power is
put into the major axis.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1021

• Here is an important point: A spacecraft using a

circularly polarized antenna (more or less
omnidirectional in gain) DOES NOT typically
produce the same axial ratio in all directions. Thus,
to be perfectly general, to characterize the antenna
system installed on a spacecraft one must measure
(usually in a spherical coordinate system) BOTH the
gain of the antenna as a function of two angles (say, θ
and j) AND the axial ratio of the antenna as a
function of θ and j. And, both of these parameters
will affect the link performance of the system. While
gain plots are commonly provided or measured, axial
ratio plots are not. Yet, the axial ratio could cause a
very large signal loss just as a gain loss can. Axial
ratio plots are typically accomplished (when they are
measured at all) by the technique hinted at above.
The spacecraft is placed in a two-axis rotating fixture
(to set θ and j) and a…

Note B27

• These two tables allow you to determine the power

loss and isolation between two antennas. One table is
for the uplink and the second is for the downlink.
You must first measure or estimate the axial ratio of
all of the antennas in the system at the attitude case
you have now selected in the “Antenna Pointing
Losses” W/S. [NOTE: If this is an early phase of the
design, assume either ideal properties such as perfect
circularity or pick an axial ratio in the vicinity of say,
1022 • FRANCES ZHU

1 dB as a starting point]. Enter these values into the

tables. Now estimate the angle between the transmit
and receive antenna polarization ellipses (the general
case). See the angle θ in the adjacent figure.
[NOTE: don’t confuse this angle θ with the
spacecraft attitude component θ]. The result will be
the polarization loss between the two antennas at that
angle.

• The table also provides the isolation between two

cross-polarized circular antennas (one RHCP and one
LHCP) using the same axial ratios.

• The two polarization loss values, given at Cell [F40]

and Cell [F60] are automatically transferred into the
“Uplink” and “Downlink” budget W/Ss.

• A table giving example results is provided at Cells

[B70:J99].

• [NOTE: A linear antenna may be adequately

represented by assuming its axial ratio is 30 dB.
From a practical standpoint, this value is
approximately correct, as even a dipole will typically
have a tiny orthogonal radiation component].

• After completing the entries to this W/S, proceed to

the “Atmos. & Ionos. Losses” W/S.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1023

Notes: Atmos. & Ionos. Losses

Link Losses Resulting from Signals Passing Through Atmospheric

Gases

• Losses due to atmospheric gases (Nitrogen, Oxygen,

Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, etc.) are nearly
independent of atmospheric temperature, mean
density, and relative humidity at frequencies below 2
GHz. Atmospheric absorption depends strongly upon
the total number of molecules distributed along the
path between the spacecraft and the ground station.
This, in turn, means that the losses from or to the
satellite are elevation angle-dependent.

• The table to the left is a look-up table. The minimum

elevation angle selected in the “Orbit” worksheet is
matched against the closest fit from the table and the
result is given at Cell [D23] and is automatically
inserted into the uplink and downlink budgets.

• The data used here is taken from “Radiowave

Propagation in Satellite Communications” by Louis J.
Ippolito, Jr., Van Nostrand-Reinhold, 1986, pp. 33-34,
Tables 3-3a-c.

• One additional interpolated value is added at a 2.5°

elevation angle. This was not taken from Ippolito’s
text.

• If you are using uplink or downlink frequencies

above 2 GHz, refer to the referenced text given above
1024 • FRANCES ZHU

to determine the appropriate atmospheric losses. At

millimeter-wave frequencies, the losses can be much
higher.

• Radio waves passing through the ionosphere at VHF,

UHF, and Microwave frequencies are influenced far
less by this layer of ionized particles than at
frequencies in the HF, MF, and LF portions of the
radio spectrum. While there is certainly some
correlation between the elevation angle to a satellite
and the signal absorption or scintillation experienced,
this dependency is nearly masked out by the time
variability of effects.

• There is, however, a frequency dependency that can

be quantified, on average. As transmitter frequencies
go below 100 MHz there are times when the
attenuation can increase to as much as tens of dB,
especially at low elevation angles. The ionosphere
certainly limits the lowest frequency at which satellite
communications are feasible. Below 20 MHz, during
solar maximum space signals are usually fully
absorbed or reflected by the layers of the ionosphere
(D, E, F1, and F2).

• The values provided in this table are approximate

mean values for low earth station elevation angles.

• It is proposed that these values can be conservatively

used in satellite link analyses. The higher-order
statistics of these loss parameters would be interesting
to review, however, this effort is more than is
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1025

necessary for the development of an effective link

budget.
• The losses determined here for the uplink and
downlink are based on the operator-selected
frequency choice made in the “Orbit” worksheet. If
the “User Defined” option is selected by the link
model operator, then the operator must estimate the
appropriate ionospheric loss value and manually
insert it in either Cell [D34] or Cell [D47]
accordingly.

• Proceed to the “Modulation-Demodulation Method”

W/S.

Note D21/F21

Loss due to Atmospheric Gases, Uplink & Downlink Minimum

Elevation Angle

• For this version of this link model, the Link Model

Operator must manually change the Minimum
Elevation Angle. This parameter is used for the
uplink and the downlink atmospheric losses. So, for
now, the uplink elevation angle and the downlink
elevation angle must be the same.

• I am working on a better version of the model that

will independently calculate both the uplink and
downlink Atmospheric Losses for different orbits and
for transponders as well as TTC links. But, that
version isn’t ready yet.
1026 • FRANCES ZHU

Note C35

Loss due to Ionosphere, Uplink

• This is a link model operator selected value. The

value is chosen in the Orbit and Frequency W/S at
Cell [C34].

Note C48

Loss due to Ionosphere, Downlink

• This is a link model operator selected value. The

value is chosen in the Orbit and Frequency W/S at
Cell [C40].

Notes: Modulation-Demodulation Method

Note B2

• Finally, we have arrived at the last point in the link:

the demodulator/decoder portion of the receiver. The
demodulator will extract the data from a modulated
signal and deliver it to either an FEC (forward error
correction) decoding device (or piece of software) or
directly to the ground station computer. The FEC
decoder, if one is used, will remove errors from the
data using extra bits that are inserted, either into each
byte or into a new form of “frame” (array or data
block).

• Listed in the two tables below (one used for the

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1027

uplink and the other for the downlink) are various

forms of modulation typically used in spacecraft
telemetry and command systems. They are listed
from the simplest (and poorest performing) type to
the most complex (and best performing type). The
options selectable are: Audio Frequency Shift
Keying on an FM Carrier, A special form of
Frequency Shift Keying developed by Mr. James
Miller – G3RUH, Non-Coherently Demodulated
Frequency Shift Keying, Gaussian Minimum Shift
Keying, Binary Phase Shift Keying, and Quadriphase
Phase Shift Keying. You should refer to standard
Communications textbooks in order to investigate and
understand the properties of these options.

• Also listed are the type of FEC decoding to be used.

Most of the options show no coding is used.
However, pairing an efficient modulation method
such as BPSK with an FEC decoder provides HUGE
advantages in terms of link performance.
Convolutional coding operates at the byte level and
additional bits are added to each word. Errors are
corrected, however, on a (bit-by-bit) sequential basis.
The most popular of these methods is known as a
Viterbi convolutional encoder/decoder system, named
for Andrew Viterbi, the inventor. Two parameters
select the degree of coding. R is the rate of the code
(e.g., 1/2, 1/3, 1/6). The rate defines how many
symbols are transmitted per bit of information). A
rate 1/2 code contains two symbols of information for
1028 • FRANCES ZHU

every bit. The constraint length K is the number of

output symbols that are affected by a given input
symbol.

• Another very popular method of FEC coding is

known as block coding. The decoder operates on an
entire block of data. Extra coding bits are added to
the end of the block. The most popular of the block
codes is known as Reed-Solomon after the inventors,
although there are many other forms of block coding.
In RS coding, two parameters are again used (n and
k). The encoder codes a block of n data information
symbols (bits) into a block of k codeword symbols.
Thus, errors are corrected at the block (or frame)
level. Both convolutional and block codes reduce
the Eb/No required to achieve a particular bit error
rate.

• Currently, it is common to use two encoders at the

transmitter in series (and two decoders in series at the
receiver). Such a process is called concatenated
coding. Usually, the first decoder will be a
convolutional decoder followed by a block decoder.
This further reduces the Eb/No required at the
demodulator input. One important reason for
considering the use of FEC coding is because
contemporary microprocessors are fast enough to
allow the decoder to be implemented entirely in
software, even at moderate data rates (say up to
50,000 to 100,000 bps).

• The parameter listed in Column E is the bit error rate

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1029

(B.E.R.). It is the average number of errors that occur

per bit transmitted. Put the other way around a
BER=1.00E-04 means that, on average, for every
10,000 bits transmitted one bit will be in error.

• The parameter listed in Column F is the theoretical

Eb/No required to achieve the bit error rate given in
column E.

• These two tables allow the link model operator to

select a modulation process and bit error rate
appropriately matched to the satellite being
developed. As always there is a “User Defined”
option, however, the operator must provide
appropriate values for the type of modulation, the
type of FEC coding used, the B.E.R., and the Eb/No
Required.

• The value “Eb/No Threshold” in Cell [H5] and Cell

[H32] are transferred to the “Uplink” …

Note B25

• The demodulator hardware or software may not be

perfect. The difference between the theoretical value
and the actual measured value of the Eb/No required
to achieve any particular B.E.R. is known as the
implementation loss. If we add the implementation
loss (usually measured for any particular design of
demodulator) to the theoretical Eb/No Required we
obtain a parameter, defined here as the Eb/No
threshold. If the link does not deliver an Eb/No equal
1030 • FRANCES ZHU

to or greater than the Eb/No threshold, then the

B.E.R. specification will be not be met and the link is,
therefore, said not to close.

• As a practical matter, some guidelines can be

provided for various types of demodulators. AFSK
and G3RUH/FSK involve two subsequent
“concatenated” demodulation processes. Both of
these processes are non-linear. As such, it is
mathematically difficult, given any particular
hardware implementation, to theoretically define the
required Eb/No. So, for these two types of
demodulators, the Eb/No required is usually
measured. For these choices given in the table
(Options 1 through 4) you need not assume any
implementation loss (value = 0) since the values
provided in Column F are measured performance
values and already include the implementation loss.
The values are average for various decoder
performance results provided in the literature.
Coherent and non-coherent FSK, GMSK, BPSK, and
QPSK all have well-known theoretical B.E.R. vs. Eb/
No requirements. (See Figure 1 below for BPSK vs.
B.E.R. theoretical performance). If one of the
Options 5-14 is selected, an implementation loss of
1.0 dB is approximately correct if the demod is
implemented in hardware and a value of 0.5 dB is
appropriate if a “good” software decoder is used. For
demodulator/decoder options involving FEC, one
would hope that the implementation losses would be
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1031

0.5 dB or less, otherwise, the performance

enhancement of the FEC decoder is being wasted.
• Once you have selected the two system modulator/
demodulator options and estimated the
implementation loss, move on to the “Uplink” W/S.

Note B54

• Figure 1 below is a plot for a BPSK system of the Eb/

No achieved in the link vs. the ideal bit error rate of
the system. This is a classical plot. BPSK is an ideal
modulation method in that it can be lossless. In fact,
it is possible to actually build a matched filter for this
type of demodulator. Without FEC coding, it is not
possible to improve on this BER curve performance.
That is why BPSK is such a good choice for a
telemetry system. BPSK, however, does require more
bandwidth than almost any other choice of modulator/
demodulator. So, as always, the best performance
comes at a price.

Notes: Uplink Budget

Note B1

• This is the main uplink budget. Most of the data

needed for the link has been provided in prior W/Ss.
As such, this is the final (and formal) uplink budget.
The operator must provide a few user-defined values.

◦ If a high microwave or mm-wave frequency

1032 • FRANCES ZHU

is used then rain losses become important.

The formal means of estimating rain losses
is a statistically based process. It is not
discussed here. If rain losses are an issue,
then the best that can be done right now is
to enter the rain loss that would represent
the worst-case loss for (99%, 99.9%, or
99.99% of the time). These can be obtained
from various communications texts for your
region of the world.

◦ The operator must provide the data rate to

be used for the command uplink.

◦ If the S/N method of analysis is to be

employed, the operator must provide the
pre-demodulator bandpass filter bandwidth
of the receiver.

◦ If the S/N method of analysis is to be

employed, the operator must provide the
required S/N for the analog or digital
demodulation process being used. This
should be specified against some measure
of the performance of the link such as
B.E.R. or achieve audio S/N or some signal
thresholding condition.

• The comments to the right are intended to help the

operator understand each step taken in the link
budget. If this information is not needed, in
particular, if you want to print the link budget, click
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1033

on the “1” in the upper left-hand corner of the first

row of this worksheet. Similarly, if you wish to
“hide” either the Eb/No method or the S/N method
subtables you may click on the “1” in the upper left-
hand corner of the first column of this worksheet.
Alternatively, you can click on the “-” sign at the
beginning of Row 47 or Row 69 to hide the data you
want. Clicking on the appropriate “2” box in the
upper left-hand corner of this worksheet will restore
all of the data.

• Once you have reviewed the Uplink data, move on to

the “Downlink” W/S.

Note B27

S/C Signal-to-Noise Power Density (S/No)

• Also known as the C/No, this value is already a useful

result. It is equivalent to the signal-to-noise ratio of
this link if one were to use a 1Hz wide data filter just
ahead of the receiver demodulator. This is the filter
that limits the noise entering the demodulator and
passes the signal in its final form.

• This value is calculated by:

◦ S/No = Piso+(G/T)-K

◦ where: K = Boltzman’s Constant

Note B30

Command System Eb/No

1034 • FRANCES ZHU

• This is the “Energy per bit to Noise Power Density

Ratio.” It is equivalent to the “Signal-to-Noise Ratio”
and is the parameter of choice for digital links. It is
the measure of performance for this link.

• Once the S/No is known, the Eb/No is simply

calculated by: Eb/No = S/No -10log(R) where R =
data rate.

Note B41

Eb/No Threshold

• This is the result of the Eb/No required theoretically

for the modulation method selected plus any
additional losses caused by imperfections in the
demodulator design.

Note B43

System Link Margin

• This is the bottom line. This value must be > 0.0 dB

for the link to work or “close.” A target value should
be approximately 10 dB for a low-cost system, 6 dB
for a professional system, and 3 dB for a deep space
system.

Note E47

Spacecraft Alternative Signal Analysis Method (SNR

Computation)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1035

• This is a more realistic method to use for a spacecraft

command receiver. The Eb/No method assumes the
receiver uses a matched filter and assumes a spectral
efficiency of 1 bps/Hz of bandwidth. In this
assumption, the bandwidth in Hz is chosen equal to
the bit rate (in bps). As such, no excess bandwidth is
assumed. S/C receivers are typically not coherent and
it is best to determine the final bandpass filter
bandwidth and use it here in Cell [B57]

Note H57

Spacecraft Receiver Bandwidth

• If you are using a coherent demodulator at the

spacecraft and if a coding option is selected (Uplink
Options 15-18 from the “Mod-Demod Method” W/S)
then make sure the Spacecraft Receiver Bandwidth
chosen includes the bandwidth required for the
“Symbol Rate” modulation spectrum. For example, if
Viterbi Convolutional Coding were used with R=1/2
and K=7 then the symbol rate modulation spectrum is
exactly twice that which would be occupied by the
data only. The filter must be twice as wide and this
means the noise seen at the demodulator is 3 dB
higher. This will result in a reduction in the Signal to
Noise Ratio of 3 dB.

Note B61

Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio at G.S. Rcvr

1036 • FRANCES ZHU

• This is the S/N result of this uplink. Note that

typically it will be poorer (a lower value) than the Eb/
No achieved for the link. That is because the filter
bandwidth is not exactly matched to the data spectral
bandwidth. In order to assure that the data spectrum
is contained within the filter and in order to account
for some doppler frequency errors on the part of the
uplinking ground station the filter has a bandwidth (in
Hz) larger than the data rate (in bps).

Note B65

System Link Margin

• This is the bottom line. This value must be > 0.0 dB

for the link to work. A target value should be
approximately 10 dB for a low-cost system, 6 dB for
a professional system, and 3 dB for a deep space
system.

Notes: Downlink Budget

Note B1

• This is the main downlink budget. Most of the data

needed for the link has been provided in prior W/Ss.
As such, this is the final (and formal) uplink budget.
The operator must provide a few user-defined values.

◦ If a high microwave or mm-wave frequency

is used then rain losses become important.
The formal means of estimating rain losses
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1037

is a statistically based process. It is not

discussed here. If rain losses are an issue,
then the best that can be done right now is
to enter the rain loss that would represent
the worst-case loss for (99%, 99.9%, or
99.99% of the time). These can be obtained
from various communications texts for your
region of the world.

◦ The operator must provide the data rate to

be used for the telemetry downlink.

◦ If the S/N method of analysis is to be

employed, the operator must provide the
pre-demodulator bandpass filter bandwidth
of the receiver.

◦ If the S/N method of analysis is to be

employed, the operator must provide the
required S/N for the analog or digital
demodulation process being used. This
should be specified against some measure
of the performance of the link such as
B.E.R. or achieve audio S/N or some signal
thresholding condition.

• The comments to the right are intended to help the

operator understand each step taken in the link
budget. If this information is not needed, in
particular, if you want to print the link budget, click
on the “1” in the upper left-hand corner of the first
row of this worksheet. Similarly, if you wish to
1038 • FRANCES ZHU

“hide” either the Eb/No method or the S/N method

subtables you may click on the “1” in the upper left-
hand corner of the first column of this worksheet.
Alternatively, you can click on the “-” sign at the
beginning of Row 46 or Row 67 to hide the data you
want. Clicking on the appropriate “2” box in the
upper left-hand corner of this worksheet will restore
the data.

• Once you have reviewed the Downlink data, move on

to the “System Performance W/S.”

Note B27

G.S. Signal-to-Noise Power Density (S/No)

• Also known as the C/No, this value is already a useful

result. It is equivalent to the signal-to-noise ratio of
this link if one were to use a 1Hz wide data filter just
ahead of the receiver demodulator. This is the filter
that limits the noise entering the demodulator and
passes the signal in its final form.

• This value is calculated by:

◦ S/No = Piso+(G/T)-K

◦ where: K = Boltzman’s Constant

Note B30

Telemetry System Eb/No for the Downlink

• This is the “Energy per bit to Noise Power Density

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1039

Ratio.” It is equivalent to the “Signal-to-Noise Ratio”

and is the parameter of choice for digital links. It is
the measure of performance for this link.

• Once the S/No is known, the Eb/No is simply

calculated by: Eb/No = S/No -10log(R) where R =
data rate.

Note B41

Eb/No Threshold

• This is the result of the Eb/No required theoretically

for the modulation method selected plus any
additional losses caused by imperfections in the
demodulator design.

Note B43

System Link Margin

• This is the bottom line. This value must be > 0.0 dB

for the link to work or “close.” A target value should
be approximately 10 dB for a low-cost system, 6 dB
for a professional system, and 3 dB for a deep space
system.

Note H56

Ground Station Receiver Bandwidth

• If you are using a coherent demodulator at the

spacecraft and if a coding option is selected
1040 • FRANCES ZHU

(Downlink Options 15-19 from the “Mod-Demod

Method” W/S) then make sure the Spacecraft
Receiver Bandwidth chosen includes the bandwidth
required for the “Symbol Rate” modulation
spectrum. For example, if Viterbi Convolutional
Coding were used with R=1/2 and K=7 then the
symbol rate modulation spectrum is exactly twice that
which would be occupied by the data only. The filter
must be twice as wide and this means the noise seen
at the demodulator is 3 dB higher. This will result in
a reduction in the Signal to Noise Ratio of 3 dB.

Note B60

Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio at G.S. Rcvr

• This is the S/N result of this downlink. Note that

typically it will be poorer (a lower value) than the Eb/
No achieved for the link. That is because the filter
bandwidth may not exactly be matched to the
downlink signal modulation spectrum. In order to
assure that the data spectrum is contained within the
filter and in order to account for some doppler
frequency errors on the downlink the filter often has a
bandwidth (in Hz) larger than the data rate (in bps).
In that case, this calculation method is more
appropriate.

Note B64

System Link Margin

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1041

• This is the bottom line. This value must be > 0.0 dB

for the link to work. A target value should be
approximately 10 dB for a low-cost system, 6 dB for
a professional system, and 3 dB for a deep space
system.

Notes: System Performance Summary

Note: A9

• This is a block diagram of the command and

telemetry link systems. It contains all of the data
selected by the link model operator. It represents a
high-level specification for the command and
telemetry equipment in the spacecraft and the ground
station. This can be printed as a final result, all or in
part, as may be useful to the operator or other project
members.

• Key losses associated with the link are summarized in

this system performance summary. The values are
located in the middle of the W/S in the “Radio Link”
area.

• Only one operator selection is needed in this W/S. At

Cell [O12], the efficiency of the transmitter [hTx
=(RF Output Power/DC Input Power)X100] is
entered. The W/S calculates the DC power required
to be delivered to the transmitter and the amount of
heat dissipated by the transmitter (See Cell[O14] and
Cell [O16].)
1042 • FRANCES ZHU

• Notice the cells in the two regions of the W/S,

[E5:G7] and [N107:P109]. They contain the final
results of both links. The color of the results boxes
will change, depending on the performance achieved.
The colors are as follows:

◦ GREEN: Link margin > 6 dB. “Link

Closes”

◦ YELLOW: Link margin > 0 dB but, < 6

dB. “Link Marginal”

◦ RED: Link margin < 0 dB. “No Link!”

• Everything else in the “Systems Performance

Summary” should be self-explanatory. After you
have reviewed the System Performance Summary,
you may want to review some of the design tools that
support the Link Model System, including:

• “S/C Antenna Patterns”, “Beam Roll-Off Tool”,

“Beam Roll-Off Plot”, “Line Loss Tools & Tables”,
and “VSWR Loss Tool”. The “Orbit Shape Data”
should not be modified by the link model operator.
In a later version, this W/S may be used to provide
options for elliptical orbits or planetary (Earth escape
missions).

Note O12

hTX

• Operator Enter Transmitter DC to RF Power

Efficiency
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1043

Note O14

Tx DC Power

• This is the DC power required whenever the

Spacecraft Transmitter is ON. This should be passed
on to the Spacecraft Power Subsystem analysis
process.

Note O16

Tx Dissipation

• This is the thermal heat that must be dissipated by the

transmitter. This value should be passed on to the
Spacecraft Thermal analysis process.
1044 • FRANCES ZHU

Hardware Lab for

Communications

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2323#h5p-168

Communication System Lab: An Epic Adventure in

Radios

Purpose:

1. Become familiar with basic radio concepts

2. Gain experience with the Artemis CubeSat Kit’s

communication system

3. Validate the kit’s ability to transmit and receive

1044
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1045

messages

4. Have fun sending messages to friends

Background:

Terms to know

• RSSI: received sign strength indicator

• UHF: ultra high frequency (between 300MHz and

3,000MHz)

• FSK: frequency shift keying (you should actually

read this one)

• Data rate: measured in bps or bits per second

• Watts: unit of measure for power

• Decibels (dBm): also a unit of power, but in a log

scale. Please take note that we can always convert
from watts to decibels to use the most convenient
system.

• Link budget: in short, how strong does our radio have

to be for the Earth to hear its signal

• SPI: digital communication protocol (no need to read

this)

Important information:

Our Radio

In the Artemis CubeSat Kit, we have chosen to use to

1046 • FRANCES ZHU

RFM23BPS modular radio. The RFM23 radio was selected

primarily because of its low cost and relatively high power
output. You can view the specifications download to learn more
about the radio!

Our Software

The Artemis CubeSat Kit flight software suite handles all

functions on the spacecraft and, as a result, is quite complicated.
However, the Comms team has created two small test programs
to exercise the radios. These test programs are completely
oblivious to the satellite as a whole, they are only designed to
operate the radio using the teensy 4.1.

Artemis communication block diagram.

Materials:
For this lab, the class will be broken up into two groups of
approximately 10 people. Each group of ten will need the
following items. All the items will be provided except for the
laptops. Those will be needed to be supplied by the students.

1. Two laptops (not supplied to the group)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1047

◦ The laptops must have the Arduino IDE

installed
◦ Follow these instructions to install
Teensyduino

2. Two USB -> micro USB cables

◦ (used to connect our laptops to the teensy)

3. Any pair combination of the following

◦ The Artemis CubeSat kit

▪ Ideally, this is a complete kit,

however as long as the kit
includes the teensy connected
with a radio and antenna board
should work

◦ The Artemis Comms test kit

▪ This kit is a bare-bones kit with a

populated OBC and Antenna
Board

Procedure:

Download Arduino IDE

1. Visit this site and download the Arduino IDE 2.0.X

for your machine

◦ Only one person per team of 5 needs to do

1048 • FRANCES ZHU

this

2. Visit this site and download the teensy boot loader

◦ Only the people who downloaded the

Arduino IDE need to do this

Upload Blink

1. Plug in Teensy to computer

◦ Using the OBC, connect directly to Teensy

Computer connected to Teensy

2. The easiest way to ensure your development

environment is working is to upload a simple
program known as “blink”. Blink will cause the light
on the teensy 4.1 to Blink.

3. Go to “File” then to “Examples” then to “01. Basic”

then to “blink

4. In the top left corner, it will say “select board”

◦ When you click on select board, you will

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1049

see USB devices that are connected to your

computer
▪ On my machine, I see “/dev/
cu.B6” which is labeled as
“Unknown” as well as others

◦ Select the Teensy 4.1

◦ Otherwise, you can click “select other

board and port…” and search for the teensy
4.1

5. Upload the program

6. Look at the teensy, if the LED is blinking, then you

have successfully uploaded and run the program

Teensy LED blinking

1050 • FRANCES ZHU

7. Practice

◦ Change the delay times in “blink” to 200

▪ Note what happens

◦ Add a print statement

▪ For example:

▪ <print(“I blinked”);>

◦ Notice that nothing has changed

▪ This is due to the fact that we are

basically printing to the teensy

▪ Instead, we want to print to our

computer

▪ This means we need to

print to serial (USB)

◦ Setup serial communication in the blink

program

▪ Add <Serial.begin(9600);> into

the void setup() section of the
program

▪ Serial.begin starts serial

communication with your
computer at 9600baud (bits per
second)

◦ Fix your print statement

▪ Now that we know we want to

print to serial, we can use
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1051

▪ <Serial.println(“I
blinked!”);> (or any
message you like)

▪ Make sure your print statement is

in <void loop() {>

▪ Using println adds a

return at the end of the
line

◦ Upload your edited program and then open

the serial monitor

▪ The serial monitor can be opened

by clicking the magnifying glass
in the top right corner

▪ Now you should see whatever

you put in your print statement
printed every .4 seconds or so.

Check-in:

1. Indicate that you have the following:

◦ A teensy that is blinking

◦ A serial monitor is displaying what you put

in your print statement

Assemble the Hardware

• Hardware needed
1052 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ OBC with Teensy

◦ PDU
◦ Antenna Board (make sure that the Antenna
is soldered onto the pad)

◦ ANT J15 wire

◦ 2x male to male jumper Cables

◦ Power supply

◦ 2x alligator clips

◦ 1 MCX to MCX cable (for sending setup)

◦ Micro-USB to USB cable (or whichever

your computer uses)

The hardware from the Artemis CubeSat Kit that will be utilized in this
lab.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1053

For this part of the lab, you can either have two fully assembled
kits, two comms test kits or one kit and one comms test kit. The
following instructions is for setting up the bare-bones comms kit
(a PDU, OBC and Antenna Board).

1. Place the OBC on top of the PDU and push the headers
together. The headers should evenly match up and no extra ones
should be showing on any side of the PC104 connectors. This
should go together fairly easily. If you feel like you are forcing it
take it apart and confirm that everything is aligned properly and
try again.
1054 • FRANCES ZHU

Mated OBC and PDU boards.

2. Take ANT J15 wire and place the end with the black wire in
the third pin slot into the OBC J12 connector.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1055

ANT J15 inserted into the OBC J12 connector.

• Connect the other end of the ANT J15 wire (the one
with the black wire at the fourth pin slot) to the
antenna board J15 connector.

ANT J15 inserted into antenna board J15 connector.

1056 • FRANCES ZHU

4. Insert MCX to MCX cable to OBC J1 (Radio Conn) to the

MCX connector connected to the antenna that is being used on
the Antenna Board.

MCX to MCX Cable connected to OBC J1 and ANT J13

• The picture shows the MCX Cable being connected

to ANT J13 due to the antenna being used is
connected to that connector. If the antenna is attached
on the other side connect the MCX cable to ANT J10

CAUTION: Connecting the radio to the Antenna is crucial to

keeping the radio functioning. This is required to prevent RF
feedback, causing damage to the radio.

5. Next, you will need to plug the two male-to-male jumper

cables into the PC104. The first one will be plugged into the top
row, 3 holes over from the right end of the board. This is the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1057

ground cable. The next one will be plugged in on the top row,
9 holes over from the right side of the board. This will be the
power.

Jumper cables inserted into PC104.

6. Connect the power supply to the jumper cables with alligator

clips. The ground (black) should be connected to the able three
holes from the right and power (red) should be connected to the
cable nine holes from the right.
1058 • FRANCES ZHU

Power supply connections.

7. Set the power supply to 7.5V and .5A. When turned on, it
should read 7.5V and ~.1A. The amps may vary depending on
what the OBC board is currently programmed to do.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1059

Power supply settings.

8. Finally, connect the micro-usb cable to the micro-usb

connecter (J17) on the antenna board and plug it into your
computer.
1060 • FRANCES ZHU

The antenna board is connected and plugged into the computer.

• If using the full kit, the batteries should be fully

charged and the kit does not have to be connected to
the power supply. However, ff the batteries are not
inside the full kit, connect through ANT J4 with the
power supply. The left wire of ANT J4 is ground
while the right side is power. The connection between
kit and computer should still be through the micro usb
connector on the Antenna Board

Tip: It is easier to use either just a full kit or the components in

the barebones kit as described above.

Move onto the next step once the hardware assembly is done and
each group has their own setup to use.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1061

Next Step: Get the code

1. Open Arduino IDE

2. Click on “Tools” then “Manage Libraries…”

3. Search “artemis-cubesat”

4. Download Library

5. Now that you have the library, we shall focus on three

of the example codes.

◦ pdu_comm

◦ radio_send_test

◦ radio_receive_test

6. Give power to the radio by uploading pdu_comm

◦ In serial monitor type in and enter “set

sw_3v3_2 on”

◦ type and enter”get sw_3v3_2″ to verify if

the last digit is 1

▪ If it is 0, run “set sw_3v3_2 on”

until the digit is 1.

Now that the radio is go to go, decide which group will do the
sending and which group will do the receiving.

• Receivers:
◦ Separate yourselves from the sender group

▪ Make sure to maintain a line of

1062 • FRANCES ZHU

sight from the other group

◦ In Arduino IDE, click on “file,”

“examples,” scroll and find “artemis-
cubesat” and then click on
“radio_receive_test”

◦ Upload the receiver program onto your

hardware setup

◦ Keep an eye on the serial monitor

◦ When the other team thinks they are

sending a message, they will let your team
know

▪ This is when you should expect to

see something on the serial
monitor

◦ When you get a message from the other

team

▪ Confirm with the other team that

you have received the message

▪ Write down their message

◦ Once you have received the whole message,

repeat this part of the but from the Senders
end

• Senders:

◦ In Arduino IDE, click on “file,”

“examples,” scroll and find “artemis-
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1063

cubesat” and then click on

“radio_send_test”
◦ Look for the <testMessage[]> character
array (line 28, right under the cat)

▪ This is what will be sent over the

air to the other group

◦ Write your own message in the test

message

▪ There’s a 49-character limit on

messages

▪ There is a line that shows you the

(approximately) your max
message size [I stopped at 45 to
be safe]

▪ If you want to send the other team

a long rant about why you like the
color green or why Shrek is the
best movie from the early 2000s

▪ Preface the messages with “part x

of y:”

▪ This is for sending

messages with multiple
parts

◦ Once you have written your message

▪ Upload your program to the

teensy
1064 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Open the serial monitor to make

sure the messages are being sent
▪ Inform the other team that you
have sent a message over

▪ Your message will send

over and over again
until you stop the
program

▪ Wait for the other team to

confirm that they have received
the message

◦ Once you know the other team got the

message

▪ Either switch to
Receiver (look at the
instructions above)

▪ Or send the next part of

your message

The lab is complete after both teams have experienced both

receiving and sending messages between the radios. Remember
to turn off the power supply after the entire lab is over.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1065

7. Thermal Control

authored by Dr. Zhu

Chandrashekar, Shreyas. “Thermal analysis results of the MIST

CubeSat.” (2017).

Learning Objectives

1065
1066 • FRANCES ZHU

• Understand the role of thermal control

subsystem in the context of spacecraft as
a whole and between other subsystems
• Show the relationship of spacecraft
parameters in heat transfer equations
• Survey different methods of passive
and active thermal control
• Analyze and apply control to (regulate
the temperatures of components within
an S/C) manipulate the thermal profile of
a satellite

Thermal Control Chapter Contents

Learning Objectives

Definition

7.1 Subsystem Responsibilities

7.2 General Design Process

7.3 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Suggested Activity

7.4 General Arrangement and Design Drivers

7.5 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1067

◦ Heat Transfer Mechanisms

▪ Conduction
▪ Convection

▪ Radiation

◦ Radiation Interactions

▪ Thermal Radiation to Space

▪ Solar Irradiance

▪ Albedo

▪ Thermal Emission from Earth

◦ Thermal Equilibrium

▪ Environment

▪ Surface Properties

▪ Internal Power Generation

7.6 Technologies

◦ Passive

▪ Materials and Coatings

▪ Heat Shunts and Straps

▪ Heat Pipes

▪ Heat Sinks and Radiators

▪ Insulation
▪ Radioisotope Heater Unit

◦ Active
1068 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Heaters

▪ Louvers
▪ Pumped Fluid Loops

▪ Cryocoolers

7.7 Thermal Analysis and Test

◦ Finite Element Model and Analysis

▪ Space

▪ Time

◦ Thermal Vacuum Testing

▪ Artemis Thermal Profile

Suggested Activity
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1069

7.1 Definition

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1677#oembed-1

The thermal control system manages the temperatures of the

components within the S/C. Its responsibility is to reject the heat
of the components dissipating power to keep them within their
allowable flight temperature (AFT) range. This is accomplished
through heat transfer. Heat transfer includes convection,
conduction, and radiation of which conduction dominates heat
transfer internal to the spacecraft and radiation dominates heat
transfer external from the spacecraft to the space environment.
The thermal control system utilizes these fundamentals of
thermodynamics to keep the spacecraft within operational
temperature ranges for the spacecraft components.

1069
1070 • FRANCES ZHU

Spacecraft have to survive in extremely hot and cold

environments and have to withstand extreme temperature
changes in short amounts of time. The thermal control system
distributes temperature sensors throughout the spacecraft,
emphasizing temperature-sensitive components. A thermal
control subsystem can have two flavors of technology: passive
and active. A passive thermal control system does not need
power or control logic to regulate heat transfer. An active
thermal control system reacts to temperature changes detected
from the sensors by powering heating or cooling technologies to
regulate the components. The thermal control system can be one
distinct component, like a cryocooler, but can also be distributed
or embedded in other components as thermal design features,
like OreSat’s use of copper conduction strips at the edge of
electronics boards.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1677
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1071

7.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=826#oembed-1

The thermal control system is responsible for:

• Maintain the spacecraft’s components within a

required range.

• Controlling or designing for the thermal interaction

with the space environment

• Flight software and/or electronics are usually

responsible for sampling temperature sensors
throughout the spacecraft to ensure spacecraft
components are within a required range

• Reject heat to space or absorb it, as necessary

• Control the temperature of spacecraft and its

components by directing the flow of thermal energy

1071
1072 • FRANCES ZHU

toward/away from components through conduction

and radiation:
◦ Transporting, displacing, and collecting
heat to a radiating device

◦ Dissipating excess heat (typically passive

radiators)

◦ Cooling down certain components (e.g.,

instruments)

◦ Heating up or storing heat onto certain

components (e.g. sometimes batteries)

The thermal control system specialist:

• Collates thermal sensitivities and required

temperature ranges of all spacecraft components.

• Selects components and locations to attach

temperature sensors onto to monitor the health of
these components and the temperature profile of the
entire spacecraft.

• Models the temperature of the S/C profile of the

spacecraft within a space environment

• Conducts analysis on a finite Autocad model to

ensure all components remain within a cycle that
is safe, operable thermal range

• Produces thermal control algorithms or policies for

active thermal control systems

• Minimize complexity, maximize reliability and

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1073

minimize the use of resources like electrical power

and mass

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1074 • FRANCES ZHU

7.3 General Design Process

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1. Gather requirements

2. Adjust thermal coatings to see if requirements can be

met with purely passive thermal control

3. Develop a multi-node thermal model

4. Determine conduction and radiation couplings that

lead to acceptable temperatures. If needed, relocate
components and/or use active thermal control.

5. Predict performance for different scenarios of

couplings, environments, surface properties, power
dissipations.

6. Compute max and min orbit avg temperature using

model estimates and average power dissipation

1074
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1075

7. Thermal balance test

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1076 • FRANCES ZHU

7.4 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

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1076
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1077

Major heat sources of CubeSat in orbit. Image by Arunkumar Rathinam.

During the spaceflight mission, the thermal control system

supports the other subsystem designs and interfaces between
thermal connections. As always, the size, weight, and powers
are obvious requirements or design drivers. For the thermal
subsystem specifically, an orbit is a significant design driver.
The internal components of the spacecraft are generally the same
but the space environment could vary wildly from being up close
and personal with the sun or venturing between stars with little
to no external heat source. Regardless of the space environment,
here are some typical spacecraft components operational
temperature range requirements:

• Maintain batteries between 10-20C

• Maintain computers between 10-50C

• Maintain humans alive (e.g. crew cabin at ~295K)

1078 • FRANCES ZHU

• Maintain liquid propellant from freezing/boiling

• Maintain instruments cold

• Maintain RTG heat source cool

• Avoid thermal cycling of components that can lead to

thermal fatigue and structural failure

Just like the other subsystems, we shall think about sources for
requirements outside the space mission. During manufacturing
and assembly, thermal engineers need to ensure that the thermal
components that require proper contact are integrated as such.

Reference Document

During testing, external requirements from the

launch provider commonly include thermal vacuum
bakeout. The CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14
specifies that:
“3.2.1 Thermal vacuum bakeout shall be
performed to ensure proper outgassing of
components.
3.2.2 The test specification will be defined by the
Launch Provider.”
The NanoRacks External CubeSat Deployer IDD
states: “The CubeSat shall be capable of
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1079

withstanding the expected thermal environments for

all mission phases, which are enveloped by the on-
orbit EVR phase prior to deployment. The expected
thermal environments for all phases of the mission
leading up to deployment are below in Table
4.3.5-1”:

The expected thermal environments for all phases of the mission leading
up to the deployment of a CubeSat. Image by Nanoracks.

Although these mission phases reside outside the testing phase,

these thermal conditions should be replicated in a finite element
analysis and/or in a test chamber to ensure the survivability
of these physical components. Another thermal test that should
be done during the testing phase simulates the mission’s space
environment within a thermal vacuum chamber to validate the
results of finite element analysis and/or to observe how the
physical behavior differs from a modeled behavior. This test
1080 • FRANCES ZHU

could require specific testing fixtures and mounting holes on the

spacecraft.

The transport, handling, and re-deployment requirements were

expressed earlier in the launch provider requirements. Outside
of these external launch provider requirements (or really,
constraints), the thermal control system’s primary responsibility
is to enable the other spacecraft subsystems, particularly the
payload. The TCS requirements follow the component selection
and cannot be finalized until the design freezes to some degree.
Here are the initial requirements that drove the Artemis CubeSat
kit.

Artemis Kit Specific

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1081

The CubeSat thermal

system shall verify or
regulate that all
3.2
components are within an
acceptable thermally
operational range

All components shall

3.2.1 operate between 0 and 50
degrees Celsius

The CubeSat’s
estimated thermal profile
3.2.2 shall not exceed the 0 to 50
degree Celsius range for an
ISS orbit

Heaters and thermal

straps shall provide
3.2.3
thermal control of the
sensitive components

Suggested Activity

“What kind of thermal requirements must you

impose on your system to fulfill your science
mission?”
1082 • FRANCES ZHU

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1083

7.5 General Arrangement and

Design Drivers

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The main design drivers for the thermal control system are
the individual component thermal requirements and the space
environment. The space environment sets the tone for the
thermal control system as the environment surrounds the
spacecraft. The environment dictates if the spacecraft will run
warm or cold. General blanket measures for warm environments
include surface coatings that reflect light, which is the main
source of energy and heat in space and insulation to protect
components from getting too warm. General blanket measures
for cold environments are surface coatings that absorb light,

1083
1084 • FRANCES ZHU

insulation to reduce heat loss, and bringing heat sources into

space. Regardless of the environment, there are some
components that can be uniquely designed to survive at lower or
higher temperature ranges that should be selected per the space
environment.

The thermal control system lead can use spatial placement

within the spacecraft as the first method of controlling thermal
ranges for individual components. Components near the centroid
of the spacecraft stay warmer and experience less fluctuation,
typically the computer and batteries. Components that are less
sensitive to thermal fluctuation can be placed closer to the space
environment. If components do not have the flexibility to be
placed elsewhere, like the payload or ADCS sensors, the TCS
specialist must design aspects of the mission or targeted thermal
control. Here’s how the TCS specialist can negotiate with the
other subsystems to regulate temperature:

The attitude determination, control, and sensing system can

orient the spacecraft to preference surface area toward the sun.
Constant rotation, like a rotisserie, will evenly warm a
spacecraft, whereas preferential orientation can focus heat on
one side and keep the other side cool.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1085

The temperature difference between the hot and cold sides of the
telescope is huge – you could almost boil water on the hot side, and
freeze nitrogen on the cold side. Image courtesy of NASA.

• The communications subsystem typically generates a

lot of heat, particularly with transmitting antennas
which must produce a lot of power. The antennas are
not entirely efficient so some of that power turns into
heat. The antenna can also be used to reject heat
through the large surface area [Perellon et al.].

• The command and data handling system is nearly

always on and, thus, is always emitting heat. The
onboard computer can almost be used as a stand-in
heater.

• Likewise, the power system components will emit

1086 • FRANCES ZHU

heat.

• The structures and mechanism system does not

generate any heat but can be used to distribute heat
through conduction and reject heat to the space
environment. Primary, secondary, or heck even
tertiary structures can be made of different more
thermally conductive, or insulative materials as long
as the structural integrity under critical loads holds.

Going through the different subsystems, you can see general

trends of which subsystems contribute to heat and can be used
to reject heat. You can also see that these various subsystems
have thermal characteristics and we cannot think of the thermal
subsystem as an isolated system. The thermal system is
distributed and integrated through the spacecraft. The thermal
lead must manage all the subsystem component characteristics
and cleverly work with or around the other subsystem designs.
I’ll make an analogy to chess, where great chess players initially
start playing a game in which each move steers the game toward
a configuration where they can win. In the beginning, there are
many different configurations that could ultimately ensue. With
more and more decisive movement and steering, the end of the
game converges to a single result. There is certainly a lot of
intuition and broad stroke decision making at the beginning then
pointed decision making towards the end to close the spacecraft
thermal design.

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epet302/?p=832
1088 • FRANCES ZHU

7.6 Fundamentals of Heat

Transfer

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms

1088
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1089

The image above, highlights how all three heat-transfer methods

(conduction, convection, and radiation) work in the same environment.
Image courtesy of NASA.

Conduction

Conduction is the direct transfer of heat that occurs between

materials that 1) have physical contact and 2) have a relative
temperature difference. “Conduction takes place in all phases:
solid, liquid, and gas. The rate at which energy is conducted
as the heat between two bodies depends on the temperature
difference (and hence temperature gradient) between the two
bodies and the properties of the conductive interface through
which the heat is transferred” [Wikipedia].
1090 • FRANCES ZHU

Diagram showing the transfer of thermal energy via conduction. Image

by Boundless.

Conduction is the primary heat transfer mechanism internal to

the spacecraft. Heat flows from hot (high temperature) to cold
(low temperature) until an equilibrium can be achieved. The
basic law of one-dimensional heat conduction was formulated
by Fourier in 1822. The amount of heat transfer is
proportional to the thermal conductivity , area , and thermal
gradient .

.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1091

Thermal conductivity can be defined in terms of the heat flow across a

temperature difference. Image by Maxwell Molecule.

Thermal conductivity is a material property with units .

Thermal conductivity is likened to electrical resistance in the
way that both properties represent the ease at which energy
transfers through a material. Common materials in spacecraft
structures and their thermal conductivity are [Wikipedia]:
1092 • FRANCES ZHU

Thermal
Material Spacecraft Use
Conductivity

Aluminum 237[6] Structure

Electrical interfaces and

Copper (pure) 401[4][12][13]
grounding planes

Silica aerogel 0.02[4] Insulation

Thermal regulation or
Water 0.5918[15]
propellant

Polycarbonate 0.2 Printed circuit board material

If we were to inspect a system more closely as to how heat

“flows” in a solid, we need a general differential equation that
describes how heat propagates spatially through time:

Where

q(r,t)=internally generated heat

ρ=density (kg/m3)

c=specific heat (J/kg°K)

This equation is used in models of heat diffusion, constituting

the backbone of finite element analysis of temperature
distribution across a body over time.

Convection
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1093

Snapshots of the temperature field in 2D Rayleigh–Bénard convection

simulations. (Top) For suitably weak temperature drops ΔT the fluid
remains at rest and heat transfers via conduction. (Middle) Sufficiently
large ΔT destabilizes the conduction state and coherent convection rolls
actively increase the heat flux. (Bottom) Convective turbulence sets in at
larger ΔT. Image by PNAS.

Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of

fluids. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer
in liquids and gases. Fluids utilize gravity for circulation. We
1094 • FRANCES ZHU

don’t have much gravity or fluids in space so we will gloss over

the physics.

Simulation of thermal convection. Red hues designate hot areas, while

regions with blue hues are cold. A hot, less-dense lower boundary layer
sends plumes of hot material upwards, and likewise, cold material from
the top moves downwards. This illustration is taken from a model of
convection in the Earth’s mantle. Image by Harroschmeling.

Radiation

“Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves

from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero.
Thermal radiation reflects the conversion of thermal energy into
electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy is the kinetic energy
of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. All
matter with a nonzero temperature is composed of particles with
kinetic energy” [Wikipedia]. “Thermal radiation can be emitted
from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures
such radiation is associated with spectra far above the infrared,
extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g.
the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared
radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on
typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the
surface of planet Earth” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1095

In short, thermal radiation works through electromagnetic fields

and does not need a medium for transport, so radiation works in
a vacuum. Radiation is the only mechanism for the spacecraft to
thermally interact with the space environment, which we use to
dump or remove heat external from a spacecraft in orbit.

Materials with higher emissivity appear to be hotter. In this thermal

image, the ceramic cylinder appears to be colder than its cubic container
(made of silicon carbide), while in fact, they have the same temperature.
Image by Bancquo.

Radiation is the primary heat transfer mechanism external to

the spacecraft. Heat flows from hot (high temperature) to cold
(low temperature) until an equilibrium can be achieved, just
1096 • FRANCES ZHU

like conduction. The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation

is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation. The
amount of heat transfer is proportional to the emissivity ,
surface area , and absolute temperature in Kelvin . is the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant that has a value of

The full form of the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is

where =environmental temperature (=3°K for space)

Two bodies in a thermal equilibrium within a cavity isolated from the

environment. The arrows depict the radiant powers. The letters e and a
stand for the emitted and absorbed radiation of the white body.CC
BY-NC-SA 2.0. Image courtesy of SEOS.

Emissivity is a material property that indicates the radiation of

heat from a body. Emissivity ranges from 0 (a ‘white’ body
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1097

that reflects radiation) to 1 (a black body that absorbs all heat).

Values between 0 and 1 signify a ‘grey’ body that partially
reflects and absorbs at some ratio; emissivity is a dimensionless
value. More formally, “emissivity is the ratio of the thermal
radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black
surface at the same temperature as given by the
Stefan–Boltzmann law” [Wikipedia]. Here are some common
materials used in space and their emissivity values
[EngineeringToolbox]:

Material Emissivity Spacecraft Use

Aluminum (Highly 0.039 –

Structure
Polished) 0.057

Aluminum
0.77 Structure
(Anodized)

Amorphous Silicon 0.45 – 0.8 Common solar cell material

Copper (plated, 0.03 – Electrical interfaces and

polished) 0.06 grounding planes

Silica aerogel 0.79 Insulation

0.95 – Thermal regulation or

Water
0.96 propellant

0.90 –
Polycarbonate Printed circuit board material
0.97

Absorptivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness

in absorbing radiant energy. For a given wavelength ,
absorptivity is equal to emissivity :
1098 • FRANCES ZHU

However, there are some materials that absorb in a different

wavelength than it emits, the emissivity and absorptivity are
different:

Various materials with differing emissivity and absorptivity are

given below:

Material Ratio

Aluminum 0.09 0.03 3.00

White paint 0.2 0.92 0.22

Black paint 0.92 0.89 1.03

Silver Teflon 0.08 0.8 0.1

Aluminized Kapton 0.38 0.67 0.56

These materials can be leveraged to achieve general warming or

cooling effects. A ratio greater than 1 promotes warming and a
ratio less than 1 promotes cooling. Some common strategies:

• Use Silver Teflon to minimize solar absorption but

max emissions (e.g., for telescope mirrors)

• Use black paint to maximize energy transfer, both

absorption, and emission (interior)

• Use metals (e.g., Aluminum) to minimize both

absorption and emission (instrument sun shield)

• Combine these surfaces to get almost any

you want
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1099

Radiation Interactions

Thermal Radiation to Space

Recall the Stefan-Boltzmann equation:

Where is the temperature in Kelvin,

is the surface area projected to space in ,

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,

and

is the emissivity of the surface, which depends on the

wavelength .

Note that emissivity of different wavelengths are not equivalent:

. But also that
radiation is emitted at all wavelengths, so how do we distinguish
what value of emissivity to use? We use Wien’s law to determine
the wavelength that is most dominant.
1100 • FRANCES ZHU

Black-body radiation as a function of wavelength for various

temperatures. Each temperature curve peaks at a different wavelength
and Wien’s law describes the shift of that peak. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image
by Curva Planck.

As a quick example, for a spacecraft with a surface emissivity

of 0.8, the temperature of 330K, and surface area projection of 1
, the heat radiating to space comes out at 538 Watts!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1101

Solar Irradiance

Solar Radiation Spectrum.Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike

3.0 Unported license. Image by Robert A. Rohde.

“The sun produces light with a distribution similar to what

would be expected from a 5525 K (5250 °C) blackbody, which
is approximately the sun’s surface temperature. These curves
are based on NREL data for above the atmosphere and at sea
level, which are standards adopted by the photovoltaic industry
to ensure consistent test conditions and are similar to the light
that could be expected in North America.” [Wikipedia].

For example, let’s take an example of white paint, where the

emissivity is 0.8 but the absorptivity is 0.4. The incoming power
from solar irradiance is given by:
1102 • FRANCES ZHU

where is the area perpendicular to the Sun vector and

is the solar irradiance around Earth; see some similarities from
the solar cell power equation? The incoming power for these
parameters is 26.9 Watts.

A final note about the effect of solar radiation, outgassing

deposit particles on surfaces that increase absorptivity but have
almost no effect on emissivity.

Spectral absorptance/emittance of several materials and coatings. Image

by Keyvan Niaki.

Albedo

Suggested Reading

Using real Earth Albedo and Earth IR Flux for

Spacecraft Thermal Analysis
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1103

Example of daily albedo data (CERES). Image by Romain

Peyrou-Lauga.

Reflected sunlight from planetary bodies comes in the form

of albedo. Albedo is the fraction of solar irradiance reflected
off a planetary body’s surface, most commonly calculated for
the Earth. Albedo is a function of orbit and spacecraft attitude.
Values for Earth oscillate between 0.2 to 0.6. is the area
projected to Earth.
1104 • FRANCES ZHU

Illustration of effective albedo at any instant as perceived by an

Earth-orbiting spacecraft.Peyrou-Lauga, Romain. “Using real Earth
albedo and Earth IR flux for spacecraft thermal analysis.” 47th
International Conference on Environmental Systems, 2017.Image by
Romain Peyrou-Lauga.

To calculate the resultant heat coming from albedo:

Where R is the albedo coefficient. Let’s do a sample calculation

incorporating some example values where absorptivity
, albedo , and . The
resultant heat from albedo is 26.9 Watts.

Thermal Emission from Earth

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1105

The Earth’s radiation budget is incoming radiation to Earth must equal

outgoing radiation. Absorbed solar radiation (short-wave) increases the
Earth’s temperature, while emitted long-wave radiation (heat) lowers the
temperature. Image by UMaine.edu.

The Earth not only reflects sunlight but emits heat as a radiative
source. The earth absorbs heat from the sun and also generates
its own heat from its dynamic, molten core. This heat is emitted
nearby spacecraft with the following relationship:

Where F is a geometric factor called the view factor. View

factor is a dimensionless factor between 0 and 1 that determines
how much of a surface is visible to another surface and is a
pure geometric property [Klobuchar]. Where F is a geometric
1106 • FRANCES ZHU

factor called the view factor, is Earth’s emissivity,

is the absorptivity of the spacecraft during the
infrared range

View factors are typically tabulated in calculators or

spreadsheets. For interaction between a spacecraft and the Earth,
the Nusselt Unit Sphere method calculates the view factor
between a sphere and a flat surface.

For a sample calculation where the altitude is 500 km and the

angle between the normals to the surfaces of the areas is 90
degrees, the view factor is 0.28. Earth’s emissivity is
about 1, near perfect to a black body. The temperature is
about 255 Kelvin. Area of radiation is the spacecraft
area perpendicular to Earth, which we’ll use 1 . The Earth’s
emissivity is at 26.9 Watts.

Thermal Equilibrium

In thermal equilibrium, the heat power going in equals that going

out. This result comes from the first law of thermodynamics:
“the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of
an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from
one form to another, but can be neither created nor destroyed”
[Wikipedia]. The change in internal energy of a closed system
is the difference in the heat going into the system and
the amount of thermodynamic work done by the system :
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1107

For spacecraft, the heat going in is the incident energy

absorbed. The heat going out is radiated energy. The work
done internally is internal power used (negative work in this
sense – adds to total heat in the system).

Environment

Let’s look into a specific case for an Earth-centric spacecraft to

demonstrate how to find equilibrium temperature.

Heat exchange between the satellite and the space environment.Open

Access Abdelkhalek, Hamdy Soltan, et al. “Simulation and Prediction
for a Satellite Temperature Sensors Based on Artificial Neural
Network.” Journal of Aerospace Technology and Management 11
(2019).Image by Scielo.

The power going into the system is a result of direct solar

irradiance , reflected sunlight (albedo) , thermal
emission from Earth , and internal heat sources
(like electronics and humans):
1108 • FRANCES ZHU

The power going out of the system is from a single sink:

radiation to space, which depends on the surface temperature.
The thermal balance equation is then:

One equation and one unknown lead to a unique solution. This

heat balance equation solves the equilibrium temperature for a
single node, which is the spacecraft. This solution is the mean
temperature of the entire spacecraft and does not inspect the
temperature differences between different components within
the spacecraft.

Effect of Distance on Equilibrium Temperature.Akin ENAE 483/788D –

Principles of Space Systems Design Lecture Notes.

Surface Properties

Let’s gain some intuition as to how the equilibrium temperature

varies with surface properties we can control, like satellite
geometry and absorptivity/emissivity ratio. A shape absorbs
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1109

energy only via illuminated faces but a shape radiates energy

via all surface area. The basic assumption made is that black
bodies are intrinsically isothermal (perfect and instantaneous
conduction of heat internally to all faces). Although the balance
includes the effects of the sun, albedo, Earth, and internal
components, let’s simplify the balance to just include sunlight
power and radiated power out:

Where

And

The new balance with all variables include:

By isolating temperature on the left, we have:

There are three ratios that temperature scales with 1) constants

that we cannot vary, 2) ratio of absorptivity and emissivity that
we can change surface coatings, and 3) ratio of sunlit area to
radiative area. The ratio of sunlit area to radiating area for
various geometries is given below:
1110 • FRANCES ZHU

Geometry Absorbing Area Radiating Area Area Ratio

Double-sided Wall 1 1 1/2

Sphere 1/4

Cylinder

Cube 1 6 1/6

Something you’ll notice is that the more compact the spacecraft

volume, the smaller the area ratio the lower the equilibrium
temperature.

Effect of Shape on Black Body Temperature.Akin ENAE 483/788D –

Principles of Space Systems Design Lecture Notes.

Internal Power Generation

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1111

60×60×10 mm straight-finned heat sink with a thermal profile and

swirling animated forced convection flow trajectories from a tube axial
fan, predicted using a CFD analysis package. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by
Isofilm.

Thus far, we have only talked about ideal heat transfer

interactions. We need to include non-ideal effects that better
reflect reality, such as power generation within the spacecraft.
The spacecraft avionics will generate heat due to inefficiencies
in using or transferring power, like when a current flows through
a resistor in an electric circuit [Renesas]. The spacecraft may
also have embedded heaters that intentionally or pointedly
generate power. This generated power is on the left-hand
side of the equation as a part of the heat going into the system
.
1112 • FRANCES ZHU

When a semiconductor conducts current, there is a non-zero voltage

drop across it. This results in losses that are converted almost entirely
into heat. Consider the following simplified structure of a typical use
case of an IGBT silicon chip and a diode silicon chip, mounted to a case
that is mounted to a heat sink. For both the IGBT and diode, the heat
power originates in the junction, where its value is the highest. The
instantaneous value of power is equal to the resistance (I x V) of the
IGBT or diode. The heat flows through the thermal impedance of the
structure and dissipates in the ambient environment. The lower the
thermal impedance, the lower the rise of the silicon temperature above
ambient is. Image by My Electronic Days.

To calculate a ballpark number of power generated, measure

the total power consumed by the electronics and multiply it by
the useful efficiency. The lost power turns into heat through
conduction, heating up the component:

Where is the efficiency of the electronic part and

is the total power consumed by electronic components

For heaters, this same equation can be used by setting .

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1113

For a lumped sum analysis, the system’s is a summation

of all the sources of heat within the spacecraft. For a more
detailed finite element analysis, each heat source should also be
associated with a location within the spacecraft.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

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online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
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1114 • FRANCES ZHU

7.7 Technologies

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There are various heat transfer technologies to implement

conduction, radiation, and even convection. We’ll survey
mechanisms used in spacecraft to achieve these thermal
interactions.

1114
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1115

Highlighted Thermal Design Components of the New Horizon’s

Spacecraft. By the end of this section, you should be able to recognize
these various components and understand their function in the system.
Image by Matt C. Bergman.

New Horizons Spacecraft System Diagram. Image by Matt C. Bergman.

Suggested Reading
1116 • FRANCES ZHU

New Horizons Thermal Control System

Passive

Passive components do not consume any electricity or need any

control logic to achieve their full function. We’ll review different
passive heat transfer technologies, common use cases, and how
to select a particular technology per your use.

Materials and Coatings

Selecting structural materials or coating surfaces varies the ratio

of absorptivity and emissivity , which toggles the
equilibrium temperature of the spacecraft. We described this
phenomenon in the Radiation subsection of the Fundamentals of
Heat Transfer section but here it is again for convenience:

Material Ratio

Aluminum 0.09 0.03 3.00

White paint 0.2 0.92 0.22

Black paint 0.92 0.89 1.03

Silver Teflon 0.08 0.8 0.1

Aluminized Kapton 0.38 0.67 0.56

These materials can be leveraged to achieve general warming or

cooling effects. A ratio greater than 1 promotes warming and a
ratio less than 1 promotes cooling. Some common strategies:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1117

• Use Silver Teflon to minimize solar absorption but

max emissions (e.g., for telescope mirrors)

The multiple light paths are taken by radiation impinging on a

second-surface mirror oriented at an angle ν to the incoming solar
radiation. By Youngquist. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Use black paint to maximize energy transfer, both

absorption, and emission (interior)
1118 • FRANCES ZHU

Black heat shield on ESA’s Solar Orbiter at IABG in Ottobrunn,

Germany in October 2019. ESA – S. Corvaja. Image courtesy of ESA.

Summary of properties of selected commercial black thermal control

paints.Image courtesy of Acktar.

• Use metals (e.g., Aluminum) to minimize both

absorption and emission (instrument sun shield)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1119

Technicians at Astrotech Space Operations in Titusville, Fla., work on

the backside of the MESSENGER spacecraft, mating it with the Payload
Assist Module, the Boeing Delta II third stage, below. The white panel
seen here is the heat-resistant, ceramic cloth sunshade that will enable
MESSENGER to operate at room temperature. Image by NASA.
1120 • FRANCES ZHU

• White paint: State-of-the-art research conducted by

Youngquist at Kennedy Space Center uses a very fine
NaCl (Salt) powder as a thin coating, called “Solar
White”, to theoretically reach temperatures as low as
50 Kelvin even in direct sunlight. Previously, one
only thought that cryocoolers (active cooling
systems) could reach cryo temperatures but this
method is completely passive. The downside is that
“Solar White” is in the early phases of transitioning
from research to broad use.

Optical testing with NaCl. The image on the left shows finely
ground NaCl, along with a 20 mm diameter, 1 mm-thick
pressed disk of NaCl powder. The image on the right shows
the reflecting ability of this thin layer of NaCl powder. Image
courtesy of NASA.

• Combine these surfaces to get almost any

you want

Suggested Reading

Cryogenic Selective Surfaces

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1121

Heat Shunts and Straps

Heat shunts, heat straps, heat sinks, and radiators are all passive
methods to displace the heat from one location to another. The
aforementioned list of components ranges from smallest to
largest in size.

Where it is preferable to deliver heat to the air, parts with higher internal
thermal impedance should be used. One example is OARS-XP series
(figure 5) in which the element is lifted away from the PCB. The
corresponding thermal image (figure 6) shows that the solder joints
remain at around 110°C even when the element temperature exceeds
200°C. This format will minimize heating of the PCB and can better
take advantage of forced air cooling is provided. Image by Electro
Pages.

“Electrically insulating but thermally conductive “heat shunt”

components are attached to PC boards along with regular
electronic components to improve heat dissipation. The heat
shunts are typically a small bar of thermally conductive ceramic
with spaced-apart metal mounting pads on the ends for soldering
to the PC board. Their shape is similar to standard electronic
components for placement by automatic machinery and they
extend, for example, from a transistor collector contact pad on
the PC board to an adjacent ground lead having holes plated
through to the metal backplane of the PC board in contact with
the heat sink” [US Patent 4941067].
1122 • FRANCES ZHU

4C-PURE OFHC Copper Thermal Straps. Image by Thermal Space.

“Thermal straps are often used when heat (thermal energy) needs
to be transferred and a large temperature gradient cannot be
tolerated between two or more discrete locations (interfaces) that
are either:

1. positionally fixed but not well defined relative to each

other
2. positionally fixed and well defined relative to each
other, but it is necessary to decouple transported
mechanical energy (vibration, shock)

3. not always positionally fixed relative to one another

over time
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1123

Wide variety of potential applications for thermal straps in-ground,

aeronautical, and aerospace systems. Image by Thermal Space.

Thermal straps in various forms, from simple or crudely

constructed linkages to high-precision components with well-
defined interfaces, have been used to manage heat flow in many
applications from the commercial electronics and automotive
industries to our most advanced scientific, military, defense, and
space systems. Sometimes a thermal strap may be as basic
as a coiled tube, bunch of wires, or stack of foils without a
solid attachment terminal. In other configurations, the terminal
or end fitting is welded, brazed, soldered, bonded, or otherwise
attached to the flexible section of the strap to provide a more
direct and robust mounting capability. The appropriate
configuration for any thermal strap really depends upon what
thermal management system it is going to be integrated with”
[Thermal-Space].
1124 • FRANCES ZHU

Room temperature thermal conductivities of typical thermal strap

materials. Image courtesy of Thermal Space.

Heat shunts on PCBs are like heat straps that stay on the board.
Heat straps are a larger component that can transfer heat through
conduction from hot components on a board to the primary
structure, like the aluminum spacecraft frame. Heat straps differ
from heat sinks as heat straps transfer heat and do not absorb or
radiate heat away.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1125

Heat Pipes

Heat pipes on spacecraft typically use a grooved aluminum extrusion as

the envelope. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Bill Anderson.

“A heat pipe is a heat-transfer device that combines the

principles of both thermal conductivity and phase transition to
effectively transfer heat between two solid interfaces. At the hot
interface of a heat pipe, a liquid in contact with a thermally
conductive solid surface turns into a vapor by absorbing heat
from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to
the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid, releasing the
latent heat. The liquid then returns to the hot interface through
either capillary action, centrifugal force, or gravity, and the cycle
repeats” [Wikipedia].
1126 • FRANCES ZHU

Thermacore copper water heat pipes cooling satellite board. Heat Pipes
for Space Applications by Dr. Xiao Yang.

“Heat pipes and loop heat pipes are used extensively in

spacecraft, since they don’t require any power to operate,
operate nearly isothermally, and can transport heat over long
distances. Ammonia is the most common working fluid for
spacecraft heat pipes. Ethane is used when the heat pipe must
operate at temperatures below the ammonia freezing
temperature” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1127

IberEspacio’s Superficial Heat Pipes can be formed into Axial Grooved

Heat Pipes and Arterial Heat Pipes. Image by Iber Espacio.

Heat Sinks and Radiators

We eliminate the unwanted heat that is given out by these electronic

devices through heatsinks, which operate through conduction and
radiation. What I Learned About Heatsinks Using Thermal Simulation
by MENTOR, A Siemens business.
1128 • FRANCES ZHU

“A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat

generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid
medium, often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated away
from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device’s
temperature. A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area
in contact with the cooling medium surrounding it”; in space,
the medium is the space environment. “Heat sink attachment
methods and thermal interface materials also affect the die
temperature of the integrated circuit. Thermal adhesive or
thermal paste improves the heat sink’s performance by filling
air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader on the
device. A heat sink is usually made out of aluminum or copper”
[Wikipedia].

A fan-cooled heat sink on the processor of a personal computer. To the

right is a smaller heat sink cooling another integrated circuit of the
motherboard. GFDL 1.2. Image by Flag Staff Fotos.

Heat sinks are evaluated upon the following design factors:

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1129

thermal resistance, material, fin arrangements, conductive

connection, and surface color. Thermal resistance is defined
as temperature rise per unit of power, analogous to electrical
resistance, and is expressed in units of degrees Celsius per watt
(°C/W). Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of thermal
conductance:

thermal conductance = , measured in W⋅K−1.

thermal resistance = , measured in K⋅W−1.

Where is thermal conductivity, is the area, and is the

thickness

Experimental values of thermal conductivity. Data from en: List of

thermal conductivities. For en: Thermal conductivity Experimental
values. Image by Grzegorz Knor.

For a constant geometry, the thermal conductivity is the way that

we toggle the amount of heat transferred. Heat sinks are valued
for transferring thermal energy, so we will pick materials that
have higher values of thermal conductivity. To balance mass and
cost, we typically use aluminum or copper.
1130 • FRANCES ZHU

Heat sink types: Pin, Straight, and Flared Fin. Image by DTC.

In general, the more surface area a heat sink has, the better it
works. In reality, pin fin heat sink performance is significantly
better than straight fins when used in their intended application
where the fluid flows axially along with the pins rather than
only tangentially across the pins. “Placing a conductive thick
plate as a heat transfer interface between a heat source and cold
flowing fluid (or any other heat sink) may improve the cooling
performance. It is shown that the thick plate can significantly
improve the heat transfer between the heat source and the
cooling fluid by way of conducting the heat current in an optimal
manner” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1131

Rectangular, an inline heatsink with an attached transparent fan. Image

by Semiconductor Engineering.

Like the surface coating subsection, similar concepts apply for

the heat sink: “Matte-black surfaces will radiate much more
efficiently than shiny bare metal. A shiny metal surface has
low emissivity. The emissivity of a material is tremendously
frequency-dependent and is related to absorptivity (of which
shiny metal surfaces have very little)” [Wikipedia].
1132 • FRANCES ZHU

One element of which is the large, square black radiator visible at center,
one of two that will be installed—is shown undergoing thermal testing at
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland in late
February. Image courtesy of NASA.

“Radiators come in several different forms, such as spacecraft

structural panels, flat-plate radiators mounted to the side of the
spacecraft, and panels deployed after the spacecraft is in orbit.
Whatever the configuration, all radiators reject heat by infrared
(IR) radiation from their surfaces. The radiating power depends
on the surface’s emittance and temperature. The radiator must
reject both the spacecraft waste heat and any radiant heat loads
from the environment. Most radiators are therefore given surface
finishes with high IR emittance to maximize heat rejection and
low solar absorptance to limit the heat from the Sun”
[Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1133

Panels and radiators (white square panels) on ISS after STS-120. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Insulation

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=847#h5p-51

Radiative insulation enlists the use of thin sheets, typically made

from mylar or Kapton with surface coatings, to isolate panels
underneath from solar radiation. This extra layer of separation
between the sun and panel creates a different equilibrium
experienced by the panel. The panel reaches equilibrium with
radiation from the sheet and from itself reflected from the sheet.
1134 • FRANCES ZHU

The sheet reaches equilibrium with radiation from the sun and
panel, and from itself reflected off-panel. Not extend this idea to
multiple layers and we’ve got Multi-Layer Insulation: the most
method of thermal control in space.

Multilayer insulation reduces radiation heat transfer by reflecting

radiation back towards the source. Image by MLI.

Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) uses multiple insulation layers to

cut down on radiative transfer; “in its basic form, it does not
appreciably insulate against other thermal losses such as heat
conduction or convection. MLI gives many satellites and other
space probes the appearance of being covered with gold foil
which is the effect of the amber-colored Kapton layer deposited
over the silver Aluminized mylar” [Wikipedia]. This surface
insulation is a highly effective means of insulation and can act
additionally as a defense against space dust/particulate impacts.
A problem that can occur during manufacturing is the physical
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1135

connection between insulated components, creating conductive

leak paths, analogous to short-circuiting a thermal circuit.

Closeup of Multi-layer insulation from a satellite. The metal-coated

plastic layers and the scrim separator are visible. CC BY-SA 2.5. Image
by Dantor.

To estimate the effective emissivity of MLI, you need to

know the emissivity of coating of the sun-side coating ,
cold-side layer and mylar [ThermalEngineer]:

Where n is the number of mylar layers and

1136 • FRANCES ZHU

= 0.03

Effective emissivity with respect to a number of layers. Image by

Thermal Engineer.

“Even if conduction between the layers is ignored, adding

additional layers to achieve the required effective emittance is
impractical due to weight and packaging considerations.
Furthermore, since the effective emittance is a function of the
reciprocal of the number of layers, adding additional layers
becomes increasingly less effective with the number of layers.
In order to achieve the required effective emittance, the shield
needs to be configured such that energy is allowed to escape
to space from between the layers before reaching the cold-side
layer. As the example case in the figure above shows, this
approach allows the number of layers to be greatly reduced.
It is this approach of enabling the loss of energy out from
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1137

between film layers which provides the required low effective

emittance and makes it possible to passively cool to very low
temperatures” [ThermalEngineer].
1138 • FRANCES ZHU

The golden areas are MLI blankets on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
Image courtesy NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1139

A block of aerogel in a hand. Image courtesy of NASA.

Another type of insulation is called aerogel. “Aerogel is a

synthetic porous ultralight material derived from a gel, in which
the liquid component for the gel has been replaced with gas
without significant collapse of the gel structure. The result is
a solid with extremely low density and extremely low thermal
conductivity. NASA used an aerogel to trap space dust particles
aboard the Stardust spacecraft. The particles vaporize on impact
with solids and pass through gases, but can be trapped in
aerogels. NASA also used aerogel for thermal insulation of the
Mars Rover” [Wikipedia].
1140 • FRANCES ZHU

The Stardust dust collector with aerogel blocks. Image courtesy of

NASA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1141

Properties of Silica Aerogel compared to Silica Glass. Image courtesy of

NASA/JPL.

Suggested Reading
1142 • FRANCES ZHU

Aerogel: Mystifying Blue Smoke

Radioisotope Heater Unit

Diagram of a radioisotope heater unit. Image courtesy of NASA.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1143

Radioisotope heater units (RHU) are small devices that provide

heat through radioactive decay, much like radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTG) but without the step of
converting this heat into electrical energy. Because RHUs do
not need components to convert heat to electricity, RHUs are
more compact than RTGs. RHUs give off heat continuously
somewhere between several decades and up to centuries, given
the gradual degradation of the radioactive isotope.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=847#h5p-52

RHU Pull-apart Animation. Video

courtesy of NASA.

“An RHU contains a Pu-238 fuel pellet about the size of a pencil
eraser and outputs about 1 Watt of heat. (The entire RHU is
about the size of a C-cell battery.) Some missions employ just
a few RHUs for extra heat, while others have dozens. NASA
missions enabled by radioisotope heater units” [NASA]:
1144 • FRANCES ZHU

• Apollo 11 EASEP Lunar Radioisotope Heater –

contained two 15W RHUs
• Pioneer 10 & 11 – 12 RHUs each

• Voyager 1 & 2 – 9 RHUs each

• Galileo – 120 RHUs (103 on orbiter, 17 on

atmospheric probe)

• Mars Pathfinder Sojourner Rover – 3 RHUs

• Cassini – 117 RHUs (82 on orbiter, 35 on Huygens

Titan probe)

• MER Spirit & Opportunity Rovers – 8 RHUs each

Radioisotope Heater Units have been critical for providing heat to keep
some spacecraft warm enough to accomplish their missions, including
the battery-powered Galileo and Huygens probes and the two
solar-powered Mars Exploration Rovers. Image courtesy of NASA.

Active

Active heating and cooling systems require electricity and

control logic.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1145

Heaters

“Heaters are used in thermal control design to protect

components under cold-case environmental conditions or to
make up for the heat that is not dissipated. Heaters are used
with thermostats or solid-state controllers to provide exact
temperature control of a particular component. Another common
use for heaters is to warm-up components to their minimal
operating temperatures before the components are turned on”
[Wikipedia].

Polyimide (Kapton) thermofoil heaters are for use in applications with

space and weight limitations, or where the heater will be exposed to
vacuum, oil, or chemicals, such as in medical devices, aerospace,
aviation. Image by Machine Design.

“The most common type of heater used on spacecraft is the

patch heater, which consists of an electrical-resistance element
1146 • FRANCES ZHU

sandwiched between two sheets of flexible electrically

insulating material, such as Kapton. The patch heater may
contain either a single circuit or multiple circuits, depending on
whether or not redundancy is required within it” [Wikipedia].
These heaters are typically mounted to surfaces of components
through a mounting adhesive or through some external adhesive
[ProHeatInc].

Standard cartridge heater anatomy. Image by Maoyt.

“The cartridge heater is often used to heat blocks of material or

high-temperature components such as propellants. This heater
consists of a coiled resistor enclosed in a cylindrical metallic
case. Typically a hole is drilled in the component to be heated,
and the cartridge is potted into the hole. Cartridge heaters are
usually a quarter-inch or less in diameter and up to a few inches
long” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1147

Louvers

“Louvers are active thermal control elements that are used in

many different forms. Most commonly they are placed over
external radiators, louvers can also be used to control heat
transfer between internal spacecraft surfaces or be placed on
openings on the spacecraft walls. A louver in its fully open state
can reject six times as much heat as it does in its fully closed
state, with no power required to operate it. The most commonly
used louver is the bimetallic, spring-actuated, rectangular blade
louver also known as Venetian-blind louver. Louver radiator
assemblies consist of five main elements: baseplate, blades,
actuators, sensing elements, and structural elements”
[Wikipedia].

Louver Assembly. Image by Matt C. Bergman.

“Louvers are used to dissipate excess heat, typically from

running too many instruments. Louvers are located on the belly
side of the spacecraft. Resembling Venetian blinds, the louvers
will radiate heat when open and reflect heat when closed. As a
rule of thumb, louvers reject six times as much heat in the open
1148 • FRANCES ZHU

position as it does in the closed position. These thermal louvers

actuate if the internal temperature exceeds 25°C” [Bergman].

New Horizons with MLI Installed with Louvers circled in red. Image by
Matt C. Bergman.

Pumped Fluid Loops

Suggested Reading

Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops for Spacecraft

Thermal Control: Past, Present & Future Past,
Present & Future
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1149

Pumped Fluid Loop. Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops for Spacecraft

Thermal Control: Past, Present & Future by Pradeep Bhandari.

A pumped fluid loop is a system that circulates a working fluid,

via routed tubing, to any part of a spacecraft’s structure. “The
key difference between traditional means of T/C and the use of
mechanically pumped fluid loops lies in the connection between
the thermally controlled components and the heat loss surface
(radiator). The connection is convective instead of conductive or
radiative. Fluid flowing through tubes connected to the two sets
of surfaces (source/sink) convectively picks up the heat (source)
and dissipates it (sink). A mechanical pump is the prime mover
of the fluid. This is the closest one comes to a true thermal bus
where we can both pick up and reject heat simultaneously and
automatically at multiple locations” [Bhandari].
1150 • FRANCES ZHU

Radioisotope Power System Heat Rejection System for MSL

(Cruise).Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops for Spacecraft Thermal
Control: Past, Present & Future Past, Present & Future. Image by
Pradeep Bhandari.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1151

“Mechanically Pumped Fluid Loops (MPFL) are most useful for

spacecraft thermal control when heat pickup/rejection capacity,
control of this capacity, testability, and/or mechanical integration
are driving factors. Advantages when compared with traditional
spacecraft thermal control technologies:

• Scalability of heat rejection capacity

• Ability to accept and reject heat at multiple locations

• Flexibility in locating heat dissipating equipment

• Adaptability to late changes in spacecraft design

Any of the following causes could lead to partial or complete

failure of the thermal control system. Possible cons and
preventive measures include:

• Leaks – Leaks through mechanical joints or corrosion

of tubing/components

◦ Use well-qualified fittings

▪ Vibration/thermal

▪ Accumulator sized to
accommodate nominal leak rates

• Pump failure – Long term operation of pumps could

degrade their performance or lead to their complete
failure

◦ Use redundant pumps

• Clogged filter – Filters used to guard small passages
in pumps against particles that could clog
1152 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Use well qualified and sized filters

◦ Use check valves to automatically bypass

filter in flight

We’ve seen limited use in robotic space missions over the past
30 years due to reliability concerns, but are increasingly being
looked at to solve complex thermal control problems”
[Bhandari].

Cryocoolers

Cryocoolers are refrigerators that reach cryogenic temperatures,

typically used in conjunction with instrument payloads. For
example, by necessity JWST’s Mid-Infrared Instrument “MIRI’s
detectors are a different formulation (Arsenic-doped Silicon
(Si:As)), which need to be at a temperature of less than 7 kelvin
to operate properly. This temperature is not possible on Webb
by passive means alone, so Webb carries a “cryocooler” that is
dedicated to cooling MIRI’s detectors” [NASA].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1153

Schematic diagram of a split-pair Stirling refrigerator. The cooling

power is supplied to the heat exchanger of the cold finger. Usually, the
heat flows are so small that there is no need for physical heat exchangers
around the split pipe. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Split Sterling.

“In most cases, cryocoolers use a cryogenic fluid as the working

substance and employ moving parts to cycle the fluid around a
thermodynamic cycle. The fluid is typically compressed at room
temperature, precooled in a heat exchanger, then expanded at
some low temperature. The returning low-pressure fluid passes
through the heat exchanger to precool the high-pressure fluid
before entering the compressor intake. The cycle is then
repeated” [Wikipedia]. The component that needs to be
cryogenically cooled is attached to the cold finger or cold space
to conduct heat away from the component.
1154 • FRANCES ZHU

The cooling device for the Mid-Infrared Instrument, or MIRI, one of the
James Webb Space Telescope’s four instruments. The MIRI requires a
lower operating temperature than Webb’s other instruments, the
cryocooler accommodates this requirement. Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech.

In recent years, cryocoolers have gotten smaller and smaller

and entered the COTS realm, making them exciting possibilities
for small satellite missions in the future. Northrop Grumman
has made a 900-gram pulse micro-cooler on the ground for
night vision and a 3.8 kg space-qualified version [Raab and
Tward]. “The Thales Cryogenics LPT9310 pulse tube cooler
has undergone comprehensive characterization and flight
qualification tests at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to
determine its suitability for future cost-capped NASA flight
missions” [Johnson et al.]. The Hawai’i Space Flight Laboratory
is flying an AIM SF-070 cryocooler on their future
Hyperspectral Thermal Imager (HyTI) mission
[WestCoastSolutions].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1155

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=847
1156 • FRANCES ZHU

7.8 Thermal Analysis and Test

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=849#oembed-1

Finite Element Model and Analysis

Thermal system design strongly coupled with structures, orbit,

and any component that generates heat or has strong thermal
requirements. To create a thermal model, you will need:

• An orbital dynamics model or propagator, like STK

• An attitude dynamics model

• A satellite geometry, typically in the form of a CAD

model, with proper material definitions

• Thermal modeling software, which usually

accompanies a structural analysis model, like ANSYS
or CAEplex

1156
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1157

◦ Boundary conditions

Schematic of the thermal modeling approach dependencies: Databases:

yellow, models: orange, computations: blue, results: green. Gulde, Max,
et al. “Reliable, Fast, and Flexible: A Thermal Modeling Approach for
Small Satellites.” (2018). Image by Max Gulde.

Just like the structural finite element model, the thermal finite
element model creates a mesh of nodes that interact with
neighboring nodes with first principles. Instead of passing strain
and loads through the nodes, the thermal model passes heat
through the nodes in the form of conduction, convection, and
radiation. We’ll talk briefly about the maths underlying the
1158 • FRANCES ZHU

thermal model for you to gain intuition as to thermal analysis

results.

Space

Volume element dV and heat fluxes through its surfaces. Finite Element
Solutions of Heat Conduction Problems in Complicated 3D Geometries
Using the Multigrid Method by Prof. Dr. Christoph Zenger and Prof. Dr.
Sergey Slavyanov.

“The finite element method creates a set of algebraic equations

by using an equivalent governing integral form that is integrated
over a mesh that approximates the volume and surface of the
body of interest. The mesh consists of elements connected to
nodes. In a thermal analysis, there will be one simultaneous
equation for each node. The unknown at each node is the
temperature. Infinite element analysis, all surfaces default to
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1159

perfect insulators unless you give a specified temperature, a

known heat influx, a convection condition, or a radiation
condition” [Akin].

Terms of the 1D thermal‐structural analogy. Concepts of Thermal

Analysis by J.E. Akin.

Loads for steady-state thermal analysis. Concepts of Thermal Analysis

by J.E. Akin

“The temperature often depends only on geometry. The heat

flux, and the thermal reaction, always depend on the material
thermal conductivity. Therefore, it is always necessary to
examine both the temperatures and heat flux to assure a correct
solution. The heat flux is determined by the gradient
(derivative) of the approximated temperatures. Therefore, it is
less accurate than the temperatures. The user must make the
mesh finer in regions where the heat flux vector is expected to
rapidly change its value or direction. The heat flux should be
plotted both as to magnitude contours and as vectors” [Akin].
1160 • FRANCES ZHU

Visualization of ISS temperatures and heat flows, temperature colorized

with units of Celsius.

Spatially, the simple analytical conduction model that dictates

the heat flowing from neighboring nodes in the x-direction is
defined as:

Where i is the index of nodes. This equation can be iterated for

the other two directions, y, and z. The heat going out of node i is
analogous:

The heat that remains in the node is the difference between

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1161

and . To find the temperature of this node over time

indexed by , the physics are dictated by:

To handle radiation spatially, the surface nodes are subject to

additional heat exchange defined by the Steffan Boltzmann
equation. Note that the nodes on the surface are the only nodes to
experience both conduction and radiation. The effect of radiation
is passed on to neighboring nodes in a “trickle-down” effect. The
numerical combination of conductive and radiative effects for
finite element models is a field of active study [Vueghs et al.]
and should be verified with a physical test as discussed in the
next section.

Time

To propagate the node temperatures throughout time indexed by

, we can use a time-marching solution:

Where the temperature difference d is

And is thermal diffusivity. To guarantee solution

stability, the time step size is limited by the spatial difference
and the thermal diffusivity through this relationship
[Akin]:
1162 • FRANCES ZHU

Thermal Vacuum Testing

The structural and thermal model of the Euclid satellite in the

thermal-vacuum chamber at Thales Alenia Space in Cannes, France.
Image by Thales Alenia Space/Airbus DS

Testing in a thermal vacuum chamber is the closest we can

get to simulating a space environment without actually testing
in space. A thermal vacuum chamber simulates high vacuum
and radiative/conductive heat transfer. High vacuum is achieved
through specific pumps and may require staged pumping to
transition from different categories of vacuum (rough > high).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1163

Classification of vacuum pressures and the technologies available to

achieve vacuum. Image by Vacuum Science World.

Radiative heat transfer is achieved by covering the chamber’s

inner surfaces with a black shroud, mimicking black body
radiation. This shroud can be cooled to cryogenic temperatures
to simulate the ambient temperature of space. Certain surfaces
can be heated to or thermal lamps can be situated to simulate the
radiation from the sun or other planetary bodies.
1164 • FRANCES ZHU

A thermal vacuum test chamber, with its door open, at NASA’s Johnson
Space Center. Image courtesy of NASA.

Under vacuum and subject to extreme heat conditions, the

spacecraft and its embedded components will experience
outgassing, thermal expansion, thermal cycling, and realistic
heat transfer. Ideally, conditions are set such that the testbed
shrouds, lamps, and conductive plates reflect the temporal and
thermal profiles of the mission, which is affected by the orbit and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1165

ADCS. The spacecraft embedded electronics should be running

as if the spacecraft were in space to replicate the internal power
generated throughout a mission. The spacecraft should be
littered with thermocouples and other temperature sensors at
targeted points within the volume to verify that physical testing
is similar to finite element results. The recorded temperatures
during the test are then compared to the finite element model
results to improve the predictive model’s accuracy/precision.

Artemis Thermal Profile

Suggested Activity

Back of the envelope kind of calculation of

thermal load “FEA”

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=849

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
1166 • FRANCES ZHU

online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/

epet302/?p=849
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1167

Thermal Software Lab: Finite

Element Analysis

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=3133#oembed-1

1167
1168 • FRANCES ZHU

Thermal Hardware Lab:

Demonstration and Control of a
Heater

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2576#h5p-169

Purpose

• Demonstrate and visualize heater functionality using

a controlled power supply and battery board

• Retrieve, measure, and visualize temperature sensor

data for solar panels and boards with lamp/light
simulation

• Show how heat transfers through a primary structure

1168
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1169

• Operate and extract measurements from thermal

sensors

Required Materials & Setup

• Power Supply

• Power supply leads

• Satellite Structure with solar panels and antenna

board attached

• Heater element

• Multimeter with leads

• Temperature gun

• Set of helping hands

• Cell phone and temperature application downloaded

(1 suggestion provided in the steps below)

• Aluminum can

• String about 6-8 inches long or rubber band that will

fit over an aluminum can or can utilize Kapton tape
(aka space duct tape)

User Guide for Heater:

• M5684.pdf (omega.com)
1170 • FRANCES ZHU

Screenshot from the flexible heating element user guide.

The entire line of products and specifications can be found at

Kapton Heater: KHLVA-103/5. Below will be the specifications
that correspond with the heating element in the Artemis
CubeSat kit

Total Wattage for Watt

Density
Width, in Length, in
Model No.
(cm) (cm)
5 W/in^2

KHLVA-103/2 1 (2.54) 3 (7.62) 15

• Manual

◦ https://assets.omega.com/manuals/
M5684.pd

Procedure
Lab procedures are to be done in a temperature-controlled
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1171

environment, AC, out of direct sunlight to minimize the effects

of potential convection and radiation.

General Resistance Testing of the Heater Element

Setting the multimeter to ohms/resistance to measure the internal

resistance of the heating element. This is a quick and easy test
to be sure that there is not an open circuit within your heating
element and the resistance of a heating element correlates with
the heater’s ability to transfer electrical power into heat.

Multimeter set to the

resistance setting.

It is irrelevant which lead goes to which wire when doing the

resistance test. This step is easier if you have a buddy to hold one
end of the wires while the other holds the leads. The resistance
should be sound 57 ohms for a properly working heater image.
1172 • FRANCES ZHU

If the reading is O.L or anything drastically higher than 57

ohms there may possibly be an open circuit or an improperly-
working heater element. This specification can change from
different models of heater elements. Be sure to always look
up the specifications for the one you are using. Like in the
previously provided information shown for the current element
that will be being used.

Testing the heating element for excessive resistance or open circuit.

Conducting Through an Everyday Object, like an

Aluminum Can
You will need :

• Power supply

• Negative and positive leads for the power supply

• Set of helping hands (if you use Kapton tape you do

not need the helping hands.)

• Heater element
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1173

• Rubber band or a piece of string or Kapton tape (aka

space duct tape)
• Aluminum can

Start by having your power supply off and leads connected. Use
the helping hands to each hold one lead. The heater element will
be connected to one of each of the alligator clips on the leads.
As shown in the image below. Make sure that the wires are not
touching.

Secure the heater element to the aluminum can with your piece
of string, elastic band, or Kapton tape.
1174 • FRANCES ZHU

Measure the distance between the heating element and the point
you will probe on the simple, everyday object. Measure or look
up the thickness of the object along the path of heat transfer.
Given the material of the object, look up the thermal
conductivity of your object. Record all these parameters in the
post-lab report.

Turn the power supply on to approximately 5 volts and .5 amps.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1175

With power connected to the heater element, you will need

to wait for it to heat up. While you are waiting for that to
happen you can get a thermometer to measure the temperature.
A digital thermometer like the one in the following image can
be used to measure the temperature. Note that in order to get an
accurate measurement the temperature range of the thermometer
needs to be within the required range. The standard household
thermometer that you would use to test for a fever under your
tongue or armpit will not be very accurate. The general temp
range is 93 degrees Fahrenheit to about 109 degrees Fahrenheit.
If the temperature is above or below this allowance you will only
get either a high or low reading. The general idea will be able
to be shown that the temperature increases, but noting what the
actual temperature is will not be able to be recorded.
1176 • FRANCES ZHU

You can also utilize more advanced thermal temperature

equipment such as the following image.

Use your thermal measuring device to see the temperature is of

the heater element on the aluminum can. Take measurements not
only of the side with the heater, but also measure the opposite
side to see the time delay in conduction.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1177

If you have multiple thermal measuring instruments you will

notice that there may be variations in temperature readings.
Depending on the accuracy of your equipment it will allow
for more accurate measurements and consistent temperature
measurements.
1178 • FRANCES ZHU

Record your readings either on a chart so that it is easier to

reference or some form of organized written documentation. Do
this for each minute for 10 mins.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1179

You should notice a change in temperature as the time increases.

Based on the temperature change and assuming only conduction,

estimate the object’s thermal conductivity.

Building the frame with Antenna Board Attached

You will need to build the frame again for this lab. Here is
the documentation required if you need to refresh your frame-
building skills: Structures: Assembly and Stress Lab – Google
Docs Installing solar panels.
1180 • FRANCES ZHU

You will need:

• Assembled frame with the antenna board (the antenna

is not necessary to attach)

• 4 solar panels

• 16 bolts for solar panels

• Driver for the bolts.

Handling the Heater Element

• Do not touch with your bare hands

• Do not go over 28 Volts and/or 2 amps

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1181

This is the current heater element that will be used for testing.

Start by taking one solar panel. It is irrelevant which one you

choose. Just make sure it is lined up facing the correct way.
1182 • FRANCES ZHU

The side with the connectors will be towards the top of the
CubeSat.

Four bolts will be needed for each side.

Do not over tighten the bolts or the solar panel will not lay flat.
Lightly tighten the bolts just till the bolt is flush with the panels.
Install all the bolts the same way before securing them to a hand
tight torque. Repeat this process for all four sides.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1183

Downloading Free Application for Thermal Imaging

An additional option to monitor the temperature change would

be to utilize a free thermal app on your phone. The one we used
in the video was “Night Vision”.

This is an inexpensive way to see the temperature changes on

your heater element. This application is not completely accurate
or overly sensitive, but it will allow seeing temperature
differences.

Connecting the Power Source to the Heating Element

• You will need:

◦ Power supply
1184 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Two leads for the power supply

◦ Thermal gun
◦ Heating element

◦ Two pieces of Kapton tape (aka duct tape of

outer space)

◦ Optional thermal app for phone

◦ Cubesat structure with solar panels attached

▪ Provide links on how to construct

from previous labs

Connect the leads to the heating element. Positive and negative

are irrelevant for this experiment.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1185

Plug the heating element into the power supply and tape the
heating element to the solar panel on the opposite side of the
antenna using two pieces of Kapton tape as seen below.
1186 • FRANCES ZHU

Next set your power supply to 5 volts and .5 Amps

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1187

Next take your base measurements on all 4 sides prior to turning

the power supply on:

Repeat this process for about 10 mins. Every minute take a

reading on all of the sides and record the data. You should see an
increase in temperature on the side with the heating element and
will not see much of a difference on the adjacent and opposite
sides.

Additionally, you can take thermal images with the previously

mentioned portion of the lab with the can. Keep in mind that
the free cell phone apps are not very advanced or sensitive but
you may see a slight difference as the heating element gets to
maximum heating ability.
1188 • FRANCES ZHU

Keep track of your results on a table similar to the following.

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1189
1190 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1191

In the next part of this lab, you will just need the lamp (aka sun
simulator) and the assembled CubeSat.

Take one measurement for your base measurement and record

your findings for all four sides as you did in the previous step of
this experiment.

Shine the lamp onto the CubeSat.

Take one measurement for each minute for 10 mins and record
1192 • FRANCES ZHU

your findings. Make sure you are taking the temp behind the
magnifying glass or you will be recording the temp of the lamp
and not the CubeSat. Your chart can be similar to the setup in the
previous part of the experiment.

Take note that it may be a little more difficult to use the app in
this step, but if you take it from behind the magnifying glass
(side closest to you) you will see a slight variation in temp. Make
sure not to move the lamp when taking the photos because you
will be interrupting the function of your sun simulator.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1193

8. Attitude Determination,
Control, and Sensing

authored by Dr. Zhu

We care about attitude determination and control because it

is one of the core disciplines within spacecraft engineering.
Attitude is intimately tied to all other spacecraft functions and
almost all spacecraft have to address the following questions:

• Where does it need to point?

• How well does it need to hold an attitude?

This chapter:

• Defines the Attitude Determination, Control,

Navigation, and Sensing (ADCS) system

• Distinguishes the responsibilities

1193
1194 • FRANCES ZHU

• Describes the general design process

• Defines common requirements

• Reviews foundational math around attitude dynamics

• Surveys typical sensor and actuator technology

• Conceptually explains determination and control

algorithms

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of the ADCS

subsystem in the context of spacecraft as
a whole and between other subsystems
• Understand the equations of motion
for attitude dynamics and different
variations of attitude representation
• Identify the spacecraft parameters that
affect attitude dynamics and relate
parameter change to the dynamics model
• Classify which sensors measure which
physical phenomena with associated
precision/accuracy, limitations, and
environments
• Gather intuition as to attitude
estimation and define various estimation
algorithms relative to sensors available
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1195

• Recommend different actuators for

different desired maneuvers by
calculating the magnitude and precision
of actuators
• Identify external/environmental
torques and calculate the magnitude of
effect that actuators must overcome
• Gather intuition as to the different
control policies used aboard spacecraft

Attitude Determination, Control, and Sensing

Chapter Contents
Learning Objectives

8.1 Definition

8.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

8.3 General Design Process

8.4 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Mission-Derived Requirements

◦ Design Drivers
◦ Design Configuration

▪ Artemis ADCS Requirements

1196 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Suggested Activity

8.5 Dynamics

◦ Attitude Representation

▪ Euler Angles

▪ Rotation Matrix

▪ Euler Axis/Axis-Angle

▪ Quaternions

▪ Converting between Attitude

Representations

◦ Kinematics

▪ Rotation Matrix Kinematics

▪ Quaternion Kinematics

◦ Rigid Body Dynamics

▪ Moment of Inertia

▪ Angular Momentum

▪ Kinetic Energy

▪ Euler’s Equations

◦ Parameters and Analysis

▪ Moments of Inertia

▪ Equilibria
▪ Stability

◦ External Torques
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1197

▪ Magnetic Field

▪ Gravity Gradient
▪ Aerodynamic Drag

▪ Solar Radiation

◦ Internal Torques

▪ Damping

▪ Momentum Control

▪ Thrusters

◦ Configurations

▪ Gravity Gradient Stabilization

▪ Magnetic Damping

▪ Spin Stabilization

▪ Dual-Spin

▪ Momentum Bias

▪ Three-Axis Control

◦ Modes

▪ Detumbling/Momentum
Dumping

▪ Pointing/Slewing

▪ Safe

◦ Suggested Activity

8.6 Sensing
1198 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Remote Sensing

▪ Earth/Horizon Sensor
▪ Sun Sensor

▪ Star Sensor/Tracker

◦ Magnetometer

◦ Gyroscope

◦ Inertial Measurement Unit

▪ Global Positioning System (GPS)

◦ Sensor Design Process and Drivers

◦ Common Configurations

▪ Artemis ADCS Sensors

8.7 Determination

◦ TRIAD
◦ Wahba’s Problem/ Batch Estimation

▪ Convex Optimization Solution

▪ SVD solution

▪ q-Method

◦ Kalman Filter

▪ Background

▪ Problem Statement
▪ Algorithm Solution

▪ Concluding Remarks
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1199

8.8 Control

◦ Actuators
▪ Magnetic Torquers

▪ Reaction Wheels

▪ Control Moment Gyroscopes

▪ Thrusters

◦ Actuator Design Process and Drivers

◦ Control Algorithms

▪ Detumbling

▪ Momentum Dumping

▪ Actuators Jacobians

8.9 Pointing Analysis and Budget

1200 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1201

8.1 Definition

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1687#oembed-1

This subsystem goes by many different names depending on the

1201
1202 • FRANCES ZHU

desired capabilities of the spacecraft. The most comprehensive

definition includes attitude determination, control, and sensing.

• Sensing is measuring cues from the environment

using onboard sensors.

• Determination is fixing or finding of the attitude

[Merriam-Webster].

• Control is the “process of controlling the orientation

of an aerospace vehicle with respect to an inertial
frame of reference or another entity such as the
celestial sphere, certain fields, and nearby objects,
etc.” [Wikipedia].

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1687
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1203

8.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
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Flow of information for ADCS system.© Springer-Verlag Berlin

Heidelberg 2014.

The Attitude Determination, Control, and Sensing (ADCS)

system is responsible for the hardware and algorithms that
estimate and control the spacecraft’s orientation. The ADCS
system components are like the sensors and actuators of our

1203
1204 • FRANCES ZHU

body’s motor functions: the eyes, inner ear (for balance), nerves
(sense of touch), arms, and core. The ADCS system is
responsible for:

• sensing external cues from the environment that could

resolve an attitude, analogous to orientation. Sensing
is the most fundamental capability of the ADCS
system.

• incorporating sensor measurements into an attitude

determination algorithm that resolves attitude.
Determination cannot happen without some kind of
sensing.

• controlling the spacecraft’s attitude by sending

control algorithm commands to actuators.

• pointing, tracking, and/or slewing along a trajectory

with a level of precision and accuracy defined by the
needs of the payload or mission.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1205

Wallops engineer Scott Heatwole and his team are

developing a precision attitude sensor or star tracker that
would be able to locate points of reference, or, in other
words, stars, during daylight hours. Heatwole specifically
developed the technology for the Wallops Arc Second
Pointer. Credits: NASA/Patrick Black.

During the design process, the ADCS specialist:

• selects sensors and actuators that ultimately yield

1206 • FRANCES ZHU

precision pointing or tracking accuracy and precision.

• conducts analysis on external and internal forces and

torques to discover contribution to spacecraft
dynamics due to these disturbances (common for
spacecraft with components that vibrate). This may
include dynamic simulation analysis.

• coordinates with the structures and mechanisms

specialist to place and mount sensors and actuators
with unique requirements, like unoccluded field of
views or close placement to the center of mass.

• calculates and codes algorithms to estimate position

and attitude states, and also control spacecraft attitude
to the required accuracy and precision. This may
include development within a simulation
environment.

AA236: Overview of Spacecraft GN&C Subsystems Brian Howley

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1207

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1090
1208 • FRANCES ZHU

8.3 General Design Process

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
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epet302/?p=1092#oembed-1

1. Allocate mission and system requirements:

a. Evaluate candidate architectures: consider

potential ADCS technologies, see Sensing
and Actuators.

b. Establish functional requirements of the

ADCS system from payload and spacecraft
bus, see Typical Requirements and Design
Considerations.

2. Create dynamic simulation for later verification if

ADCS system meets requirements, see Dynamics.

3. Analyze determination and control algorithms in

simulation to verify if ADCS system meets

1208
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1209

requirements, see Determination and Control

Algorithms.
1210 • FRANCES ZHU

8.4 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
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epet302/?p=1094#oembed-1

1210
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1211

Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Bernd Dachwald dachwald@fh aachen.de

dachwald@fh‐aachen de Aerospace Technology Department Aachen
University of Applied Sciences.

Mission-Derived Requirements
For the spaceflight mission, the ADCS system must be designed
to know and/or control the spacecraft orientation per the payload
and spacecraft bus requirements. The most fundamental ADCS
problem is pointing a vector to track a subject that holds still or
moves. Like with any subsystem, the size, weight, and powers
are obvious requirements or design drivers. Other high-level
mission design considerations could be the orbit, level of
autonomy, and necessary onboard data and computation.
Subsystem requirements for spaceflight include:

• Pointing accuracy – “proximity of measurement

1212 • FRANCES ZHU

results to the true value” [Wikipedia]

• Pointing precision – “the degree to which repeated (or

reproducible) measurements under unchanged
conditions” [Wikipedia]

• Agility – “rapid retargeting, fast transient settling and

low jitter pointing control” [NASA]

• Drift – system behavior where the control system

slowly integrates error and “drifts” away from the
desired orientation

• Motion constraints – maximum thresholds for attitude

and derivatives (velocity, acceleration, and jerk)
bound by sensitive spacecraft components, like
flexible appendages and vibration-sensitive
components [Kim]. These maneuvers are called rate-
limited, acceleration-limited, or jerk-limited
maneuvers.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1213

Jerk-limited trajectory. Image courtesy of Science Central.

• Sensor and actuator placement

◦ Some sensors or actuators need unoccluded

access to the space environment, like sun
sensors, star trackers, and reaction control
1214 • FRANCES ZHU

system thrusters.

◦ Some sensors or actuators require or prefer

a certain placement within the spacecraft
system, like

▪ a magnetometer at the end of a

boom to mitigate electromagnetic
interference,

▪ an inertial measurement unit at

the center of mass of the
spacecraft, or

▪ thrusters at the far corners of the

spacecraft

◦ Some sensors or actuators require a known

or controlled orientation within the
spacecraft system, like

▪ momentum control systems that

point orthogonally/perpendicular
with respect to each other

▪ thrusters that also point

orthogonally/perpendicular and
antiparallel with respect to each
other

▪ star tracker and sun sensor

oriented on different faces with
respect to each other to avoid
pointing the star tracker toward
the sun and harming the sensor.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1215

• Reliability – the sensors and actuators must have an

operable lifetime that is longer than the space mission
lifetime

◦ Sensors with sensitive electronics that are

susceptible to failure after a total ionizing
dose (TID) must have a high probability of
surviving until the end of the mission.

◦ Actuators with moving parts, like reaction

wheels, control moment gyroscopes, and
thrusters, can fail due to wear and tear.

Suggested Reading

Design and Specification of an Attitude Control

System for the DANDE Mission
1216 • FRANCES ZHU

Design Drivers

AA236: Overview of Spacecraft GN&C Subsystems Brian Howley

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company.

Design drivers include limited technology capabilities for

sensors and actuators, the other subsystem requirements, and
configuration constraints. We will discuss the sensors and
actuators commercially available in a later section. We’ll
consider the other subsystem requirements and constraints:

• The payload system may need precision pointing or

slewing to observe the desired science. For example,
the Kepler observatory requires continuous pointing
at a single starfield in the Cygnus-Lyra region with
accuracy “< 0.009 arcsec 3σ single-axis pointing
stability on ≥ 15 min time scales” to pick up enough
light to distinguish exoplanets from their stars
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1217

[NASA]. For other imaging payloads, the angular

slew rate can relate to the imaging resolution of the
target; a fantastic trade study is referenced here
[Shell]. The payload system will most likely offer the
most stringent and critical pointing or slewing
requirements.

The K2 mission, the two-wheel operation mode of the Kepler spacecraft

conducting observations in the ecliptic. Image courtesy of NASA.

• The communications system may need the spacecraft

to track a ground station while the spacecraft passes
over a ground station or if the spacecraft is in deep
space, the spacecraft may need to precisely point
toward Earth. For establishing beaconless optical
communication from Mars to Earth, the iROC design
requires an optical beam pointing accuracy on the
1218 • FRANCES ZHU

order of 2-5 µradians [NASA]! For most other

spacecraft in Low Earth Orbit, spacecraft pointing
can range from a passive tumble to coarse
nadir-pointing (toward the Earth) during downlink-
uplink operations. This number can be encapsulated
in antenna pointing accuracy.

Beaconless pointing for deep-space optical communication. Image

courtesy of NASA.

• The power system may need the spacecraft to point

solar panels at the sun to charge the battery. Some
missions have articulated arrays so the solar arrays
may track the sun independently of the main
spacecraft bus but the ADCS system is responsible
for calculating how to articulate the solar arrays.
Some missions have designed the ADCS system out
of consideration by assuming the spacecraft has
enough solar cells so that there is more than enough
power generated regardless of the spacecraft’s
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1219

orientation.

The electricity from the solar panels charges a battery in the spacecraft.
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech.

• The command and data handling system enables or

limits the ADCS computation. For systems with
active ADCS control, ADCS sensors generate a lot of
data, and control/determination algorithms need a lot
of computational processing power. If the CDH
system cannot support the ADCS data and processing
needs, the sensors will need to be downsampled, and/
or the algorithms must be updated less frequently.
1220 • FRANCES ZHU

Data budget for a Radiation Belt Explorer CubeSat Geo-Transfer Orbit

Mission.Yalagach.

• The thermal system may need the spacecraft to

preferentially orient itself to expose or shield certain
components away from heat sources. In the case of
the James Webb Space Telescope, the intricate sun
shield protects the science instruments and mirrors
from the heat of the sun, made possible by the ADCS
pointing system.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1221

The James Webb Space Telescope will be pointed so that the Sun, Earth,
and Moon are always on one side, and the sunshield will act as a
parasol, keeping the optics and science instruments cool by keeping
them in the shade and protecting them from the heat of the sun and
warm spacecraft electronics. The sunshield will allow the telescope to
cool down to a temperature below 50 Kelvin (equal to -370 degree F, or
-223 degree C) by passively radiating its heat into space. Image courtesy
of NASA.

• The structures and mechanism system may impact the

spacecraft design if there are any structural
components that are sensitive to motion or contribute
to motion, such as long arms that act like flexible
appendages. For example, SMAP’s boom deployment
will contribute angular momentum to the overall
spacecraft as the whole system must conserve angular
momentum. The long boom also acts as a flexible
1222 • FRANCES ZHU

link that vibrates at frequencies that the ADCS

system must reject or dissipate.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1094#h5p-73

SMAP boom deployment. Video courtesy of NASA.

• The propulsion system may need the ADCS to orient

the spacecraft such that the thruster aligns with the
desired direction of thrust or to orient the gimbal on
the thruster. The ADCS needs to compensate for any
tumbling that could occur during propulsive
maneuvers.

Dawn Journal: Firing Up the Ion Propulsion System. Image courtesy of

Planetary Society.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1223

Design Configuration
These requirements, design drivers, and configuration
constraints should lead to trade studies in which you decide:

• The necessity of an active control system:

◦ You could get by with a tumbling

spacecraft or design your spacecraft such
that it passively stabilizes itself
[Rawashdeh]

For a rocket, a stabilization roll may be produced by fin tabs,

asymmetrically airfoiled fins, or even misaligned fins. Image by Richard
Nakka’s Experimental Rocketry Web Site.

• If you do need active control, does the control need to

span 1 axis of stability or all 3 axes of stability?
[Wikipedia]

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1094#oembed-2
1224 • FRANCES ZHU

Three-axis Stabilization of Cubesat. A MATLAB simulation by Timothy

Dawson built from scratch to simulate the active orientation of a CubeSat with
three magnetometers.

• Computational Architecture

◦ Do we need to have the algorithm

computation run in real-time on the
onboard computer or can the computation
happen on the ground then have the results
transmitted back to the spacecraft?

◦ How computationally intensive should the

attitude algorithms be limited to in the data
budget?

• Sensor Selection – in-depth discussion in the Sensing

section

• Actuator Selection – in-depth discussion in Control

Actuators section
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1225

AA236: Overview of Spacecraft GN&C Subsystems Brian Howley

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company.

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis ADCS Requirements

The Artemis CubeSat kit shall only sense and

determine attitude and position. Although the
requirements do not require attitude control, torque
coils are embedded in the solar panels for extended
capabilities.
1226 • FRANCES ZHU

3 The CubeSat ADCNS system shall estimate

.3 its position and attitude

3.3.1 The ADCNS sensors shall resolve 3DOF

attitude to within 3 degrees in LEO

3.3.2 The ADCNS sensors shall resolve 3DOF

position to within 100 m in LEO

Suggested Activity

What kind of ADCS requirements must you

impose on your system to fulfill your science
mission?

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1094
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1227

8.5. Dynamics

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epet302/?p=1096#oembed-1

major contributions from Dr. Zachary Manchester of Carnegie

Mellon University

1227
1228 • FRANCES ZHU

Different coordinate systems Image by API.

Attitude is the relationship between two reference frames,

typically the spacecraft body and some inertial frame. “In
mechanics and geometry, the 3D rotation group often denoted
SO, is the group of all rotations about the origin of three-
dimensional Euclidean space under the operation of
composition” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1229

Left vs Right-handed coordinate systems. Image by Oreilly.

A reference frame is a set of mutually orthogonal basis vectors

that form a right-handed coordinate system. For our purposes,
“reference frame” and “rigid body” go together. We will
primarily deal with two kinds:

• “Inertial” or “Newtonian” reference frame in which

Newton’s laws hold

• “Body-fixed” or just “body” reference frame is

attached to and rotates with a rigid body

Vectors exist independent of our choice of reference frame or

coordinates.
1230 • FRANCES ZHU

Vector \arrow{r} exists in both rectangular coordinates and polar

coordinates. The representation of the vector in the rectangular
coordinate frame is different than the representation in polar coordinates.
Image by Amazon Naws.

When we want to perform calculations with numbers, we project

vector onto a set of basis vectors and write down its
components:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1231

It is very important to distinguish a vector from its components

in different reference frames.

Attitude Representation
How do we parameterize attitude? A convention usually
followed in aerospace is to use the rotation from the vehicle
body frame “B” to some chosen inertial frame “N”.
Unfortunately, this is not universal and in physics, the opposite
convention in common. B → N attitude is convenient for
thinking about where sensors are pointed.

Euler Angles

Earth-Centered Inertial coordinate system. Image by Edge.edu.

In aeronautics, the three Euler angles that describe the

orientation of a rigid body are known as roll, pitch, yaw or
bank, elevation, and heading. “Euler angles can be defined by
elemental geometry or by the composition of rotations. The
geometrical definition demonstrates that three composed
1232 • FRANCES ZHU

elemental rotations (rotations about the axes of a coordinate

system) are always sufficient to reach any target frame,” which
is to say there is a way to reach any target frame with three
single-axis rotations [Wikipedia]. “Euler angles are typically
denoted as α, β, γ, or φ, θ, ψ.” [Wikipedia]. The sequence of
Euler angles corresponds to a specific order of rotations about
the axes. “There exist twelve possible sequences of rotation
axes, divided into two groups:

• Proper Euler angles (z-x-z, x-y-x, y-z-y, z-y-z, x-z-x,

y-x-y)

• Tait–Bryan angles (x-y-z, y-z-x, z-x-y, x-z-y, z-y-x, y-

x-z).

Tait–Bryan angles are also called Cardan angles; nautical angles;

heading, elevation, and bank; or yaw, pitch, and roll, tied to the
rigid body” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1233

Any target orientation can be reached, starting from a known reference

orientation, using a specific sequence of intrinsic rotations, whose
magnitudes are the Euler angles of the target orientation. This example
uses the z-x′-z″ sequence. Image by Juan Sempere.
1234 • FRANCES ZHU

Any target orientation can be reached, starting from a known reference

orientation, using a specific sequence of intrinsic rotations, whose
magnitudes are the Euler angles of the target orientation. This example
uses the z-x′-z″ sequence. Image by Juan Sempere.

Why should we use or avoid Euler angles? Euler angles are a

minimal representation (only 3 parameters or numbers to keep
track of) and they’re intuitive. In your head, you can think
about rotations about a single axis in a sequence to get to the
target frame. Euler angles have mathematical singularities at
90 degrees, which is equivalent to an undefined value and is
mathematically scary to deal with if the satellite is to cross
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1235

through this angle. Kinematics represented in Euler angles have

trigonometric functions, which can also be messy to handle. In
general, ADCS engineers do not use Euler angles for spacecraft
in orbit but are more likely to choose this representation for other
robot forms, like rovers or drones.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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epet302/?p=1096#h5p-74

Singularity in 3D rotation angle

sequences by Robotics QUT.

Rotation Matrix

Rotation matrices is a transformation matrix that is used to

perform a rotation in Euclidean space [Wikipedia]. This
representation is typically what students are taught in linear
algebra to transform a column matrix from one coordinate
system to another coordinate system; the following example is
in two dimensions:
1236 • FRANCES ZHU

A counterclockwise rotation of a vector through angle θ. The

vector is initially aligned with the x-axis. Image by Maths
Poetry

In space, we need to work in three dimensions; rotations about

individual axes look like so with subscript representing the axis
of rotation and representing the angle of rotation:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1237

What’s neat about using rotation matrices is that superimposed

rotations is the product of matrix multiplication. The product,
seen below, represents a rotation whose yaw, pitch, and roll
angles are α, β and γ, respectively. More formally, it is an
intrinsic rotation whose Tait–Bryan angles are α, β, γ, about axes
z, y, x, respectively.

Another neat property of rotation matrices is that to get the

rotation matrix that goes flips/inverts the orientation, that
rotation matrix is the inverse of the original rotation matrix.
Further, because rotation matrices are orthogonal matrices, the
inverse is the transpose. RT = R−1 Finally, the last neat property
we’ll touch on is that the rotation matrix does not stretch the
vector or matrix it modifies. In math speak, that means its
determinant is 1 (where the determinant dictates the stretch
factor). det R = 1. Why should we use or avoid rotation
matrices? Rotation matrices are nonsingular, enable easy
rotation of vectors, and exhibit linear kinematics. But! Rotation
1238 • FRANCES ZHU

matrices are redundant in that there are 9 numbers for 3 degrees

of freedom, which means there are 6 additional constraints.

Euler Axis/Axis-Angle

Any rotation matrix (bold) can be represented by a rotation of some

angle about some axis. Image by Pratt.

“The axis–angle representation of a rotation parameterizes a

rotation in a three-dimensional Euclidean space by two
quantities: a unit vector e indicating the direction of an axis of
rotation, and an angle θ describing the magnitude of the rotation
about the axis. The axis–angle representation is predicated on
Euler’s rotation theorem, which dictates that any rotation or
sequence of rotations of a rigid body in a three-dimensional
space is equivalent to a pure rotation about a single fixed axis.
The axis–angle representation is equivalent to the more concise
rotation vector, also called the Euler vector. In this case, both
the rotation axis and the angle are represented by a vector
codirectional with the rotation axis whose length is the rotation
angle θ,” [Wikipedia]
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1239

Example from Wikipedia: Say you are standing on the ground

and you pick the direction of gravity to be the negative z-
direction. Then if you turn to your left, you will rotate radians
(or 90°) about the z-axis. Viewing the axis-angle representation
as an ordered pair, this would be:

The above example can be represented as a rotation vector with

a magnitude of pointing in the z-direction.

Why should we use or avoid Euler axis-angles? Just like Euler

angles, the axis-angle representation is intuitive and minimal but
has singularities in kinematics at 180 degrees.

Quaternions

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1096#oembed-2

Visualizing quaternions (4d numbers) with stereographic projection. This

1240 • FRANCES ZHU

30-minute video describes the history, intuition, complex math background, and
mechanics behind quaternions. Watch if you love attitude dynamics! And for an
interactive lesson, check out this page: https://eater.net/quaternions

I will preface this section by saying that I didn’t understand

quaternions until I’ve had to apply them to spacecraft attitude
dynamic simulations after at least the fourth time and most likely
still don’t fully appreciate their mathematical elegance. I don’t
want to take the space to review complex numbers in higher
dimensions so if you’re really interested in the theory, please
watch some videos and read the Wikipedia article! Practically
speaking, a quaternion in matrix form can be found by
converting an Euler axis-angle representation with the following
equation:

where is the axis and is the angle. The quaternion vector

has a vector component (the components touching the axis) and
a scalar component (that one component that is only a function
of angle). This conversion comes from the following complex
mathematical relationship

where u is the axis and is the angle. For some more intuition,
here are some quaternions with their analogous axis-angle and
euler angle descriptions:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1241

Neat properties of the quaternion make it conducive to easy

simulations. Quaternions have an identity quaternion, where
there is no axis or angle:

Quaternion inverses are also the quaternion conjugates:

There are 2 quaternions corresponding to every 3D rotation,

original quaternion and the negative quaternion. This
phenomenon is due to that fact that the two hemispheres that
represent quaternion rotation are redundant:

Quaternions can be multiplied, for simplicity let’s define

intermediate variables to split the quaternion vector and scalar
components:
1242 • FRANCES ZHU

And define the cross symbol superscript as:

In these intermediate terms, we multiply two quaternions noted

by the subscripts 1 and 2:

You’ll notice that this multiplication can be achieved by creating

a 4×4 quaternion matrix to rotate a quaternion, where I is a 3×3
identity matrix and the cross symbol superscript represents the
cross matrix notation. The quaternion matrix can be composed
of just or components but order does matter! Notice that if
creates the matrix, the first index term has a + sign and if
creates the matrix, the first index term has a – sign.

To rotate a vector:

Remember that q is the rotation from body frame to inertial

frame (by implication) and is the quaternion conjugate.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1243

Quaternions work just like rotation matrices:

Now, why should we use or avoid quaternions? They are non-

singular and easily compute dynamics. Computer graphics
engineers and ADCS engineers tend to prefer the use of
quaternions when computing rotations in the back end of
software due to the computational efficiency and mathematical
elegance when coding. Quaternions use 4 numbers to represent
3 degrees of freedom, so there is redundancy in incorporating
1 constraint but otherwise is rather minimal in the number of
parameters it needs. But! Quaternions can be nonintuitive and
during simulation analysis or testing, the results in quaternions
may be hard to verify. This shortcoming can be overcome by
converting quaternion outputs into intuitive attitude
representations, like Euler angles and axis-angles, during testing
but leaving the quaternion math as the computational workhorse
in the flight software.

Converting between Attitude Representations

If you’re ever in doubt as to what an attitude means in one

representation, try converting to another representation. Euler
angles and axis-angles are visually very intuitive so try plotting
these attitude representations. Rotation matrices are intuitive
when doing linear algebra but consist of a bunch of
1244 • FRANCES ZHU

trigonometric numbers that are hard to collectively make sense

of with a glance. Quaternions utilize complex math but can
be visually intuited with an axis-angle conversion. To convert
from one formalism to another, I use this Wikipedia page so
frequently that I may as well bookmark it.

Exercises

Try scrolling through this python notebook and

play with the attitude representations:

• Attitude Representations.ipynb –
Google Drive

Kinematics
Without any attention to forces and torques, how does a rotating
body move naturally with no disturbances? This section will
derive some fundamental math that shows why quaternions are
our friends and leads to rigid body dynamic equations of motion
(our ultimate goal in the dynamics section). If there was any
subsection you must read, read quaternion kinematics.

Rotation Matrix Kinematics

Let’s start with rotation matrices. Say we measure an angular

velocity from a gyroscope and our attitude is represented
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1245

as a rotation matrix R(t). How do we integrate our angular

velocity profile to get a rotation matrix profile R(t)?

We want to find the rate of change of the rotation matrix R over

time. We can then integrate this derivative to get R(t).

To find this relationship, we need to review velocities in a

rotating reference frame. The classic example is a bug traveling
on a record that is spinning at a constant rate.

To find the velocity of the bug in the inertial frame , we need

to add up its velocity on the record and the contribution of
the record spinning …. This equation embodies the kinematic
transport theorem. Although you could have guessed, the
superscript on the left of the variable represents the frame the
1246 • FRANCES ZHU

variable is in. The rotation matrix has two superscripts, the right
superscript represents the current frame the matrix is acting upon
and the left superscript is where the matrix is taking the variable.
In the following equation, the rotation is modifying velocity in
the body frame and taking it to the inertial frame.

In the inertial frame of reference (upper part of the

picture), the black object moves in a straight line.
However, the observer (red dot) who is standing in
the rotating frame of reference (lower part of the
picture) sees the object as following a curved path.
Gif by Coriolis Kraft Animations.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1247

Imagine a vector fixed in the body frame. The derivative of

this vector, velocity, is found with the chain rule:

From the kinematic transport theorem, we can also cancel out

the body derivative:

By equivalency, we found the derivative of the rotation matrix!

Remember the cross symbol superscript operator:

We could stop there and use a computational integrator to

integrate to get R(t), which is a numerical solution. We
could also find the analytical solution for the rotation matrix
profile based on ordinary differential equations. If you have a
pretty strong understanding of linear systems and differential
equations, read on! Otherwise, not necessary.
1248 • FRANCES ZHU

The analytical solution for R(t) starts with seeing that the
rotation matrix derivative equation has a similar form as a linear,
time-invariant model in state equation form, which has a
solution form like so:

For a constant angular velocity, the analytical solution is:

Quaternion Kinematics

To reiterate the problem: Say we measure an angular velocity

from a gyroscope and our attitude is represented as a
quaternion q(t). How do we integrate our angular velocity profile
from the quaternion at the current time step, , to the
quaternion at the next time step, ? What is the relationship to
computing ?

For this derivation, our initial attitude, , is rotated by some

very small angular displacement, q, to get us to our final
attitude, . By expanding q, we see that we can apply a small
angle approximation to simplify the trigonometric functions.

To finish the derivation, we define the quaternion derivative as

the change in quaternion over some small in time:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1249

To compare this final quaternion equation with the rotation

matrix equivalent:

Pretty similar expressions but the quaternion expression has a

factor of ½, which comes from the double cover in rotation.

That was short and sweet, right? Shorter derivation than the
rotation matrix derivation with intuitive mechanics and fewer
parameters (numbers) to keep track of? Hopefully, we showed
you how to propagate attitude with the quaternion representation
and why dynamicists prefer using quaternions!

Rigid Body Dynamics

“Rigid” means the distances between points in the body are
constant. The difference between this section and the previous
kinematics section is that kinematics is the study of motion
without forces/torques; dynamics is the study of motion from
forces/torques. Structural natural frequencies are rigid body
frequencies, to be contrasted with flexible body frequencies. We
can get pretty far modeling spacecraft as rigid bodies.
1250 • FRANCES ZHU

Moment of Inertia

Rigid bodies have moments of inertia, otherwise known as the

mass moment of inertia, angular mass, or rotational inertia, of a
rigid body, is a quantity that determines the torque needed for
a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis; similar
to how mass determines the force needed for the desired
acceleration. It depends on the body’s mass distribution and
the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque to
change the body’s rate of rotation” [Wikipedia]. The moment
of inertia dyadic is calculated with the mass of bodies at their
center of mass displacement from the overall mass displacement.
The moment of inertia dyadic is symmetrical as in the dyadic’s
transpose is equivalent to the original dyadic. In some coordinate
frames, the moment of inertia matrix is equivalent to a diagonal
matrix; this coordinate frame that produces a diagonal matrix is
called the “principal axes”. For rigid bodies that are connected,
their combined moment of inertia dyadic can be calculated with
the parallel axis theorem.
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1251
1252 • FRANCES ZHU

Angular Momentum

This gyroscope remains upright while spinning due to the

conservation of its angular momentum. Image by Kiko2000.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1253

Conserved quantities in rigid body dynamics are angular

momentum and kinetic energy. “Angular momentum is the
rotational equivalent of linear momentum. The total angular
momentum of a closed system remains constant. There are two
special types of angular momentum: the spin angular momentum
and orbital angular momentum” [Wikipedia]. Orbital angular
momentum is a nice way to define the orbital plane but in
this section, we are concerned with spin angular momentum.
Angular momentum is the moment of inertia dyadic, I,(second-
order tensor) dotted with the body’s angular velocity vector,
\omega. These variables are not attached to a coordinate frame,
yet! The magnitude of angular momentum is constant if there are
no disturbances.

Kinetic Energy

Rotational kinetic energy from spin is the rotational equivalent

of translational kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is also a conserved
quantity. The moment of inertia dyadic is positive definite, as
no matter what values are in the angular velocity vector, energy
can never be negative. This value will be valuable later on for
analysis.

= constant
1254 • FRANCES ZHU

Euler’s Equations

So remember earlier, angular momentum is constant when there

are no disturbances? As a reminder, here’s the equation for
angular momentum in the inertial frame:

When there are torques applied to the system, we need to find

a relationship between torque and angular momentum, which
can be in terms of angular velocity and moment of inertia. The
derivative of angular momentum is torque and by the chain rule:

The direction of this derivation will be too messy and hard

because the inertial derivative of inertia is complex so let’s go
another direction. Let’s use the transport theorem discussed in
the kinematics section instead to derive the torque in inertial
frame:

Similarly, the torque equation in the body frame is easily found

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1255

by rotating the inertial equation. If we break down this body

equation into angular velocity and inertia terms, we get Euler’s
rigid body equation!

This golden equation is critical to any rigid body dynamics

simulation. The reason why we work in this frame is that many
of the terms can be easily defined. The moment of inertia is
known in the body frame, easily measured or calculated in
. The angular velocity is measured in the body frame as the
gyroscope is mounted to the spacecraft within its body frame.
Finally, torque can be applied in the inertial frame or body
frame. External torques or torques from the space environment
are typically measured in the inertial frame. Internal torques or
torques generated from the spacecraft are typically measured in
the body frame. These two types of torques will be expounded
upon later in this section.

Parameters and Analysis

Moments of Inertia

Depending on the reference frame in which you calculate the

moment of inertia matrix, there can be terms in all indices;
notice the off-diagonal components:
1256 • FRANCES ZHU

There is a reference frame in which this matrix can be rotated

such that the off-diagonal components go to zero. “When the
axes are such that the tensor of inertia is diagonal, then these
axes are called the principal axes of inertia” [MIT]. If you’re
interested in how to find the rotation that yields principal axes,
refer to the MIT open course notes!

If we were to write Euler’s rigid body equations in principal

axes, we would see the most explicit definition of Euler’s
equations, where the variables are defined slightly different (I is
inertia and M is torque/moment):

Equilibria

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1257

The Bizarre Behavior of Rotating Bodies,

Explained. Video by Veritasium

If there were no external or internal torques acting on the rigid

body, the spacecraft would settle into angular momentum
equilibria. Let’s go through a derivation that reveals the number
of equilibria by re-writing Euler’s equation in terms of h:

Equilibria occur when :

Through linear algebra properties, we know h is an eigenvector

of J, which means h is parallel to a principal axis. The six
equilibria are angular momentum vectors along latex.

Stability

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1258 • FRANCES ZHU

from this version of the text. You can view them

online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1096#oembed-4

Gyroscopes: Rotation, Precession, and

Nutation. Video by Viken Kiledjian.

Which of these equilibria is stable? To find out, we need to

linearize about these equilibrium points and let’s assume

For the case where the primary motion is about the first principal
axis, let’s think about a case where and is
some value spin rate . To find what values are:

where

where

If we can formulate these values into a state matrix, we can find

the eigenvalues, which signal the stability of the system.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1259

To find the eigenvalues of this system, we need to calculate and

solve the characteristic polynomial:

The eigenvalues for this case are pure imaginary values, which
means the system is marginally stable but still under the category
of stable. This oscillatory motion is called nutation. Rotation
about this axis is called minor axis spin because the principal
moment of inertia about this axis is the smallest; think of a
rocket or pencil spinning about its long axis.

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1260 • FRANCES ZHU

Free Rotating Block, Z-Axis Perturbed.

Spinning about the minor axis. Video by
Sky Engineering Lab.

For the case where the primary motion is about the second
principal axis, let’s think about a case where
and is some value spin rate . To find what values
are:

where

where

The eigenvalues follow the same solution form as the first case
but the solution values are both real numbers, one positive and
one negative. These real eigenvalue values lead to one stable
equilibrium (associated with the negative eigenvalue) and one
unstable equilibrium (associated with the positive eigenvalue).
If all eigenvalues are real and negative, the system is stable but
that is not our case. If there is even one positive eigenvalue for
the system’s dynamics, the whole system is considered unstable.
This concept is called the intermediate axis theorem or tennis
racket theorem, demonstrated famously on the ISS.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1096#h5p-75

The last case is motion about the third principal axis, let’s think
about a case where and is some value spin
rate . To find what values are:

where

where

The eigenvalues for this case are pure imaginary values, which
means the system is marginally stable but still under the category
of stable. Rotation about this axis is called major axis spin
because the principal moment of inertia about this axis is the
largest; think of a hockey puck rotating about its short axis.
1262 • FRANCES ZHU

Hockey puck with the axis of rotation about major axis CC BY 2.0.
Image by Matt Boulton.

A great set of demos for each axis of rotation can be found here.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1263

External Torques

External disturbance torques. Image by Alaina Williams.

External torques are torques that act on the spacecraft body

that comes from the space environment and change the overall
angular momentum of the spacecraft. Disturbance torques are
any torques that you don’t want acting on the spacecraft’s body.
These are torques that steer you away from your desired goal.
They come in many forms, depending on your space
environment: magnetic torques, gravity gradient/stability,
aerodynamic torques, solar radiation torques, and
micrometeorites. These torques may not be a disturbance at all
and may be used to your advantage:

• Magnetic torque → magnetic torque coils or rods

• Gravity gradient → gravity boom

1264 • FRANCES ZHU

• Aerodynamic torque → entry, descent, and landing

technology, aerocapture technology, drag sails
• Solar radiation → solar sails

This section does not distinguish whether the external torques

are useful or not but provides a basis of math for calculating
the dynamic effects of these phenomena. Once these torque
values are calculated, you may plug them into the Euler rigid
body equation to simulate your spacecraft’s attitude dynamics.
If you’re not interested in numerical simulations, just be
conscientious that these are the force and torques a spacecraft
would experience in space.

Suggested Reading

This section draws heavily (at times word for

word) from the FAA’s section on Space Operations,
Section 4.3.1 Space Vehicle Control Systems. For
their take on the material, read right from the source!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1265

Prof. Dr.‐Ing. Bernd Dachwald dachwald@fh aachen.de

dachwald@fh‐aachen de Aerospace Technology Department Aachen
University of Applied Sciences.
1266 • FRANCES ZHU

Magnetic Field

Grey lines represent the magnetic field and the red line represents a
spacecraft’s orbit. The intersection of the magnetic field and orbit show
the orientation a dipole (compass) would face aligning with the
magnetic field at that point. Image by UMich.edu.

Magnetic torque comes from planetary magnetic fields and

scales with , or the inverse of distance cubed. For our own
Earth, the relevant altitudes where this effect is prominent is
between 500 km and 35,000 km [Dachwald]. The spacecraft
has its own magnetic profile because of the impact of charged
particles in space; the surface of a spacecraft can develop a
charge of its own giving it a distinct dipole—north/south ends,
like a compass. Just as a compass needle rotates to align with
Earth’s magnetic field, the dipole-charged spacecraft will
similarly try to rotate as it passes through the magnetic field. The
size of this magnetic torque depends on the spacecraft’s effective
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1267

magnetic dipole and the local strength of Earth’s magnetic field.

We estimate this from

where T = torque on a spacecraft (Nm)

• D = spacecraft dipole (amp-m2)

• B = local magnetic field’s strength (tesla), which

varies with altitude (R = distance to Earth’s center)
and latitude. Earth’s magnetic moment, M, is about
7.99 × tesla-m3. At the poles, B = . At the
equator, B = . (tesla = kg/amp- )

Magnetic torque is a big concern for operators of small satellites

in low, polar orbit but hardly noticeable for large spacecraft in
geostationary orbit. Later, we’ll see how we can create a large
dipole on purpose to use this torque as an attitude actuator.
1268 • FRANCES ZHU

Magnetic torque is an active spacecraft-attitude actuator that takes

advantage of the natural torque caused by Earth’s magnetic field
interacting with a magnet; it’s the same effect that rotates a compass
needle. Onboard, the system switches electromagnets on and off as
needed, pushing ”against” the magnetic field and producing the
necessary torque. Image by FAA.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1269

Gravity Gradient

Gravitational Force. From Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, we

know that gravitational attraction decreases with the square of the
distance between two objects. Thus, if we double the distance, the
gravitational force is only 1/4 as strong. Image by FAA.

From a previous section (Space Environment: Gravity), we

discussed that the force of gravity on an object varies inversely
with the square of the distance from the central body. As a
reminder: where

= force of gravity (N)

= gravitational parameter of the central body

m = mass of the object (kg)

1270 • FRANCES ZHU

R = distance from the object to the central body (km)

= unit vector in the direction (dimensionless)

The slight difference in gravitational force between the upper and lower
part of a spacecraft will tend to rotate the spacecraft to vertical, with its
long axis pointed to Earth. Image courtesy of FAA.

Thus, if one object is twice as far from Earth as a second object,

the gravitational force will be one-fourth as large. This is easy to
visualize if the difference in distances from the central body is
very great, but it works the same way for very small differences.
Imagine we have a dumbbell-shaped spacecraft in Earth orbit.
If the dumbbell is hanging vertically, the lower mass (m1) will
have a slightly greater gravitational force on it than the higher
mass (m2). If m2 is directly above m1, nothing interesting
happens. However, if the dumbbell gets displaced off vertical,
the slight difference between the gravitational forces on the two
masses will create a torque on the spacecraft that will tend to
restore it to vertical. This is fine if you want it to be vertical, but
if you don’t, your control system must continually fight against
this torque. We can estimate the magnitude of this torque using
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1271

where gravity-gradient torque (Nm)

µ = gravitational constant for Earth

= spacecraft moment of inertia about the axis (where we

assume IX = IY and IZ >> IX) (kg )

= spacecraft moment of inertia about the axis (kg )

angle between the body axis and the local vertical

This equation tells us three important things about the gravity

gradient effect

• It decreases with the cube of the distance—for

example, by going from a 500-km-altitude orbit (R =
6878 km) to a 1000-km-altitude orbit (R = 7378 km)
the torque reduces by almost 20%

• It depends on the difference between moments of

inertia in the axis and – plane; thus, for a
homogenous spacecraft with the
effect is zero

• It depends on the angle between the axis and local

vertical—the greater the angle from local vertical, the
greater the torque
1272 • FRANCES ZHU

Aerodynamic Drag

The region of the Earth’s atmosphere where atmospheric drag is an

important factor perturbing spacecraft orbits. Image by NASA/GSFC.

In low-Earth orbit the atmosphere applies a drag force to a

vehicle, eventually causing it to re-enter the atmosphere and
burn up. The drag force is

where

= force of drag (N)

ρ = atmospheric density

V = velocity (m/s)

= drag coefficient (unitless)

A = impacted area ( )
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1273

Because parts of a spacecraft may have different drag

coefficients (solar panels, for example, act like big sails), drag
forces on different parts of the spacecraft can also differ. This
difference, along with the distance between the center of
pressure (where the drag acts) and the center of mass, causes a
drag torque. A spacecraft designer can do little to prevent this
torque (short of moving the spacecraft to a higher orbit), so again
the control system must be designed to deal with it.

Solar Radiation

Force on a reflector results from reflecting the

photon flux Image by Robert A. Beatty BE
(Minerals) FAusIMM(CP)

Another source of disturbance torque for spacecraft comes from

the Sun. The Sun exerts an ever-so-slight force called
solar-radiation pressure on exposed surfaces. We’re used to
being warmed by the Sun, tanned by the Sun, and even burned
1274 • FRANCES ZHU

by the Sun, but pushed by the Sun? Yes. One way to think about
sunlight (or any light for that matter) is as tiny bundles of energy
called photons. In one of those seeming paradoxes of modern
physics, we say these photons are massless (thus, they can travel
at the speed of light), but they do have momentum. As photons
strike any exposed surface, they transfer this momentum to the
surface. Why can’t we feel this force when we hold our hand
up to the Sun? Because this force is very, very small. We can
estimate the force using

where F = force on a surface (N)

= solar constant = 1358 W/m2 at Earth’s orbit around the Sun

c = speed of light = 3 × m/s

= illuminated surface area (m2)

r = surface reflectance (where r = 1 for a perfect reflector and 0

for a perfect absorber) (unitless)

I = incidence angle to the Sun (deg)

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1275

KAROS space-probe with the solar sail in flight (artist’s depiction)

showing a typical square sail configuration CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by
IKAROS.

The force exerted on even a very large spacecraft with ten square
meters of surface (assuming perfect reflectance) is only 9 x
N! We assume this force acts at the center of pressure for
the surface. The moment arm is the distance from the center of
pressure to the spacecraft’s center of mass. We find the resulting
torque by multiplying this force times the moment arm (T = F
× d). Even with a 1 m moment arm, the resulting solar pressure
torque is only 9 × Nm. So why worry about it? Over
time, even this tiny force, acting unevenly over different parts of
the spacecraft, especially large areas like solar panels, can cause
problems for spacecraft needing precise pointing.
1276 • FRANCES ZHU

Internal Torques
Torque can also come from within the spacecraft body. Within
the spacecraft body, torques come from dampers to mitigate
unwanted vibration or rotation, gyrostats or momentum control,
and thrusters. These torques are typically used to control the
spacecraft’s motion. This section will lay out the dynamic
contribution of these internal torque sources.

Damping

A Simple Spacecraft Damper. Dampers “absorb” unwanted angular

momentum by converting the energy into friction, in much the same
way as the brakes in a car turn linear momentum into heat through
friction. A ball inside a circular tube filled with a viscous fluid is one
type of damper. As the spacecraft rotates, the ball moves through the
fluid. The resistance produces heat, dissipating the angular motion.
Image by FAA.

Earlier, we discussed equilibrium stability around the major and

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1277

minor axis. In the case where there is energy dissipation, like

a damped system, only the maximum axis is stable since it is
the minimum energy state. You can see this in the following
relationship relating inertia axis and energy for a given
momentum:

Where does energy dissipation come from? Fluid slosh, damping

associated with structural modes, and intentional dampers, like
nutation dampers. You can always think about energy dissipation
as the transfer of energy from kinetic energy to some other
form of energy, like excitation of some structure or fluid which
ultimately turns into heat.

An example of damping occurred to the first US satellite:

Explorer 1. Explorer was designed as a minor-axis spinner
(along the long axis) but entered a flat spin due to the damping
from the flexible antennas.

One simple type of momentum damper consists of a small ball in

a circular tube filled with a highly viscous fluid. As a spacecraft
rotates, some of its momenta are contained in the ball that moves
inside the tube. Friction between the ball and the fluid in the tube
1278 • FRANCES ZHU

converts some of the momenta into heat that slowly dissipates

throughout the spacecraft. Over time, the spacecraft can use
this simple technique to absorb mechanical energy, slowing its
rotation. Dampers are usually designed and oriented to reduce
rotation about a specific axis. In this way, designers often use
them in spinning spacecraft to remove unwanted “wobbles” in
the spin axis.

A simple model of internal damping is known as the “Kane

damper”. There are two parameters associated with the Kane
damper: inertia of the solid sphere (scalar) and damping
coefficient. These values can be fit to data to model damping,
such as fluid slosh. The last two equations are a coupled system
of ODEs (ordinary differential equations), which means that the
dynamics of one body affect the other body.

Momentum Control

A momentum control system is a system of rigid bodies whose

relative motion does not change the total system moment of
inertia. Think of a box (spacecraft bus) with spinning rotors
(momentum/reaction wheels) inside. These momentum-control
devices actively vary the angular momentum of small, rotating
masses within a spacecraft to change its attitude. How can this
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1279

work? If you stand on a turntable, holding a spinning bicycle

wheel at arm’s length, you can cause yourself to rotate by tilting
the bicycle wheel to the left or right. This works because the
total angular momentum of a system is always conserved. As the
bicycle wheel rotates one way, you rotate another to compensate,
keeping the total angular momentum constant. If the axes of
the wheels can contribute momentum in all three degrees of
freedom, spacecraft pointing and spin can be chosen arbitrarily.
Attitude disturbances can be handled with active control.

Internal view of DARE spacecraft bus components. From lower left to

top and then lower right: delta velocity thruster (4x), star tracker optical
head, S-band LGA, Ka-band HGA, star tracker electronics unit, battery,
Ka-band transmitter, S-band transponder, IAU, MIMU, reaction wheels
(4x), propellant tank, S-band LGA, and RCS thrusters (4x). Image by
Jack Burns.

We’re going to modify Euler’s equation to include the rotor’s

contribution. The spacecraft’s angular momentum is a
1280 • FRANCES ZHU

superposition of the body momentum and the rotor momentum,

which we will define as .

To apply the transport theorem, we get a modified version of

Euler’s equation:

We get to pick the rotor speed and rotor acceleration, which

means we can create a control policy.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1281

Thrusters

Thrusters are rockets that apply a force some distance away from the
center of mass, causing a torque that rotates the spacecraft. Image by
FAA.

Thrusters are perhaps the simplest type of active actuator to

visualize. Thrusters are simply rockets that rely on “brute force”
to rotate a spacecraft. By applying a balanced force with a pair of
rockets on opposite sides of a spacecraft, we can produce torque.
By varying which thruster pair we use and how much force we
apply, we can rotate a spacecraft in any direction.

Placing thrusters as far from the satellite’s center of mass as

possible gives them a larger moment arm and allows them to
exert a greater torque for a given force. This is evident from
the important concept we saw earlier. The greater the distance
over which a force is applied, the more torque is delivered
from the same force. However, as we learned earlier, because
of precession when a spacecraft is already spinning, any applied
torque in a direction other than the spin axis causes the
1282 • FRANCES ZHU

spacecraft to rotate at a constant velocity about an axis

perpendicular to the torque direction.

A diagram of the Kepler space telescope shows the use of reaction

control thrusters, which depleted after nine years. Image by Kepler
Team.

The biggest advantage of using thrusters is that they can produce

a well-defined “torque on demand,” allowing the spacecraft to
slew quickly from one attitude to another. Unfortunately, the
amount of propellant a spacecraft can carry limits their use.
For short missions, such as those flown by the Space Shuttle,
this limit is no problem. For longer missions (months or years),
designers use thrusters only as a backup.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1283

Configurations

Based on the previously discussed torques and momentum

control systems, we can start to relate configurations of
momentum control, sometimes coupled with unique spacecraft
bus geometry. These configurations range from single-axis spin
to three-axis and active to passive control.
1284 • FRANCES ZHU

Gravity Gradient Stabilization

Gravity-gradient Stabilization. Some spacecraft take advantage of the

gravity-gradient torque to keep them oriented in a local vertical, or
“downward,” attitude. Usually, they maximize this effect by deploying a
small mass at the end of a very long boom. This artist’s conception of
the PicoSAT spacecraft shows it to scale with a 6-m-long deployable
boom and a small mass on the end. Image by Surrey Satellite
Technology, Ltd., U.K.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1285

The first type of passive actuator takes advantage of the gravity

gradient disturbance torque discussed earlier. We can exploit this
“free” torque to keep a spacecraft oriented in a local vertical,
or “downward,” orientation. Fortunately, a spacecraft doesn’t
have to be shaped like a dumbbell to take advantage of this
effect. For example, why do we see only one face of the Moon
and never the mysterious “dark side?” Because of the uneven
distribution of mass within the Moon’s crust, it’s in a gravity
gradient-stabilized attitude with respect to Earth. However, to
maximize the effect of this cheap and reliable attitude actuator,
spacecraft will usually deploy weighted booms to create a more
dumbbell-like shape.

Gravity-gradient attitude control offers a simple, reliable,

inexhaustible (as long as there’s gravity) system with no moving
parts. However, it has a few drawbacks

• Control of only two axes—pitch and roll but not yaw

• Limited accuracy—depending on the spacecraft’s

moments of inertia, downward-pointing accuracy is
only about ±10°

• Only effective in low-Earth orbit—because gravity

varies with the square of the distance, it’s not very
effective beyond LEO

Despite these disadvantages, gravity-gradient-controlled

spacecraft have been used effectively on a variety of missions.
1286 • FRANCES ZHU

Magnetic Damping

Colorado Student Space Weather Experiment (CSSWE) Magnetic

Components highlighted in orange, totaling 8.6 grams in mass. Image by
David T. Gerhardt.

Magnetic damping is as easy as sticking a permanent magnet and

hysteresis rods inside your spacecraft and having your angular
velocity damp out, first tested in 1960 on Transit-1B. Passive
magnetic damping can achieve a settling time of fewer than 7
days and guarantee an attitude within 15 degrees of the local
magnetic field lines at a 600 km, 55-degree inclination orbit at a
cost of 8.6 grams and no power [Gerhardt and Palo]. This is just
one of many papers and implementations you can read; here are
others:

• Efficiency of Hysteresis Rods in Small Spacecraft

Attitude Stabilization

• Passive Magnetic Attitude Control System for the

Munin Nanosatellite

• Soft Magnets for Passive Attitude Stabilization of

Small Satellites
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1287

Spin Stabilization

A spin-stabilized spacecraft takes advantage of the conservation

of angular momentum to maintain a constant inertial orientation
of one of its axes. Because the angular-momentum vector, H, of
a spinning mass is fixed in inertial space, the spacecraft tends to
stay in the same inertial attitude.

Perhaps the best example of a spin-stabilized satellite is Earth.

The spinning Earth is essentially a giant gyroscope. Earth’s
vector points out of the North Pole. This stays fixed in inertial
space (except for a minor wobble), always pointed at the same
place in the sky. When we observe the motion of the stars at
night, we see they all appear to rotate around one star—the
North Star. This occurs because Earth’s vector points at the
North Star!

left: Spin Stabilization. A spinning spacecraft keeps its angular

momentum vector fixed in inertial space. Right: Spin Stabilization Isn’t
Much Good for Earth Pointing. Because spin-stabilized spacecraft have
fixed points with respect to inertial space, they aren’t a good choice for
Earth-pointing missions. During part of the orbit, they may point toward
Earth but during other parts of the orbit, they’ll point away. Image by
FAA.

Spin stabilization is useful, as long as we want our spacecraft

to stay pointed in the same inertial direction. However, usually,
we’re more interested in non-inertial pointing. For example, spin
1288 • FRANCES ZHU

stabilization isn’t very useful for pointing at Earth. For this

reason, we mostly use it only during spacecraft deployment,
when the natural gyroscopic stiffness we discussed earlier is
useful to maintain a known orientation until the spacecraft is free
from the launch vehicle. This spin is usually maintained through
the first major maneuver providing a stiff, stable platform during
a rocket firing. During high thrust, orbit-insertion rocket firings,
spin stabilization is often the only technique that can efficiently
keep the spacecraft stable.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1289

Dual-Spin

Dual-spin Communication Spacecraft. Large geosynchronous

communication spacecraft, such as the Satellite Business Systems
spacecraft, shown here, make good use of dual-spin attitude control.
Image by Hughes Space and Communications Company

One way to avoid Earth-pointing limitations of spin stabilization

is to use a dual-spin system. Dual-spin systems also take
advantage of the constant angular momentum vector of a
1290 • FRANCES ZHU

spinning mass. These systems consist of an inner cylinder called

the “de-spun” section, surrounded by an outer cylinder that is
spinning at a high rate. The outer cylinder provides overall
spacecraft stability. The word “de-spun” is actually a misnomer.
In fact, the “de-spun” section does spin, but at a much slower
rate than the outer section. To allow for antenna and sensor
pointing, the “despun” section spins at a rate to keep them
pointed at Earth. For example, if a spacecraft is in geostationary
orbit, the de-spun section rotates at “orbit rate” or once every 24
hours, keeping antennas or other sensors focused on Earth.

Dual-spin Spacecraft. A dual-spin spacecraft uses the inherent stiffness

of a spinning outer section with a “de-spun” inner section that can
independently point at Earth. The de-spun section turns at the orbital
rate to keep sensors and antenna pointed at Earth. Image by FAA.

Of course, the need for independently spinning sections makes

dual-spin spacecraft much more complex. Electrical and other
connections must run from the spun to the “de-spun” sections.
Highly reliable bearings must allow the two sections to spin
at different rates with little friction. Even with these inherent
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1291

technical challenges, dual-spin has been a popular control option

for large, geosynchronous, communication spacecraft.

Momentum Bias

“Momentum wheels” typically rely on a single wheel with a

large, fixed momentum to provide overall stiffness. The wheel’s
speed gradually increases to absorb disturbance torques. Biased
momentum systems are the simplest type of momentum control
device. In operation, these systems use one or two continually
spinning momentum wheels, each with a large, fixed
momentum. (They are “biased” toward having a particular, set
momentum, hence the name). Because they are always spinning,
they give the spacecraft a large angular momentum vector, fixed
in inertial space. This is exactly the same concept used by spin-
stabilized spacecraft, discussed earlier. Only, in this case, instead
of spinning the whole spacecraft, we only spin a small wheel
inside the spacecraft to achieve the same effect.
1292 • FRANCES ZHU

Three-Axis Control

Reaction Wheels in Operation. The total angular momentum of a

spacecraft system is the sum of the spacecraft’s momentum plus the
momentum of each reaction wheel. In this example, we start with a
non-rotating spacecraft that has zero total angular momentum. To rotate
the spacecraft in one direction, a reaction wheel is spun up in the
opposite direction, such that the total angular momentum of the system
stays constant. Image by FAA.

In contrast, reaction wheels are a type of zero-bias system,

because their normal momentum is at or near zero (no bias).
Typically, an attitude control system uses at least three separate
reaction wheels, oriented at right angles to each other. Often, a
fourth wheel is skewed to the other three for redundancy. When
the spacecraft needs to rotate to a new attitude or to absorb
a disturbance torque, the system spins one or more of these
wheels. To see how this works, let’s step through what happens
to the relationship between a reaction wheel and the overall
spacecraft momentum.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1293

Pyramidal reaction wheel configuration Published in 2016 8th

International Conference on Modelling, Identification and Control
(ICMIC) 2016 Minimum power consumption of the microsatellite
attitude control using pyramidal reaction wheel configuration A. Bellar,
M. A. S. Mohammed, A. Adnane

Three reaction wheels can deliver precise control of a

spacecraft’s attitude in all three axes. Unfortunately, as with any
machine with moving parts, they can be complex, expensive,
and have a limited operational lifetime. Despite these
limitations, they remain the primary choice for attitude control
on large, modern spacecraft requiring very accurate pointing,
such as the Hubble Space Telescope.
1294 • FRANCES ZHU

Reaction wheel configurations for a 3-axis satellite attitude control:

Configuration matrix of four reaction wheels. Image by ARS.

The final type of momentum-control device is the control-

moment gyroscope (CMG). A CMG consists of one or more
spinning wheels, each mounted on gimbals that allow them to
rotate freely in all directions. Recall that reaction wheels change
momentum by changing magnitude only (spinning faster or
slower). CMGs change momentum by changing their magnitude
and direction (physically rotating the spinning wheel). Again,
because the total angular momentum of the system must be
conserved, as the momentum of CMG changes in one way, the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1295

spacecraft will rotate in the other to compensate. CMGs provide

pointing accuracy equivalent to reaction wheels but offer much
higher slew rates and are especially effective on very large
platforms, such as the Skylab Space Station.

Control moment gyroscopes installed on the international space station.

Image by Quoracdn.net.

One important limitation of all momentum control devices is the

practical limit on how fast a given wheel can spin. In operation,
all of these systems must gradually spin faster and faster to
rotate the spacecraft and absorb disturbance torques. Eventually,
a wheel will be spinning as fast as it can, without damaging
bearings or other mechanisms. At this point, the wheel is
“saturated,” meaning it has reached its design limit for rotational
speed. When this happens, the wheels must “de-saturate”
through a process known as “momentum dumping.” Momentum
dumping is a technique for decreasing the angular momentum
of a wheel by applying a controlled torque to the spacecraft.
1296 • FRANCES ZHU

The wheel can absorb this torque in a way that allows it to

reduce its rate of spin. Of course, this means the spacecraft needs
some independent means of applying an external torque. For
this reason, on all spacecraft using momentum control devices,
designers use either magnetic torques or thrusters (or both) to
allow for momentum dumping.

Modes

AA236: Overview of Spacecraft GN&C Subsystems Brian Howley

Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company.

This section will overview spacecraft modes that are specific to

ADCS.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1297

Detumbling/Momentum Dumping

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1096#oembed-6

STK Detumbling mode by Andy Liu

In detumbling mode, the ADCS controller is responsible for

dumping the initial angular velocity from when the satellite
was in idle mode and/or recently deployed. Any configuration
listed previously can achieve detumbling. This mode is very
common for any satellite that needs stability to communicate
with a ground station or point at a target. Luckily, spacecraft
charging with surface-mounted solar panels (not deployed solar
panels) can still occur safely while in tumbling mode to charge
the battery that powers the actuators that momentum dump.

Pointing/Slewing

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
1298 • FRANCES ZHU

online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/

epet302/?p=1096#oembed-7

How Hubble Points – It’s Not Thrusters.

By LaunchPad Astronomy.

Likely, the most important mode during normal/nominal

operations is payload pointing or slewing. For observatories that
look at stars that are immensely far away, pointing will be static.
For missions that observe phenomena on Earth’s surface or in
Earth’s atmosphere, spacecraft will be nadir pointing (looking
directly down perpendicular to the Earth’s surface. This is a
common type of pointing for sweeping across large swaths of
Earth’s surface area. A mission that requires tracking an object
that moves quickly across the atmosphere, like a missile, could
require a slewing mode.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1299

This diagram depicts a satellite observing backscattered sunlight in the

nadir viewing geometry. Image by Planet User.

Sun pointing for spacecraft charging and pointing the radio

toward a ground station for communications require very slight
slewing. Sun pointing requires an average slew rate of 1º/day to
maintain general sun pointing in LEO [eoPortal]. While tracking
the ground station, the high gain antennas are expected to slew at
a rate of approximately 15º/hour [NASA]. Most of these targets
that the satellite needs to point at are in an inertial frame.
1300 • FRANCES ZHU

Artist’s rendition of the hosted Laser Communications Relay

Demonstration payload on the commercial spacecraft in GEO. Image
courtesy of NASA.

Safe

ADCS Mode transition under normal operation. Image courtesy of

Researchgate by Divya Rao.

Not all safe modes will be the same. The general idea behind
a safe mode is to conserve or generate power and protect any
sensitive components. As an example, LADEE has several sun-
safe modes: initial safing, controlled-yaw, and eclipse [NASA].
The goal of the initial safing state is to ensure that any sun-
sensitive instrument is protected from pointing directly at the
sun and additionally, that the spacecraft attitude is oriented for
peak power generation. When the sun vector gets within a
certain tolerance of the target sun vector, the sun safe mode will
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1301

then transition to the controlled roll-yaw state. If at any time, a

minimum number of sun sensors reads zero current, then the safe
mode control system asserts the eclipse flag and goes into the
eclipse state. The reaction wheel control effort is minimized.

Suggested Activity

Demonstrate attitude dynamics of passively

tumbling, passively damped, and actively
compensated spacecraft in an embedded python
notebook

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1096
1302 • FRANCES ZHU

8.6 Sensing

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1098#oembed-1

Sensors observe the system to determine attitude and transform

these observations into signals that the controller processes. All
of us have a built-in attitude-sensor system. As we know from
our discussion of the human vestibular system, we use fluid
flowing over tiny hairs in our inner ear, along with information
from our eyes, to detect changes in our attitude. For example,
they sense if we’re standing up or falling over. If we suddenly
tilt our head to the side, these sensors detect this motion. If our
body violently moves or shakes (such as when we ride a roller
coaster), our eyes and inner ear can get “out of synch,” leading
to motion sickness. Fortunately, spacecraft don’t get sick from

1302
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1303

all their rotating, but they do need good attitude sensors. So let’s
look at a spacecraft’s eyes and ears.

To understand how sensors help spacecraft determine their

attitude, pretend you’re flying the Space Shuttle in low-Earth
orbit and need to point the nose at some spot on the surface.
You’re in the commander’s seat facing toward the nose. To point
the nose at the surface, you must first determine where you’re
pointed now. How can you do this? The obvious answer is to
look out the window at some reference. Let’s say you see the
Sun out the left-hand window. Would this tell you all you need
to know? Unfortunately, no. A single reference point gives your
current attitude in only two dimensions. In other words, you’d
know that the left wing is pointed at the Sun and the nose is
pointed perpendicular to the Sun. But the nose could point in
various directions and still be perpendicular to the Sun, so what
do you do?

To determine your attitude in three dimensions, you need

another reference. If you could see some known star out the
front window you’d know your orientation with respect to two
reference points—the Sun and a star. Knowing the angle
between the Sun and the Earth and between a known star and
Earth, you could determine how to change your attitude to point
the nose at Earth. Let’s look at how we can apply this technique
for attitude determination.

Remote Sensing
One important class of attitude sensors works the same way as
1304 • FRANCES ZHU

remote-sensing payloads (on some spacecraft, the payload can

actually serve both functions). Recall, to look at a subject, a
remote-sensing system must

• Look at it—scan the sensor to point at the subject

• See it—collect EM radiation from it

• Convert it—transform EM radiation into a usable data

• Process it—turn data into usable information

When it comes to remote sensing for attitude determination,

three main subjects are available for reference—Earth, the Sun,
and the Stars. This gives us three classes of “out-the-window”
sensors

• Earth sensors

• Sun sensors

• Star sensors

All these sensors work in pretty much the same way as other
remote sensing devices. Typically, they are attached to the
spacecraft so the spacecraft must rotate to bring the subject into
the sensor’s field of view or rely on “targets of opportunity”
that will routinely go in and out of the field of view. Similar to
a telescope or camera, EM radiation from the primary subject
enters through a lens and focuses on solid state detectors, such
as the charged-coupled devices. The sensor’s accuracy depends
on how precisely it can discriminate the target, or portion of the
target, and how much onboard processing it can accomplish.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1305

Earth/Horizon Sensor

Earth Sensors. As their name implies, Earth sensors use Earth as a target
for determining spacecraft attitude. Sensors focus either on the gross
direction of Earth or on narrower (and more accurate). parts of Earth,
such as the horizon. Image by FAA.

In low-Earth orbit, Earth fills a big portion of the sky. Earth

sensors can roughly indicate the “down” direction by simply
discriminating where Earth is with respect to the rest of the
sensor’s field of view. At geostationary altitude, the angular
radius of Earth is about 10°, so a sensor that can find Earth is
at least accurate to within that amount. To use Earth as a more
accurate method of attitude determination, a sensor must focus
only on one small part. Conveniently, sensors can detect Earth’s
horizon by focusing on a narrow band of EM radiation emitted
by carbon dioxide, CO2, in the atmosphere. These Earth-horizon
sensors can be as much as ten times more accurate than a simple
Earth detector.
1306 • FRANCES ZHU

Infrared Earth horizon sensors have recently been implemented

for CubeSat attitude determination in the format of a nine-sensor
module, achieving a nadir estimation of 0.5° along two axes
(pitch and roll) [Nguyen et al.]. Horizon sensors can provide
basic 2DOF attitude knowledge with lower mass and cost than
star sensors.

Sun Sensor

Sun Sensor. A Sun sensor determines spacecraft attitude by finding the

direction of the Sun with respect to the body frame. Like Earth sensors,
this sensor can only give a 2-dimensional fix on attitude without another
point of reference. Image by FAA.

Sun sensors, the most widely used for spacecraft attitude, are
similar in function to Earth sensors. As the name implies, a Sun
sensor finds the Sun and determines its direction with respect
to the spacecraft-body frame. By their nature, Earth and Sun
sensors can give accurate information about attitude in only two
dimensions. For example, this means an Earth or Sun sensor can
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1307

measure pitch and roll relative to the horizon, but not yaw; or
pitch and yaw but not roll, etc.

In general, there are three main categories of sun sensor [Curtis]:

• Coarse analog sun sensors: sensors that measure the

current output, which is proportional to the cosine of
the angle between the sun and the normal to a
photocell. The zenith accuracy is seldom higher than
around 5° while the accuracy can increase to around
3° for angles from 10-50°.

Adcole Space and Bradford Space coarse sun sensors. Image by Sat
Search.

Adcole Space and Bradford Space pyramid sun sensors. Image by Sat
Search.

A number of coarse sun sensors can be mounted into a pyramidal

configuration to increase zenith accuracy. Even though these
sensors are more accurate and can even have internal
1308 • FRANCES ZHU

redundancy, they are not commonly used on small satellites due

to their large volume and high costs.

• Fine analog sun sensors: a translucent window

provides a light spot that shifts over the sensing
element with changing Sun attitude. The most
common implementation of which is using a four-
quadrant photodiode.

Incident Angle Measurement Theorem Model. Image by Bluesat.

Fine sun sensors can achieve between 0.005 to 3 degrees of

accuracy in 2DOF.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1309

Sample of a fine sun sensor with a 114degree field of view and accuracy
of fewer than 0.5 degrees RMS, weighing in at less than 5 grams. Image
by Cubesat Shop.

• Digital sun sensors: sensors that operate based on

integrating a 2-dimensional light sensor and signal
processing, so as to discriminate between direct
sunlight and reflected sunlight. Truly digital sun
sensors are a much smaller market segment than
analog sensors. There are various sun sensors on the
market which are advertised as digital, but which are
actually analog sun sensors with a digital interface.

Sun sensors are used to initially acquire vehicle attitude from

an unknown orientation so that the spacecraft can quickly point
1310 • FRANCES ZHU

toward the Sun to charge. Sun sensors provide coarse attitude

data in relation to the star tracker

Star Sensor/Tracker

Star Sensor. A star sensor determines a spacecraft’s attitude with respect

to the known orientation of certain, bright stars. Image by FAA.

A more accurate 2-axis reference is a star sensor. Star sensors

measure a spacecraft’s attitude with respect to known star
locations. Then they compare these measurements to accurate
maps of the brightest stars stored in the spacecraft’s memory.
The angle between the known star’s position and a reference
axis on the spacecraft, θ, then helps determine the spacecraft’s
inertial attitude. By using two or more star sensors located
around a spacecraft (or by taking multiple measurements with
the same sensor), the system can determine its attitude in three
dimensions.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1311

The theoretical limit of accuracy for a star tracker depends on

[Fialho and Mortari]:

• Stellar distribution around the star sensor, stellar

brightness, and attenuation of stellar light by the
intervening medium.

• Diameter of the star tracker aperture

• The exposure time of the star tracker observation

For an assumed field of view (FOV) of 90 degrees, 10 cm

diameter aperture, and 10 ms observation length, the theoretical
attitude error is on the order of 0.01 – 0.1 milli-arcseconds.
Arcseconds (denoted by the symbol “) is an angular
measurement equal to of a degree or of an arcminute.
There are also 206,264.5” in a radian, so that 1” = 4.848 ×
radians [Swinburne]. All to say that this theoretical limit is very
very small: 0.01 milli-arcseconds is 4.8481368 radians of
error!

Sketch of an autonomous star tracker.Image by Liebe.

Realistically, there are many errors that are integrated into the
1312 • FRANCES ZHU

ultimate attitude estimate of a star tracker: sensitivity threshold

of the camera, noise in processing electronics, dimensional
tolerance of mechanical parts and mounting errors, etc. When
all the physical manifestations of error and suboptimal design
due to cost or schedule constraints are accounted for, these
commercial options have the following attitude error estimates
with size, mass, and power for reference [satsearch]. Generally,
the smaller the star tracker, the cheaper and less accurate the
attitude estimate.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1313

Attitude Update
Model Vendor Size Mass Power Cost
Error Rate

< 30
arcsec Unlist
pitch and guess
Hyperion yaw 29 x 29 x 600 magni
ST200 42 g 5 Hz
Technologies 38.1 mm mW of 1,00
< 200 10,000
arcsec roll USD

< 55
arcsec
cross-axis 142
DE, < 77 50 x 35 x mW – ~13,00
CubeStar CubeSpace 55 g 1 Hz
arcsec 55 mm 264 USD
cross-axis mW
RA, <200
arcsec roll

Boresight 136 mm
<
Star New Space pointing x 136
800 < 2 W > 1 Hz
Mapper Systems accuracy mm x
g
16 arcsec 280 mm

6 arcsec
cross
Standard Blue Canyon boresight, 10 x 5.5 0.35 < 1.5
NST Technologies 40 arcsec x 5 cm kg W
about
boresight

0.54
arcseconds
in yaw 100,00
Northrop
ST5000 and pitch, Handheld 10 Hz 1,000,
Grumman
17 USD
arcseconds
in roll
1314 • FRANCES ZHU

5.7”
diameter
x 12” tall
“Low-
(with
CT-2020 Ball 1.5 arcsec 3 kg <8 W 10 Hz for a la
contra
standard
sunshade)

Unlist
40 –
High 0.14 Length of assum
Ball 100
Accuracy arcsec a person very v
Hz
expens

Magnetometer

Magnetometers. A magneto-meter functions as a highly accurate

compass that measures the direction and strength of the local magnetic
field. By comparing this measurement to a model of Earth’s field, it can
determine an accurate estimate of the current attitude. (Courtesy of
Maarten Meerman, Surrey Satellite Technology, Ltd.). Image by FAA.

Another means of measuring attitude directly uses Earth’s

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1315

magnetic field. A magnetometer is basically a fancy compass

that measures the direction of the magnetic field and its strength.
Earlier, when we discussed the disturbance torque caused by
the magnetic field, we indicated its strength varies with the
cube of the radius and by a factor of two between the
pole and equator. By comparing the measured direction and
strength of the local field with a high fidelity model of Earth’s
field, the sensor can determine the orientation of the spacecraft
with respect to Earth. The magnetometer provides the direction
and magnitude of the local magnetic field (two axes) to within
0.5 to 3 degrees inaccuracy. Using sophisticated determination
and estimation algorithms with only a magnetometer can yield
an accuracy of 2 degrees on attitude and 0.01 degrees/sec on
angular rates [Carletta et al.].

To see how this works, think about a compass needle. It’s usually
just a lightweight magnet that can rotate freely. If you’ve ever
played with magnets, you know that one side of a magnet will
readily attract and stick to another magnet, while the opposite
side will repel it. With magnets, opposites attract and like to
repel, so the north pole of a magnet attracts the south pole of
another magnet. The lightweight magnet rotating freely in a
compass tries to do the same thing. The north end of the compass
tends to point at Earth’s North Pole, and suddenly, you’re no
longer lost!

The use of magnetometers is limited by the strength of the

field, making them more useful in low-Earth orbit than at
geostationary altitude. The sensor accuracy depends on the
accuracy of the field model. Even so, they offer a relatively
1316 • FRANCES ZHU

inexpensive sensor that can deliver an independent reference

from the other sensors we’ve discussed.

Tri-axis Electronic Magnetometer by AKM Semiconductor, inside

Motorola Xoom CC BY-SA 4.0. Image by Raimond Spekking.

A MEMS magnetic field sensor is a small-scale

microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) device for detecting
and measuring magnetic fields (Magnetometer). Many of these
operate by detecting effects of the Lorentz force: a change in
voltage or resonant frequency may be measured electronically,
or a mechanical displacement may be measured optically.
Compensation for temperature effects is necessary. Its use as
a miniaturized compass may be one such simple example
application.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1317

The magnetometer is what’s called a microelectromechanical, or MEMs

device. MEMs are made of very tiny mechanical parts and wires too
small to see, made in the same way microchips are made. Inside the part,
too tiny to see, are tiny coils and a beam. Each axis has a beam. That
beam has a pressure sensor on each side, and a coil wrapped around it
passing a current through it. Due to Lorentz force, the stronger the
magnetic field, the more the bar with the current passing through it
bends. Image by Arcbotics.

Gyroscope

A gyroscope. Image by Lucas Vieira.

1318 • FRANCES ZHU

Gyroscopes, like our inner ear, can determine attitude and

changes in attitude, directly, without needing to look out the
window. The simplest type of gyroscope is a spinning mass.
As we know, any spinning mass has angular momentum that
is conserved. By using this basic principle, we can use the
gyroscope to detect a spacecraft’s angular motion. Two basic
principles of gyros make them useful as attitude sensors:

• With no torques, their angular momentum is

conserved—they always point in the same direction
in inertial space

• With torque applied, they precess in a predictable

direction, and the amount

When a mass starts to spin, its angular-momentum vector

remains stationary in inertial space, unless acted on by an
outside torque. For example, let’s spin a gyroscope at 6:00 A.M.
with its angular-momentum vector pointed at some convenient
inertial reference—say, a star just above the eastern horizon
(somewhere to the right side of the page). We can then observe
how conservation of angular momentum works to keep the gyro
always pointed in the same inertial direction, as long as no
torque affects it.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1319

Conservation of Angular Momentum. A spinning mass, such as a

gyroscope, has angular momentum that is naturally conserved. If we
spin a freely rotating gyro pointing east at 6 A.M., in this polar view of
Earth, it appears to rotate as the day goes on. Actually, the Earth-bound
observer rotates with Earth, but the gyro stays pointing in the same
direction in inertial space. Image by FAA.

In this case, the angular-momentum vector, , appears to

“track” the star because the star is essentially fixed in inertial
space. As the gyro sits in its stand, it looks like it’s rotating
throughout the day. Actually, the stand is moving as Earth
rotates. The gyro remains stationary in inertial space. Museums
often demonstrate this principle with huge pendulums suspended
on long cables. The swinging pendulum’s plane remains fixed in
inertial space, but as Earth turns, the pendulum’s path appears to
move, knocking over dominos spaced around it to the delight of
the crowds.

The second basic principle of gyroscopes relates to their strange

motion in response to an applied torque. Earlier, we called this
motion precession—rotation with constant angular velocity in a
direction 90° from the direction of the applied torque.

Knowing these two basic principles, let’s see how we can use
a gyro to sense attitude. Because its angular momentum vector
stays constant in inertial space, it provides a constant reference
for inertial direction. One way to measure rotation with respect
1320 • FRANCES ZHU

to the reference is to isolate the gyro from torques by mounting

it on a gimbal (hinged brackets that allow it to rotate freely or
that allow the mounting box to rotate freely around the stationary
gyro). We then mount the gimbal on a platform in a spacecraft
and measure the spacecraft’s rotation by measuring how much
the spacecraft rotates with respect to the stationary gyro.

Another way to measure a spacecraft’s rotation is to strap a

gyro directly to the spacecraft. Then, when the gyro (or the
spacecraft) rotates around an axis perpendicular to the spin
vector, the resulting torque will cause the gyro to precess. By
measuring this precession angle and rate, the system can
compute the amount and direction of the spacecraft’s rotation
and thus determine its new attitude.

Ring laser gyroscope. Image by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

A moderately new type of gyroscope invented in 1963, called

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1321

ring-laser gyroscopes, doesn’t use these principles of a spinning

mass. They use principles associated with laser light! A ring-
laser gyro consists of a circular cavity containing a closed path,
through which two laser beams shine in opposite directions (it’s
all done with mirrors). As the vehicle rotates, the path lengths
traveled by the two beams change, causing a slight change in the
frequency of both beams. By measuring this frequency shift, the
system can compute the vehicle’s rate of rotation. By integrating
this rate over time, it can determine the amount of rotation
and hence the vehicle’s new orientation. Ring-laser technology
offers similar or better accuracy, with greater reliability than the
old style spinning-mass gyros.

Ring laser gyroscope produced by Ukrainian “Arsenal” factory on

display at MAKS-2011 airshow. Image by Nockson.

The newest type of gyroscope is a Micro-electromechanical

1322 • FRANCES ZHU

systems (MEMS) gyro [Silicon Sensing]. These are packaged

similarly to other integrated circuits and may provide either
analog or digital outputs. In many cases, a single part includes
gyroscopic sensors for multiple axes. These small hemispherical
resonator gyroscopes made of quartz glass operate in a vacuum
[Wikipedia].

Schematic drawing of a proposed freestanding tuning fork gyroscope:

(1) outer frame, (2) inner frame, (3) driving comb electrodes, (4) parallel
plate sense electrode, (5) double folded beams, (6) anchors, (7) linear
beams and (8) self-rotation ring. Image by Minh Ngoc Nguyen.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1323

Inertial Measurement Unit

Apollo program w: Inertial Measurement Unit on display at the Draper

Labs 2019 “Hack the Moon” exhibit, held in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in honor of the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing. CC
BY-SA 4.0. Image by Arnold Reinhold.

Multiple gyroscopes and accelerometers (or multiple-axis

gyroscopes and accelerometers) can be integrated into units
called inertial measurement units, or IMUs, to achieve output
that has six full degrees of freedom.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1098#oembed-2
1324 • FRANCES ZHU

How MEMS Accelerometer Gyroscope

Magnetometer Work & Arduino Tutorial.
By How to Mechatronics.

Today, we typically see MEMs gyroscopes and MEMS

magnetometers integrated with a MEMs accelerometer onto a
small circuit board for a very low price. By adding the
magnetometer into the package, the sensor package is a 9-axis
IMU. We already described MEMS gyroscopes and
magnetometers. MEMS accelerometers are one of many types of
accelerometers; MEMS in the context of accelerometers utilize
surface micromachined capacitance. Acceleration is measured
through capacitance changed by the deflection of
microstructures with an attached mass.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1325

9 Axis IMU L3GD20 LSM303D Module 9DOF Compass Acceleration

Gyroscope Sensor Module for Arduino. Image courtesy of Amazon.

A very wide variety of IMUs exists, depending on application

types, with performance ranging [Wikipedia]:

• from 0.1°/s to 0.001°/h for gyroscope

• from 100 mg to 10 µg for accelerometers.

Gyroscope and accelerometer sensors behavior is often

represented via a model based on the following errors, assuming
they have the proper measurement range and bandwidth:

• offset error: this error can be split between stability

performance (drift while the sensor remains in
1326 • FRANCES ZHU

invariant conditions), and repeatability (error between

two measurements in similar conditions separated by
varied conditions in between)

• scale factor error: errors on first order sensitivity due

to non-repeatabilities and non-linearities

• misalignment error: due to imperfect mechanical

mounting

• cross-axis sensitivity: parasitic measurement induced

by solicitation along an axis orthogonal to the sensor
axis

• noise: dependent on desired dynamic performance

• environment sensitivity: mainly sensitivity to thermal

gradients and accelerations

High-performance IMUs or IMUs designed to operate under

harsh conditions are very often suspended by shock absorbers.
These shock absorbers are required to master three effects:

• reduce sensor errors due to mechanical environment

solicitations

• protect sensors as they can be damaged by shocks or

vibrations

• contain parasitic IMU movement within a limited

bandwidth, where processing will be able to
compensate for them.

Expected position drift over time, comparison between cheap and

expensive IMUs by Debitetto.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1327

A major disadvantage of using IMUs for navigation is that they

typically suffer from accumulated errors. Because the guidance
system is continually integrating acceleration with respect to
time to calculate velocity and position (see dead reckoning),
any measurement errors, however small, are accumulated over
time. This leads to ‘drift’: an ever-increasing difference between
where the system thinks it is located and the actual location.
Due to integration, a constant error in acceleration results in a
linear error in velocity and quadratic error growth in position. A
constant error in attitude rate (gyro) results in a quadratic error in
velocity and cubic error growth in position. Positional tracking
systems like GPS can be used to continually correct drift errors
(an application of the Kalman filter).

Global Positioning System (GPS)

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1098#oembed-3

How Does GPS Work? Video by Sci

Bright.
1328 • FRANCES ZHU

The newest attitude sensor to emerge on the scene is the

“differential” Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS is a
constellation of 24 satellites in high Earth orbit (12-hour period)
designed and deployed by the U.S. Air Force to provide
worldwide position, velocity, and time information. Clever
engineers figured that by placing two GPS receivers some
distance apart on a vehicle and carefully measuring the
difference between the two signals, they could determine a
vehicle’s attitude. This attitude determination technique may
offer a relatively inexpensive, independent system for spacecraft
in low-Earth orbits.

GPS For Use With MTK3339. Image by Digikey

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1329

Sensor Design Process and Drivers

Typical
Reference Remarks
Accuracy

1 Simple, reliable, low cost, note always

Sun
arcminute visible

Orbit dependent; usually requires scan;

Earth 0.1 degrees
relatively expensive

Magnetic Economical; orbit dependent; low altitude

1 degree
Field only; low accuracy

0.001
Stars Heavy, complex, expensive, most accurate
degree

0.01
Inertial Rate only; good short term reference; can
degree/
Space be heavy, power; cost
hour

How do we select the best sensors for our needs? Before

selecting the sensors [satsearch]:

• Specify your exact mission parameters – ensure you

are clear on the full range of activities your spacecraft
needs to perform in terms of attitude determination
and control.

• Record all known design specifications of the satellite

– keep to hand the current specifications of the craft
(understanding these may change as the design
evolves) – for example, it is vital that sun sensor is
correctly accommodated within the spacecraft due to
the impact on the system’s ability to use the correct
frame of reference.
1330 • FRANCES ZHU

• Consider the range of technology that will be used in

the system – take into account the results of all
decisions on what other components and sub-systems
have been made. It is important that the sun sensors
you choose will work effectively with other
components, such as magnetorquers or star trackers in
order to establish full attitude knowledge.

• Take into account the key performance criteria –

understand how to evaluate available sensor products
according to the criteria most relevant for your
applications. More on this below.

There are a number of design and performance criteria that

dictate the selection of a sensor model:

• Field of view (FOV)

• Accuracy

• Environmental characteristics including operating

temperature, radiation tolerance limits, and vibration
limits

• Available mass and volume budgets

• Costs

• Update rate (for units with integrated electronics)

• Power consumption

• Angular resolution

Here are tidbits of knowledge that get us closer to a decision:

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1331

• Depending on the mission requirements, we need a

single sensor or a set of sensors that will give us an
attitude estimate, typically in 3 degrees of freedom.

◦ A star tracker can resolve altitude in all 3

degrees of freedom but is typically very
expensive.

◦ A magnetometer only instantaneously

resolves attitude to two degrees of freedom
using Earth’s magnetic field but integrated
over time can resolve all three degrees of
freedom [Searcy]. A sun sensor also only
instantaneously resolves attitude to two
degrees of freedom using the sun position
but can be extended to three axes [NASA
JPL]. The two sensor measurements may be
combined to determine attitude to three
degrees of freedom instantaneously.

◦ Sensors that measure angular rate or

acceleration could help with attitude
estimation/determination, such as
gyroscopes or accelerometers.

◦ If we want even more precision, we can

combine sensor measurements that overlap
in degrees of freedom to get a more precise
determination of attitude in 3 degrees of
freedom by filtering out noise.

• Configuration constraints

◦ A sun sensor requires pointing toward the

1332 • FRANCES ZHU

sun to some degree but a star sensor wishes

to avoid the sun. Sun sensors and star
sensors are typically not mounted on the
same spacecraft face and do not face the
same direction as they have opposing
requirements.

◦ Inertial measurement units can be

strategically mounted close to the center of
rotation so that the accelerometer does not
measure any centrifugal acceleration. If this
is unavoidable, some simple math can
cancel out the centrifugal acceleration.

◦ Magnetometers are typically mounted away

from electronics to minimize interference.

Common Configurations
There exist different tiers of ADCS configurations based on
available volume/mass and required accuracy/precision:

• Coarse: For even the most mass and volume

constrained spacecraft, the 9-axis MEMS IMU
achieves an immense amount of coarse attitude
information per buck. The direction of the sun can be
estimated from the voltage and geometry of the solar
panels or photodiodes. Typically, star trackers used to
be too bulky and expensive for 1U CubeSats but with
recent advancements, the smallest star trackers have a
mass of only dozens of GRAMS! That’s incredible
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1333

miniaturization in progress.

• Small-Satellite Fine: For larger CubeSats that can

spare 0.5U to 1U, many vendors offer integrated
ADCS packages with controlled/protected structural
mounting and algorithms pre-installed/tested. The
manufacturer testing and integration can typically
guarantee higher accuracy and precision but does cost
more due to more engineering hours. Some
commercial options include:

CubeSpace ADCS package for 37,400 USD. Image by Cube Sat Shop.
1334 • FRANCES ZHU

Blue Canyon Technologies XACT Attitude

Control Module for CubeSats, which includes
Nano Star Tracker, three micro-sized reaction
wheels enabling precise 3-axis control, three
torque rods, MEMS IMU, MEMS Magnetometer,
sun sensors, and integrated electronics board. The
integrated electronics board key features include
an FPGA, SDRAM, DPRAM, FLASH memory,
sensor/actuator interfaces, latching relay, and
regulators/converters. Image by Digital
Commoms.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1335

XACT configuration block diagram. Image by Cube at Shop.

The KU Leuven ADCS. Image by Cubsat Pointing.

1336 • FRANCES ZHU

ADCS Sensors and Actuators for ZA-aerosat subject to significant

aerodynamic disturbances. By Williem H. Steyn

• Flagship Fine: Spacecraft pointing accuracies with

sub-arcsec to milli-arcsec levels require all the stops:
gyroscopes, accelerometers, magnetometers when
relevant, star trackers, sun sensors, and fine guidance
sensors (FGS). These large missions have all the
components the smaller missions have but allow more
volume and mass, resulting in higher accuracy and
precision measurements. Small-satellites don’t have
fine guidance sensors, which are mission-specific
attitude sensors innovated for the unique
characteristics of the mission. For the James Webb
Space Telescope, the FGS is a near-infrared camera
residing in the integrated science instrument module
that identifies and acquires a guide star to provide
fine pointing data to the ACS for attitude stabilization
[JWST]. The ultimate pointing accuracy (with
reaction wheel and thruster errors incorporated) is
expected to be 0.10 arcseconds!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1337

The layout of the Honeywell FGS optical components on the optical

bench. Figure courtesy of Honeywell.

Artemis Kit Specific

1338 • FRANCES ZHU

Artemis ADCS Sensors

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1339

Si
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accuracy 2.5m
CEP 10
GP Venus838FLP Skytr 0. mA
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1340 • FRANCES ZHU

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1098
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1341

8.7 Determination

authored by Dr. Zhu with major contributions from Dr.

Manchester

Attitude Determination Dr. Andrew Ketsdever MAE 5595

Determining attitude is the act of taking sensor measurements

and calculating the spacecraft’s attitude. Like I was

1341
1342 • FRANCES ZHU

foreshadowing before in the sensor section, we need at least two

unit vectors (directions) to uniquely determine attitude. These
unit vectors or directional vectors can be toward a number of
reference points: the sun, the Earth’s horizon, the relative
direction of Earth’s magnetic field, a star. A star tracker can
uniquely determine attitude because there are multiple stars in
the camera’s field of view, offering at least those two unit
vectors. The attitude determination problem is solved with a star
tracker that can give us a 3DOF attitude estimate! Unfortunately,
if you don’t have a star tracker or if you want to achieve a
more accurate or precise attitude estimate, you will need to
incorporate multiple sensor measurements together. A sun
sensor, Earth sensor, or magnetometer individually can only
provide one unit vector, so thus, we need to combine these types
of sensor measurements to get a 3DOF attitude estimate.

There are two types of attitude determination algorithms. A

lost-in-space or static determination algorithm incorporates
instantaneous observations (say a sun vector and magnetic field
vector at a snapshot in time) to produce an attitude. Lost-in-
space implies that the spacecraft has no memory, opens its eyes
or camera shutters for the first time or after a reboot, and needs
to produce an initial estimate of attitude. The other type of
determination algorithm comes after the initial observation when
we’ve accumulated multiple sensor measurements over time.
With continuous observations, we can combine past
measurements and our knowledge of attitude dynamics to get an
ever more precise estimate of the spacecraft’s attitude, achieving
precision below the noise level of any sensor! Because of this
algorithm’s ability to reject noise, we call these algorithms
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1343

filters, which fall under the umbrella of determination and

estimation.

This section will review common determination algorithms.

There will be a LOT of math in the derivation of these
algorithms. The intuition is 1) you need observations that span
the 3 degrees of freedom and 2) with clever matrix manipulation,
geometric relationships, and attitude representation identities,
you can find an attitude representation that minimizes the error
in rotating observations between an inertial and body frame. If
you’re interested in implementing these algorithms, there are
many papers and likely code repositories you can dig into
outside this text.

TRIAD

TRIAD is one of the first attitude determination algorithms,

derived in the early 60’s [Black]. This static algorithm was used
for the US transit satellites, a predecessor to GPS. Say we have
2 unit vectors, known in both body and inertial frames, and are
linearly independent (cannot be parallel). The goal is to find a
rotation matrix from the observations,
Let’s start with this known relationship:

We can make a 3rd linearly independent vector by taking a

cross-product of our observations:
1344 • FRANCES ZHU

As long as and are linearly independent, V will be

invertible:

Matrix inverses are computationally intensive so let’s try to

avoid that operator. Since V is orthogonal by definition, the
inverse is also the transpose. Transposes are much simpler to
take. The final, classic TRIAD solution is:

The TRIAD method is very simple to implement but! TRIAD

can only handle 2 observations, doesn’t account for dynamics,
and doesn’t offer “covariance” or “error bound” information.
TRIAD is typically used with a sun sensor and magnetometer.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1345

Diagram depicting traditional triad attitude determination technique with

the use of a magnetometer and sun sensor. By Rahul Rughani.

Wahba’s Problem/ Batch Estimation

What happens if we want to use more than 2 observations to

improve our estimate? Say we have a batch of measurements
and we want to solve the static attitude problem at a single time
step with all these measurements. We define a least-squares cost
function for attitude, which is a minimization problem to find
the rotation that minimizes the squared error between the inertial
observation and rotated body observation:
1346 • FRANCES ZHU

Where are scalar weights. Weights should be inversely

proportional to sensor variance to give a maximum likelihood
answer.

To find attitude (the rotation matrix), we solve the following

optimization problem:

such that

The SO(3) constraint makes this minimization problem

interesting and the solutions diverse. We will talk about three
solutions: 1) convex optimization, 2) SVD method and 3) q-
Method.

Convex Optimization Solution

The convex optimization solution makes use of constraints and

relaxation techniques to ultimately achieve a convex
optimization problem that can be solved. Let’s begin the thought
process.

If we look closer at Wahba’s cost function, we can transform the

squared error into a trace with a trick!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1347

Where the trace trick is:

There’s a striking observation: the minimization problem or cost

function is linear with respect to the rotation matrix, R! To get
a solution to this linear minimization problem, we can form an
intermediate variable, B, which is the attitude profile matrix. It
stores the observations in the body and inertial frames over time.

We can now re-write Wahba’s problem as:

such that and

The minimization problem is linear but the constraints are non-

convex. You can imagine that the edge of the circle are solutions
for the equality constraint and the shaded region are solutions to
the inequality constraint.
1348 • FRANCES ZHU

Non-convex optimization problems are really very hard to solve

so we’d like to transform the minimization problem into a
convex problem. Replacing the equality with an inequality is
called “relaxation”. The new, more easily solved optimization
problem is:

such that

Because the objective is linear, we will always end up on the

boundary of the solution set, satisfying the constraint with
equality. This particular set up is a special type of relaxation:
“tight relaxation”. Linear optimization problems with inequality
constraints are solved with semidefinite programs, which are
numerical solvers. There are plenty of good solvers in various
computer languages and libraries, like SEDUMI in Matlab.

We just walked through the convex optimization solution for

Wahba’s problem. Given multiple observations in the body and
inertial frame, an optimization problem was set up and
transformed into a form that can be encoded into a numerical
solver. The computer then solves for the attitude, R.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1349

SVD solution

The SVD solution makes use of singular value decomposition

(SVD) of the attitude profile matrix we defined earlier. Here’s
the thought process.

The rotation matrix is defined by and can be written:

Where are mutually orthogonal unit vectors. Previously we

used as the vectors but we need that letter for SVD, so we’re
using for these reference unit vectors now.

But what happens if are not mutually orthogonal, which is

likely for some random measurements spacecraft typically see?
Let’s revisit the attitude profile matrix:

The optimal is the closest special-orthogonal matrix to

.

To do this, we use singular value decomposition:

Where is some matrix, and are orthogonal matrices,

and is a diagonal matrix. Diagonal elements of
are called “singular values”, . SVD is like an
eigendecomposition but more general. We can make a special
orthogonal matrix by setting

In summary, the SVD algorithm procedure is:

1350 • FRANCES ZHU

1. Form the attitude profile matrix, B, from

measurements
2. Compute the SVD of the attitude profile matrix, B

3. Compute the special orthogonal matrix with the SVD

components

q-Method

The q-method is named after the quaternion variable name, q.

We have to reform the optimization problem to incorporate the
quaternion and solve for the quaternion.

Remember the optimization problem can be reformed to a linear

form from the convex optimization solution? Here it is again and
with the attitude profile matrix:

This cost function, L, is linear with respect to the rotation matrix,

R.

To incorporate the quaternion into the loss function, let’s relate

the quaternion to the rotation matrix first:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1351

Where R is the rotation matrix, I is the identity matrix, v is the

vector component of the quaternion, s is the scalar component
of the quaternion, and the cross product operator is in the vector
superscript. This expression is a quadratic function of q.

Since is linear and is quadratic, takes on the

higher polynomial power and can be written as a quadratic
function:

This is the ultimate form we want to craft the problem into but
what does K look like?

To find out what K looks like, we need to manipulate L(R) with

the use of several matrix and quaternion properties. Here’s a
matrix property we will eventually use:

Here’s the quaternion identity we will use:

The rotation matrix can be transformed into this form:

1352 • FRANCES ZHU

Let’s plug in into :

The goal is to factor all of the “q stuff” out to the sides:

In terms of the quaternion, Wahba’s problem is now:

OR such that

Since ||q|| = 1, we only get to pick its direction.

The final conclusion is that will be maximized when

q is parallel to the eigenvector corresponding to the maximum
eigenvalue of K.

In summary, the q-Method algorithm procedure is:

1.Form the attitude profile matrix, B, and intermediate product,

Z:

and

2. Construct K

3. Calculate and corresponding eigenvector

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1353

4. Normalize the maximum eigenvector to obtain . Woo!

We have our quaternion as a result!

Conclusion remarks: lots of other methods (QUEST, ESOQ,

etc.) are derived from the q-Method by using tricks for solving
step 3.

Kalman Filter

What if instead of a batch of measurements at one time step,

you have a sequence of observations over time? This system is
dynamic in that we have to account for time. It would make
sense to incorporate a dynamics model to inform if your
measurements are consistent with the way spacecraft dynamics
are expected to propagate, right? A common solution is the
Kalman filter, which is the optimal linear state estimator for a
linear dynamical system.
1354 • FRANCES ZHU

The Kalman filter keeps track of the estimated state of the system and
the variance or uncertainty of the estimate. The estimate is updated
using a state transition model and measurements. denotes the estimate of
the system’s state at time step k before the k-th measurement yk has
been taken into account; is the corresponding uncertainty. CC0. Image
by Petteri Aimonen .

“In statistics and control theory, Kalman filtering, also known

as linear quadratic estimation (LQE), is an algorithm that uses
a series of measurements observed over time, containing
statistical noise and other inaccuracies, and produces estimates
of unknown variables that tend to be more accurate than those
based on a single measurement alone, by estimating a joint
probability distribution over the variables for each timeframe.
The filter is named after Rudolf E. Kálmán, one of the primary
developers of its theory”. The Kalman filter has strong roots in
aerospace control: It was during a visit by Kálmán to the NASA
Ames Research Center that Schmidt saw the applicability of
Kálmán’s ideas to the nonlinear problem of trajectory estimation
for the Apollo program leading to its incorporation in the Apollo
navigation computer. This Kalman filter was first described and
partially developed in technical papers by Swerling (1958),
Kalman (1960), and Kalman and Bucy (1961).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1355

The Apollo computer used 2k of magnetic core RAM and 36k

wire rope […]. The CPU was built from ICs […]. The clock
speed was under 100 kHz […]. The fact that the MIT engineers
were able to pack such good software (one of the very first
applications of the Kalman filter) into such a tiny computer is
truly remarkable.

— Interview with Jack Crenshaw, by Matthew Reed,

TRS-80.org (2009)

To explain the Kalman filter, we need to go through a little

background on probability and linear systems. Then, we’ll walk
through the Kalman filter algorithm. If you’d like a different
explanation for Kalman filters, I HIGHLY recommend visiting
Tucker McClure’s tutorial.

Background

Notes on Expectation:

Expectation is the value of a function weighted by the

probability distribution. This expression gives the value of f(x)
you would expect to see averaged over many random samples.
Expectation is a linear operator:

Where is a scalar. Common examples of expectation are

mean and standard deviation:
1356 • FRANCES ZHU

Notes on Stochastic Linear Systems:

A discrete-time linear time-varying (LTV) system with additive

noise has the following form:

Where measurement and process noise is normally distributed

with a mean = 0 and covariance of W and V:

\quad , \quad

Notes on Multivariate Gaussians:

In probability theory and statistics, the multivariate normal

distribution, multivariate Gaussian distribution, or joint normal
distribution is a generalization of the one-dimensional
(univariate) normal distribution to higher dimensions. We care
about multivariates because attitude is in 3 dimensions! The
multivariate distribution is given by:

mean: , covariance:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1357

Where n is the number of states.

Problem Statement

We are trying to minimize the error between the true spacecraft

state and an estimate. For our problem of estimating attitude,
the state is a vector of variables, which includes an attitude
representation and angular velocity, typically quaternion and
angular velocity:

Specifically, we are trying to minimize the mean squared error

(MMSE) estimate by varying the state estimate:

This formulation is also known as “least squares” or “minimum

variance”. The least squares is seen in the first line, where the
quadratic is being minimized. The variance can be seen in the
second line being minimized.

Another way to form the problem is to find the maximum a-

posteriori (MAP) estimate. A-posteriori relates prior knowledge
or observations to make predictions. We want to find the
1358 • FRANCES ZHU

estimate that is most likely given previous observations. That

problem statement is mathematically expressed:

Where x is the state estimate and y are previous measurements.

The MMSE and MAP estimate turn out to be the same for
a Gaussian so we can derive the Kalman filter using either
criterion.

Algorithm Solution

To implement a Kalman filter as a recursive linear MMSE

estimator, we have to make the following assumptions:

• Assume we have an estimate of the state that includes

measurement information up to :

• Assume we know the state error covariance:

We want to update our estimate and covariance to include

a new measurement at time .

The Kalman Filter can be broken into two steps:

1. Prediction step:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1359

1. Measurement update:
Define “innovation”, :

The subsequent innovation covariance is:

Noise and state are uncorrelated:

Innovation is the thing we feed back into the filter to correct our
state estimate. The state update is then:
1360 • FRANCES ZHU

Covariance update is:

To find the Kalman Gain matrix, let’s revisit the MMSE

problem:

To find the solution of this quadratic function of , we’re

going to take the partial derivative and set it to 0, solving for:
:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1361

To summarize all the juicy equations in one straightforward

procedure, the Kalman Filter algorithm is as follows:

1. Start with

2. Predict:

1. Calculate innovation and covariance:

1. Calculate Kalman Gain:

1. Update:

1. Go back to step 2 once you get a new measurement

Concluding Remarks

This “vanilla” Kalman filter derivation applies to linear systems.

If we were to extend this process to nonlinear systems, we
would have to derive linear state matrices and control input
matrices with respect to time. This kind of Kalman filter
is called an extended Kalman Filter (EKF). Another variant
1362 • FRANCES ZHU

of the Kalman filter is the Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF),

which estimates nonlinear dynamics where 1) fully nonlinear
dynamics are propagated instead of linearized and 2) multiple
points are propagated over time [TowardDataScience]. Particle
filters are in the filtering family but instead of estimating with
linear projections, the Particle filter does so by a sequential
Monte Carlo method, which is a fancy way of saying repeated
random sampling.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1363

Estimation of Mackey-Glass time-series with the EKF and UKF using a

known model. The graph shows a comparison of estimation errors for
complete sequence Wan, Eric A., and Rudolph Van Der Merwe. “The
unscented Kalman filter for nonlinear estimation.” Proceedings of the
IEEE 2000 Adaptive Systems for Signal Processing, Communications,
and Control Symposium (Cat. No. 00EX373). Ieee, 2000.

Ever since the use of Kalman Filters in the Apollo program,

they have been the industry standard in estimating spacecraft
dynamics in orbit as they solve the dynamic state estimation
problem. They are not computationally intensive and reject noise
1364 • FRANCES ZHU

from sensor measurements quite effectively. Extended Kalman

Filters are the most commonly used Kalman filter variant as it is
the most computationally compact and efficient filter.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1365

8.8 Control

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1102#oembed-1

authored by Dr. Zhu Contributions from Dr. Manchester

Control systems drive the spacecraft toward a desired attitude.

There are two different flavors of control: passive and active.
Passive control systems act upon the system without any sensory
input and take advantage of physics! Some examples of passive
control systems are passive magnetic damping and gravity
booms discussed earlier in configurations. Active control
systems take an attitude estimate, calculate control input, and
actuators execute the control input to drive the spacecraft to
the desired attitude. This section will discuss the available
technology and algorithms to control spacecraft attitude.

1365
1366 • FRANCES ZHU

Actuators

Magnetic Torquers

Suggested Reading

IIT Bombay Student Satellite Team Satellite 101

wiki about Magnetorquers

Magnetorquer used in Pratham Copyright@IITBSSP2018. Image by

Aero IITB.

Magnetic torquing is similar to passive magnetic damping in that

both types of control use a magnetic field. Magnetic torquers
differ from passive magnetic damping in that they can change
the magnetic strength of their electromagnetic coils, instead of
relying on the constant strength of a permanent magnet. The
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1367

electromagnetic coil’s field is controlled by switching current

flow through the coils. The magnetic dipole generated by the
magnetorquer is expressed by the formula:

where n is the number of turns of the wire, I is the current

provided, and A is the vector area of the coil. The dipole
interacts with the magnetic field generating a torque:

where m is the magnetic dipole vector, B the magnetic field

vector (for a spacecraft it is the Earth magnetic field vector), and
τ is the generated torque vector.

Magnetorquer operating concept Image by Aekjira Kuyyakanont, Suwat

Kuntanapreeda, and Nisai H. Fuengwarodsakul.

Example specifications of a magnetorquer. Image by Aekjira

Kuyyakanont, Suwat Kuntanapreeda, and Nisai H. Fuengwarodsakul.

Magnetorquers are commonly used for coarse attitude control

and to desaturate angular momentum build-up of the satellite,
particularly for dumping momentum in reaction wheels or
control moment gyroscopes. They have often used in Low Earth
Orbit (LEO) satellites. They are useful for initial acquisition
maneuvers, like detumbling and nadir-pointing.
1368 • FRANCES ZHU

Reaction Wheels

Reaction wheel rotor underneath its housing. Image courtesy of NASA.

Reaction wheels are the most common actuator for active

control. They’re highly reactive and offer continuous feedback
control. Reaction wheels offer internal torque only, which means
that the system still needs an external torque source to dump
momentum and/or desaturate the accumulated momentum in the
wheels. The control logic is simple for reaction wheels that are
mounted in independent (orthogonal) axes but can get trickier
with reaction wheels that offer redundancy in a configuration.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1369

Left: COMAT REACTION WHEELS 40 configured in three orthogonal

axes. Right: Nanoavionics CubeSat Reaction Wheels Control System
SatBus 4RW0: 4 reaction wheels redundant 3-axis control system,
enabling precision pointing of the small satellite. Image by Aerospace
Valley.

Reaction wheels create torque on the spacecraft by creating

equal but opposite torques on the reaction wheels, which are
flywheels on motors. For three axes of torque, three wheels are
necessary, like the image on the left. Usually, four wheels are
used for redundancy; the subsequent controller math needs to
account for the wheel speed biasing equation. Static & dynamic
imbalances can induce vibrations so we suggest mounting
reaction wheels on isolators. In an implementation, reaction
wheels are usually operated around some nominal spin rate to
avoid stiction effects.
1370 • FRANCES ZHU

COMAT and Nanoavionics CubeSat sized reaction wheel specifications

for comparison and as a sample. Drawn from Nano Avionics and New
Space Factory.

Control Moment Gyroscopes

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1102#h5p-76

Control Moment Gyro Simulator. Video by

DSSL Technion

Control moment gyroscopes are very much like reaction wheels

but offer an additional degree of freedom by mounting the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1371

reaction wheel onto a gimbal. Instead of producing torque by

spinning up the reaction wheel or varying the rotor speed, a
control moment gyroscope produces torque by tilting the rotor’s
spin axis without necessarily changing its spin speed. CMGs
are also far more power-efficient. For a few hundred watts and
about 100 kg of mass, large CMGs have produced thousands of
newton meters of torque. A reaction wheel of similar capability
would require megawatts of power. CMGs require more mass
and volume than a reaction wheel to fit in the extra gimbal motor
and structural supports.
1372 • FRANCES ZHU

Control moment gyroscope (CMG). A CMG consists of (a) a rotor

spinning at a constant rate mounted in gimbals that alter the spin axis of
the rotor. Changing the direction of the CMG angular momentum vector
by rotation about the gimbal axis produces (b) an output torque
perpendicular to both the CMG momentum vector and the gimbal axis.
[(a) is used with permission from Educational Control Products.]

CMGs come in different design varieties: single-gimbal, dual-

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1373

gimbal, and variable-speed. The most effective CMGs include

only a single gimbal. When the gimbal of such a CMG rotates,
the change in direction of the rotor’s angular momentum
represents a torque that reacts onto the body to which the CMG
is mounted, e.g. a spacecraft. A dual-gimbal CMG includes two
gimbals per rotor. As an actuator, it is more versatile than a
single-gimbal CMG because it is capable of pointing the rotor’s
angular momentum vector in any direction. However, the torque
generated by one gimbal’s motion must often be reacted by the
other gimbal on its way to the spacecraft, requiring more power
for a given torque than a single-gimbal CMG. Most CMGs
hold rotor speed constant using relatively small motors to offset
changes due to dynamic coupling and non-conservative effects.
Some academic research has focused on the possibility of
increasing and decreasing rotor speed while the CMG gimbals.
Variable-speed CMGs (VSCMGs) offer few practical
advantages when considering actuation capability because the
output torque from the rotor is typically much smaller than that
caused by the gimbal motion. The ISS employs four double-
gimbaled CMGs.

International Space Station (ISS) control moment gyroscopes (CMGs).

Zero-propellant maneuvers for the ISS are accomplished by using up to
four double-gimbal parallel mounted CMGs Bedrossian, Nazareth S., et
al. “Zero-propellant maneuver guidance.” IEEE Control Systems
Magazine 29.5 (2009): 53-73.

Despite their extreme power efficiency, gimbal motion can lead

to relative orientations that produce no usable output torque
along certain directions. These orientations are known as
1374 • FRANCES ZHU

singularities and are related to the kinematics of robotic systems

that encounter limits on the end-effector velocities due to certain
joint alignments. Avoiding these singularities is naturally of
great interest, and several techniques have been proposed. David
Bailey and others have argued (in patents and in academic
publications) that merely avoiding the “divide by zero” error that
is associated with these singularities is sufficient.

Thrusters

Two of four Reaction Control System thruster quads on the Apollo

Lunar Module. Image Alan Shepard with NASA

Thrusters or jets can be used to control attitude but at the cost of

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1375

consuming fuel. Thrusters use consumables, such as Cold Gas

(Freon, N2) or Hydrazine (N2H4), that must be toggled on or
off. Continuous and proportional control is usually not feasible
but can be closely replicated with pulse width modulation.
Thrusters are fast and powerful attitude control systems. At least
6 thrusters are necessary to control all three degrees of freedom,
as thrusters can only push on the spacecraft, not pull. Thrusters
contribute dynamics that are coupled in attitude and translation.
Redundancy is usually required, which makes the system more
complex and expensive. Like magnetorquers, thrusters may be
used to “unload” accumulated angular momentum on reaction-
wheel-controlled spacecraft.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1102#h5p-77

Mercury RCS Testing by Mark Gray

1376 • FRANCES ZHU

Actuator Design Process and Drivers

Typical
Method Remarks
Accuracy

Spin 0.1 Passive, simple; single-axis inertial, low

Stabilized degree cost, need slip rings

Gravity 1–3 Passive, simple; central body-oriented;

Gradient degrees low cost

0.1
Jets Consumables required, fast; high cost
degree

Magnetorquer 1 degree Near-Earth; slow; low weight, low cost

Reaction 0.01 Internal torque; requires other

Wheels degree momentum control; high power, cost

• Much like the sensor selection discussion, the control

actuators must be chosen to fulfill attitude control
requirements in up to 3 degrees of freedom. That
means at least one or a combined set of the following
minimal sets

◦ 3 orthogonally mounted magnetorquers, or

◦ 3 orthogonally mounted reaction wheels, or

◦ 3 orthogonally mounted single-gimbal

control moment gyroscopes, or

◦ 3 antiparallel pairs of orthogonally mounted

thrusters

• Sources of internal torque, like reaction wheels and

control moment gyroscopes, only use electricity and
do not add additional angular momentum to the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1377

spacecraft system. This means that momentum

control systems cannot dump the spacecraft’s
accumulated angular momentum. But! These sources
don’t rely on the space environment or rely on
consumables. These technologies guarantee angular
momentum as long as there is electricity.

• Sources of external torque, like magnetorquers and

thrusters, use consumables or rely on a specific space
environment, like the presence of a magnetic field.
But! Being able to interact with the space
environment is immensely important to get rid of
unwanted motion in a transient way.

• To get the best of both worlds, spacecraft that stay in

space typically have one internal torque source and
external torque source.

◦ For smaller spacecraft, this combination is

typically magnetorquers and reaction
wheels. If you scroll back up to common
configurations, you’ll see that both cubesat
ADCS packages use a combination of
reaction wheels and magnetorquers.

◦ For larger spacecraft, the ISS for example,

control moment gyroscopes are the main
method of attitude control and thrusters
augment or back up the system.

• Magnetorquers and reaction wheels scale down well,

but only to a point. Thrusters and control moment
gyroscopes scale up well, but also to a point.
1378 • FRANCES ZHU

Control Algorithms

Suggested Reading

This section draws heavily (at times word for

word) from the FAA’s section on Space Operations,
Section 4.3.1 Space Vehicle Control Systems. For
their take on the material, read right from the source!

Attitude Determination and Control Subsystem (ADCS). A complete

ADCS (the attitude part of an AOCS) includes a controller, actuators,
the spacecraft (“the plant”), and sensors that work together to maintain
or change spacecraft attitude in response to changing mission
requirements. Image by FAA.

The controller’s job is to generate commands for the actuators to

make the spacecraft point in the right direction based on mission
requirements for accuracy and slew rate. To use the information
from sensors and continuously adjust actuator commands, the
controller must be smart. It has to know what’s happening and
decide what to do next. To do this right, the controller has to
keep track of

• What’s happening now

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1379

• What may happen in the future

• What happened in the past

Knowing what’s happening now is pretty easy—the controller

simply asks the sensors to find the current attitude. It then
compares this to the desired attitude. The difference between
the measured and desired attitude is the error signal. Based on
this error signal, the controller steers in the direction of the
proper orientation. This is called feedback control. That is, if the
attitude is 10° off, the controller commands a 10° change. This
is known as proportional control and is used in some form in
virtually all closed-loop control systems.

Feedback control concept implementing proportional control Drawn

from Dr. Weck’s 16.684 Space Systems Product Development 16.684
Space Systems Product Development Spring 2001 Spring 2001Lecture
Slides by CSU.edu.

However, predicting what’s going to happen and remembering

what’s happened in the past can be just as important. For
example, if you need to stop at a stop sign, you need to know not
only where you are, but also how fast you’re going, so you can
hit the brakes in time. Similarly, to hit the desired attitude, the
1380 • FRANCES ZHU

spacecraft controller must monitor the attitude rate, as well as

the current attitude. For you calculus buffs, you may recognize
this rate of change calculation as a derivative. In this case, by
knowing the rate of change or “speed” of attitude, the controller
can more accurately determine how to command the actuators to
achieve better accuracy. This process is called derivative control.

Sometimes we can be more precise by keeping track of how

close we’re getting to the desired result. One way to do this is
for the controller to monitor the angular difference between the
measured and desired attitude, ∆θ. When the spacecraft reaches
the desired attitude, this difference, ∆θ, will be zero. If the
system stops commanding the actuators at this point, the attitude
will immediately begin to drift due to disturbance torques. A
really smart controller, however, won’t just look at the
instantaneous ∆θ. Instead, it would keep a running tally,
summing the ∆θ over time. The result would always be some
value other than zero and would tell the controller how much
torque to add in a “steady-state” mode to compensate for the
disturbance torques. In calculus, this process is called
integration, so we call this type of control integral control.
Designers use it for highly accurate pointing.

Regardless of the exact scheme used, the controller combines its

memory with its current measurements and an ability to predict
future behavior to decide how to command the actuators. This
section will review a few control schema and derive the input
commands.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1381

Detumbling

The act of tumbling and the control of detumbling is very

common, especially on small satellites like CubeSats. Even if
the spacecraft is using some other method for attitude
stabilization, we need to get rid of initial angular momentum.
A very simple and effective control law is the “B-dot” or
algorithm. The only required hardware to implement this control
scheme is a 3-axis magnetometer and 3-axis torque coils. The
control policy centers around derivative control: the derivative
of , the magnetic field, is proportional to , the angular
velocity in the body frame:

Assuming the inertial magnetic field changes slowly as

the spacecraft moves around the Earth, typically there will be a

residual spin roughly at the orbit frequency due to

Back to the control policy in the body frame, is

conveniently perpendicular to :

Torque from the coils is given by:

1382 • FRANCES ZHU

A reasonable control law is:

Where k is a scalar gain. A small k applies gentle control and

a large k applies aggressive control. We can also implement
“bang-bang” control, which is turning maximum control effort
on and off. The control law is:

But this can lead to chattering due to noise in measurements

(especially if using finite differencing).

Since varies over the orbit, we’ll eventually be able to

zero out all 3 components’ angular momentum . Typically, this
takes a few orbits.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1383

Momentum Dumping

Momentum dumping is widely used, for example on

geostationary communication satellites. Reaction wheels build
up angular momentum over time and eventually saturate. An
external torque is needed to get rid of this momentum. Thrusters
can be used, but that requires valuable fuel. The typical approach
is to keep the reaction wheel attitude controller running to
maintain pointing while pulsing torque coils.

Assuming spacecraft is inertially pointing, . We know

the angular momentum of the wheels exactly from wheel
speeds. The coil moment command is then:

Where k is a scalar gain.

Torque from the torque coils is antiparallel to the spacecraft

body’s angular momentum. Averaged over an orbit, we can zero
out all components of the body’s angular momentum.
1384 • FRANCES ZHU

Actuators Jacobians

Recall we wrote out dynamics in terms of internal angular

momentum and external torque :

We need mappings between actuators’ commands (reaction

wheel torques, thruster forces) and and . It turns out this
mapping is always linear.

The Jacobian for thrusters:

While 3 reaction wheels are needed for full control authority,

most spacecraft have 4 or more for redundancy. Four wheels can
be arranged in various ways to provide higher performance and
single-fault tolerance. Some common configurations are:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1385

Left: JPL reaction wheel configuration. Hu, Qinglei, Bo Li, and Youmin
Zhang. “Robust attitude control design for spacecraft under assigned
velocity and control constraints.” ISA transactions 52.4 (2013): 480-493.
Middle: Pyramidal reaction wheel configuration. Bellar, Abdellatif,
Mohammed Arezki Si Mohammed, and Akram Adnane. “Minimum
power consumption of the microsatellite attitude control using
pyramidal reaction wheel configuration.” 2016 8th International
Conference on Modelling, Identification, and Control (ICMIC). IEEE,
2016. Right: Tetrahedral reaction wheel configuration Kumar, Saroj, et
al. “Design and development of 3-axis reaction wheel for STUDSAT-2.”
2015 IEEE Aerospace Conference. IEEE, 2015.

The Jacobian of reaction wheels is thus:

Where the wheel torque is dictated by the following equation:

And the control input is the derivative of wheel momenta:

1386 • FRANCES ZHU

To produce the desired torque from either the thruster or reaction

wheel configuration, the control policy is:

This is our ultimate solution! We transform the desired torque

into a control input using the relevant actuator Jacobian. Note
that the pseudoinverse gives a minimum 2-norm solution
(usually corresponds to minimum overall power or fuel
consumption). Other choices (e.g. 1-norm) are possible.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1102
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1387

8.9 Pointing Analysis and Budget

Suggested Reading

Theory: Pointing Error Engineering Framework

for High Pointing Accuracy Missions, Engineering
Practice: ESA Pointing Error Engineering, Case
Study: Pointing and Alignment of XMM

1387
1388 • FRANCES ZHU

Breakdown of pointing errors. Tüfekci, Celal S., et al. “Attitude

performance requirements and budgeting for RASAT satellite.”
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in
Space Technologies-RAST2011. IEEE, 2011.

Just as there are critical loads in the structures system that must
be designed around, there are “critical” payloads that the ADCS
system must be designed around. The payload with the most
demanding pointing or slewing requirements determines the
accuracy/precision of the sensors, the capacity and resolution
of actuators, and the rigor of the determination and control
algorithms. This pointing analysis and budgeting are not very
interesting if you only have one instrument or component that
needs to point in the entire mission.

1. To get started in determining the “critical” payload,

list out all the instruments or components that need
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1389

some kind of pointing. For example in the Artemis

CubeSat, we have our baseline visible-IR camera.
Some satellites have directional antennas and radios
but the Artemis CubeSat kit has omnidirectional
components. To make this a little more interesting
and illustrative, let’s say the radio does need some
kind of pointing.

Component

Camera

Radio

2. Now we have to generate pointing

goals, which would enable each
component to achieve its ultimate
performance. This process could involve
a scientist deriving physical limitations on
detecting an event or target, like what is
the pointing accuracy so that we can
achieve sub-pixel resolution of a faraway
star? The scientist would have to account
for diffraction limits if there were lenses
and the resolution of the charge-coupled
device array they chose for the camera.
1390 • FRANCES ZHU

Schematic of the NuSTAR pointing budget for source localization.Harp,

D. Isaiah, et al. “NuSTAR: system engineering and modeling challenges
in pointing reconstruction for a deployable x-ray telescope.” Modeling,
Systems Engineering, and Project Management for Astronomy IV. Vol.
7738. International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2010.

3. We could also include motion constraints here. Some

instruments may be sensitive to jitter so the control policies
would need to limit jitter. On Ke Ao, a variant of Artemis,
the process is very simple. We would like to take a picture of
Hawai’i and transmit this picture back. The camera must be
within 8 degrees of a straight-on orientation viewing Hawai’i.
Let’s say the radio requires nadir pointing at Earth but just within
that hemisphere. The painting requirement for the radio would
be within 90 degrees of nadir.

Component Pointing Requirement Rate, acceler

Camera 8 degrees

Radio 90 degrees

4. Once this chart of requirements and constraints is made, we

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1391

can identify the most stringent requirements and constraints and

pick sensors/actuators around those numbers.

Component Pointing Requirement Rate, acceler

Camera 8 degrees

Radio 90 degrees

5. Referring to our sensor and actuator typical accuracies, we

can identify sensors and actuators that can at least meet our
most strict pointing requirement. Since the Ke Ao mission is not
demanding, all sensors and actuators meet the requirement.

Reference Typical Accuracy Remarks

Sun 1 arcminute Simple, reliable, low cost, note alw

Earth 0.1 degrees Orbit dependent; usually requires

Magnetic Field 1 degree Economical; orbit dependent; low

Stars 0.001 degree Heavy, complex, expensive, most

Inertial Space
0.01 degree/hour Rate only; good short term referen
1392 • FRANCES ZHU

Method Typical Accuracy Remarks

Spin Stabilized 0.1 degree Passive, simple; single-axis inertial, l

Gravity Gradient 1 – 3 degrees Passive, simple; central body-oriente

Jets 0.1 degree Consumables required, fast; high cos

Magnetorquer 1 degree Near-Earth; slow; low weight, low co

Reaction Wheels 0.01 degree Internal torque; requires other mome

6. Now we identify which sensors and actuators are realistic

to integrate into our spacecraft. For a 1U CubeSat, we are
incredibly volume and mass limited. We can utilize coarse sun
sensors, magnetometers, and a magnetorquer. The other sensors
and actuators are too massive and their higher accuracy
performance is not necessary to fulfill the mission.

Reference Typical Accuracy Remarks

Sun 1 arcminute Simple, reliable, low cost, note alway

Earth 0.1 degrees Orbit dependent; usually requires sca

Magnetic Field 1 degree Economical; orbit dependent; low alt

Stars 0.001 degree Heavy, complex, expensive, most acc

Inertial Space 0.01 degree/hour Rate only; good short term reference;
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1393

Method Typical Accuracy Remarks

Spin Stabilized 0.1 degree Passive, simple; single-axis inertial, l

Gravity Gradient 1 – 3 degrees Passive, simple; central body-oriented

Jets 0.1 degree Consumables required, fast; high cos

Magnetorquer 1 degree Near-Earth; slow; low weight, low co

Reaction Wheels 0.01 degree Internal torque; requires other momen

7. Given our choice of types of sensors and actuators, we go

out into the commercial wilderness and pick some real sensors
and actuators that meet our desired performance, as specified
above.

8. To ensure that these sensors and actuators meet the

requirement, we inject the sensor characteristics (noise) and
actuator capabilities into a dynamic simulation. The estimator
and controller must verify that the spacecraft ultimately points
within the pointing requirement, which for Ke Ao is 8 degrees.

a. If not, go back to step 6 to choose better sensors or

actuators.

b. If you’ve exhausted all commercial options, go back to

step 5 and reconsider the types of sensors and actuators
you’ll consider incorporating into the spacecraft design.

c. If these sensors and actuators absolutely cannot fit

within the spacecraft, you’ll have to go all the way to
1394 • FRANCES ZHU

step 2 and barter with the principal investigator or chief

scientist on relaxing the pointing requirements.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1104
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1395

ADCS Hardware Lab- Torque

Coils Magnetic Field Alignment

An interactive H5P element has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view it online
here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2560#h5p-170

Torque Coils Magnetic Field Alignment

Learning Objective

• Validate the system’s functionality and ability to align

to a targeted magnetic field, with the satellite
suspended in the air by a string on one of its corners

Pre-Requisites

1395
1396 • FRANCES ZHU

• Obtain IMU’s acceleration, angular velocity, and

magnetic field data through COSMOS web

System Components

• Solar Panel Board (Embedded Torque Coils)

• Raspberry Pi

• Battery Board

• PDU Board

• Payload Board

• Fishing Line

• 9 “female” test wires

• Power Supply

• Test leads for Power Supply

• Multimeter with test leads

Procedure

• Check torque coil functionality by varying power and

measuring the strength of the magnetic field

◦ Procedure to connect to power supply while

varying voltage

◦ Measure variation of the magnetic field

with respect to power with a phone app

• Ensure that the torque coil can be commanded with

Raspberry Pi and the battery

◦ Connect torque coil to Raspberry Pi and

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1397

battery

◦ Measure variation of the magnetic field

with respect to power with a phone app

◦ Additionally, measure with a multimeter

• Measure the torque coil capability by pointing it

along the magnetic field vector

◦ Turn on the torque coil to its maximum

magnitude

◦ Observe and measure the motion

◦ String the system up with fishing line such

that when the system hangs, the solar panel
can align with the magnetic field vector

Check Torque Coil Functionality

You will need to download an app that can detect magnetic
fields. The application that was utilized in this demonstration is
seen below. Feel free to download whatever app is compatible
with your device. Anything that is free should be sufficient.
Please do not pay for an app for this experiment. Take note that
phone apps will vary in their efficiency and overall efficiency
is not extremely high via a cell phone app, however, you will
be able to visualize the reactions of the magnetic field and
understand what is going on in your little satellite world.
1398 • FRANCES ZHU

You will need:

• Power supply

• Set of wires for the power supply

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1399

• 1 solar panel

• Connector for solar panel

1400 • FRANCES ZHU

View of the entire initial setup:

Plug your solar panel connector into your solar panel in the spot
marked J1.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1401

Then connect your leads to the solar panel connector wires. The
positive wire to one of the wires on the solar panel connector
wire. The negative wire to the remaining wire on the solar panel
connector wire. It is irrelevant which wire goes where, just be
sure that they do not touch each other.

Set your power supply to 5V and .5A.

1402 • FRANCES ZHU

Take out your phone and open the app that you installed. You
will need to place your phone directly on top of the solar panel
as shown in the image below.

As your phone sits on top of the solar panel, change your voltage
on the power supply. Varying the voltage from about 1 volt to 10
volts. Monitor what happens to the readings on your phone app.
You should see a drastic variation in values.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1403

You have officially measured a magnetic field!

Great Job!!

Ensure that the Torque Coil can be Commanded

with Teensy and a Power Supply

• Hardware needed

◦ OBC with Teensy

◦ PDU

◦ Antenna Board

◦ ANT J15 wire

◦ 2x male-to-male jumper Cables

◦ Power supply

◦ 2x alligator clips

◦ Micro-USB to USB cable

1404 • FRANCES ZHU

Place the OBC on top of the PDU and push the headers together.
The headers should evenly match up and no extra ones should
be showing on any side of the PC104 connectors
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1405

Take ANT J15 wire and place the end with the black wire in the
third pin slot into the OBC J12 connector

Connect the other end of the ANT J15 wire (the one with the
black wire at the fourth pin slot) to the antenna board J15
connector
1406 • FRANCES ZHU

Next, you will need to plug the two male-to-male jumper cables
into the PC104. The first one will be plugged into the top row,
3 holes over from the right end of the board. This is the ground
cable. The next one will be plugged in on the top row, 9 holes
over from the right side of the board. This will be power.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1407

Connect the power supply to the jumper cables with alligator

clips. The ground (black) should be connected to the able three
holes from the right and power (red) should be connected to the
cable nine holes from the right.
1408 • FRANCES ZHU

Set the power supply to 7.5V and .5A. When turned on, it
should read 7.5V and ~.1A. The amps may vary depending on
what the OBC board is currently programmed to do.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1409

Finally, connect the micro-usb cable to the micro-usb connecter

(J17) on the antenna board.
1410 • FRANCES ZHU

Open Arduino IDE and ensure that the Teensy is connected

to your computer. The top left drop-down menu should have
“Teensy 4.1” with a cube next to it.

Open the pdu_comm script located in examples>artemis-

cubesat>
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1411

Hit the upload button which is the arrow located at the top left
side of the screen.
1412 • FRANCES ZHU

The serial monitor should appear like the image below. If it does
not automatically pop up, you can click the magnifying glass
icon in the top right to open it. If the serial monitor is blank,
type “ping” into the message bar. The response should be “got
pong”.

Type the command “set hbidge1 on” to turn on hbridge1.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1413

The response in the serial monitor should look like this.

Measure any of the pins on PDU J7 connector. They should read

~5V.
1414 • FRANCES ZHU

Type the command “set hbridge1 off” to turn off hbridge1.

The response in the serial monitor should look like this.

Type the command “set hbidge2 on” to turn on hbridge2.

The response in the serial monitor should look like this.

Measure any of the pins on the PDU J8 connector. They should

read ~5V.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1415

Type the command “set hbridge2 off” to turn off hbridge2.

The response in the serial monitor should look like this.

1416 • FRANCES ZHU

Measure the Torque Coil Capability by Pointing it

Along with a Magnetic Field Vector

Torque coils – Information

Function: React with Earth’s magnetic field to change the

orientation of the satellite.

• Number of turns: 60 turns

• Resistance of the wire: 35.8 ohms

• Supply voltage to the coils: 5V

• Voltage range of coils: 3.3V – 5V

• Power of a single-coil: 0.7 W

• Calculated Magnetic Moment: 1.22 *10^-2 Am^2

• Tentative torque generated: 2.43*10^-6 N*m

• Coils are connected in parallel

Math stuff

Torque on a current loop equation:

Magnetic Moment Equation:

Power consumption equation:

Time of rotation equation:

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1417

Torque coil design was done by Kala’i Garcia with HSFL

How it works:

Command will gather data from both the GPS and IMU to track
the satellite’s location, which will then send that data to the
computer to generate how much current needs to be sent through
the coils. Once completed, the current will flow through the
coils, thus creating enough torque to point the satellite towards
the desired location.

For this part of the lab, you will need to be set up similar to how
1418 • FRANCES ZHU

you were in the first part of the experiment, minus your cell
phone and adding in a magnet and some tape

You will need:

• A piece of tape about 4-6 inches

• Power supply

• Set of wires for the power supply

• 1 solar panel
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1419

• Connector for solar panel

• Magnet
1420 • FRANCES ZHU

Plug your solar panel connector into your solar panel in the spot
marked J1.

Then connect your leads to the solar panel connector wires. The
positive wire to one of the wires on the solar panel connector
wire. The negative wire to the remaining wire on the solar panel
connector wire. It is irrelevant which wire goes where, just be
sure that they do not touch each other.

Take your solar panel and gently hang it from some type of
hanging apparatus.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1421

Tape your wire so that the panel can dangle and not fall to the
ground.

Now get your solar panel as still as possible.

1422 • FRANCES ZHU

Like really still. Like a ninja in the night waiting to plan an

attack.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1423

Once it is nice and still set your power supply to 10V and .5A.

You will see your ever so still solar panel start to sway gently
in the wind due to the voltage activation. This is reacting to
the earth’s magnetic field! (so cool!!) However, since we are on
Earth there is a lot of variables the get in the way of seeing any
drastic movements.
1424 • FRANCES ZHU

This is where our magnet will come in. Place the magnet as close
as possible to the solar panel. Feel free to go from either side
or alternate front and back. You will see the solar panel start
swinging about.

Look at you like a magical magnetic wizard!

Great job today!

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1425

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2560#h5p-163

How the torque coils should respond to the magnet.

1426 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1427

9. Command and Data

Handling

authored by Dr. Zhu

This chapter defines the Command and Data Handling (CDH)

system, distinguishes the responsibilities, defines common
requirements, surveys common avionics and software, and
walks through how to create a data budget.

Learning Objectives

Learning Objectives

1427
1428 • FRANCES ZHU

• understand the role of command and

data handling subsystem in the context of
spacecraft as a whole and between other
subsystems
• survey different technologies and
software platforms
• understand typical software structure
and effects from mission operations
• identify radiation effects on avionics

Command and Data Handling Chapter Contents

Learning Objectives

9.1 Definition

9.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

9.3 General Design Process

9.4 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Artemis CDH Requirements

◦ Suggested Activity

9.5 Typical Avionics

◦ Clocks
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1429

▪ Crystal Oscillator

▪ Atomic Clock
▪ Watchdog Timer

◦ Processors

▪ CPU

▪ GPU

▪ FPGA

◦ Memory

▪ Read-Only Memory (ROM)

▪ Random Access Memory (RAM)

▪ Flash Memory or Non-Volatile

Random Access Memory
(NVRAM)

▪ Artemis CubeSat Kit RAM

◦ Mass Storage

▪ Hard Disks/Drives

▪ Solid-State Drives

▪ Artemis CubeSat Kit Mass

Storage

◦ Input/Output Interfaces

▪ Data Bus

▪ Artemis CubeSat Data Bus

▪ Digital and Analog I/O

1430 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Port Connectors

◦ Integrated Computers
▪ Artemis CubeSat Onboard
Computer

9.6 Data Budget and Profiling

▪ Artemis CubeSat Kit Data Profile

▪ Suggested Activity

9.7 Avionics Reliability and Fault Tolerance

9.8 Typical Software

◦ Flight Software

▪ Software Architecture

▪ Communication Architecture

▪ Communication Protocols

▪ Artemis CubeSat Kit

Communication Protocol

▪ Modes

◦ Suggested Activity

◦ Simulation/Emulators

◦ Mission Operations Interface

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1431

9.1 Definition

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1772#oembed-1

The on-board computer is the brain of the spacecraft, managing

all commands and sensory input. The data storage holds the
memories of the spacecraft, waiting to be transmitted or
processed. The flight software contains the spacecraft’s thoughts
in the form of algorithms and scripts. The data electrical lines are
like the spacecraft’s nervous system, sending electrical impulses
from the sensors to the on-board computer. The formatting of
data packets is like the spacecraft’s language, encoding
grammatical structures to communicate with other spacecraft or
mission operators.

1431
1432 • FRANCES ZHU

Image shows a block diagram of how other subsystems interact with the
on-board computer, where green text and arrows show the signal labels
and direction of data flow.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=1772
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1433

9.2 Subsystem Responsibilities

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=570#oembed-1

The Command and Data Handling (CDH) system is responsible

for all of the spacecraft’s data processing needs (flight software)
and the distribution of commands in hardware form (on-board
computer system). CDH interacts with every component that
outputs data (sensors, receiver) and receives commands
(actuators, transmitter). The on-board computer and software is
responsible for:

◦ ingesting data from the payload.

◦ storing payload data and spacecraft state of

health data.

◦ managing or coordinating the passing of

1433
1434 • FRANCES ZHU

data through the software pipeline.

▪ This action may require on-board

time synchronization.

◦ receiving data from the receiver and

passing data to the transmitter.

◦ executing user commands and transition

between user-dictated modes of operations
(event sequencing).

◦ monitoring health and performances of all

subsystems.

◦ handling mode transitions without user

intervention.

◦ detecting, isolating, and recovering from

spacecraft failures, commonly reverting to a
safe mode.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=570#h5p-79

Spacecraft Technology: Failures in

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1435

Electrical Systems and Software. Video

by TU Delft Online Learning

During the design process, the CDH specialist:

◦ is the owner and primary developer of the

spacecraft’s software architecture and on-
board computer design.

◦ is responsible for communicating with

spacecraft bus components, which includes

▪ converting raw data into sensible

information

▪ determining Input/Output
requirements for the avionics
subsystem with respect to the
other subsystems and payload

▪ standardizing data packet formats

across subsystems and across
communication channels

◦ coordinates with the systems engineer,

other subsystem specialists, and mission
operations to define the computer system’s
operational modes and states.

◦ manages the data budget and flow of data

during operations by developing block
diagrams that partition software scripts by
1436 • FRANCES ZHU

function.

◦ writes software to process, compress/

decompress, and manipulate data.

◦ strategizes with integration and test

engineers in testing and verification of the
spacecraft system.

◦ encodes robustness in single-event upsets

and information loss due to compression.

Ateleris engineering verifying and developing flight software. Image by

Ateleris Engineering.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=570
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1437

9.3 General Design Process

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=572#oembed-1

Modified from Dr. Daniel Selva’s lecture slides

1. Allocate mission and system requirements

◦ Establish functional requirements of the

avionics system based on mission phases,
payload requirements, and spacecraft bus
requirements, see Typical Requirements
and Design Considerations

◦ Evaluate candidate architectures: select

potential avionics components, see Typical
Avionics

1437
1438 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Partition by function: develop block

diagrams to make sure you meet your
functional requirements, see Integrated
Computer

◦ Determine feasibility: weigh risk vs

capabilities of candidate architectures, see
Avionics Reliability and Fault Tolerance

◦ Develop non-intrusive testing

methodologies: “black box” testing, see
System Integration and Testing chapter

2. Define the computer system’s operational modes and

states, see Flight Software Modes

◦ Develop state diagram consistent with

functional requirements

◦ Define power cycle and duty cycle for low

level computer and high level
◦ Model different operational stages as
different states

◦ Ensure degradation/failure states are

modeled

◦ Consider effects on ground/ops for all states

3.Functionally partition and allocate the

computational requirements, see Typical
Requirements and Design Considerations
◦ Consider the following areas to allocate
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1439

functions:

▪ Space or ground, payload,

spacecraft bus (avionics, other
subsystems)

▪ Distinguish between hardware

and software requirements

4. Evaluate internal and external interfaces, see the I/O

interface section

◦ Determine Input/Output requirements for

the avionics subsystem with respect to the
other subsystems and payload

5. Select the baseline architecture and form the baseline

system specification

◦ Detailed design specifications

▪ i. Sensor list (type, location,

number, criticality)

▪ ii. Network strategy

▪ iii. Estimate of processing

throughput

▪ iv. Communications bandwidth

◦ Select critical components

▪ i. Data management units

▪ ii. Redundancy strategies

▪ iii. Communications frequencies

1440 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Data budget and profile analysis based on

system design, see Data Budget and
Profiling section

◦ Integration, Assembly, & Testing strategy

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=572
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1441

9.4 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=580#oembed-1

For the spaceflight mission, the CDH system must be designed

to support the data and processing needs of the payload and
spacecraft bus. Requirements include technical specifications
for the:

◦ Throughput or number of channels is the

amount of information that can pass
primarily between the payload and flight
computer [Jeberson]. The number of
channels is typically dictated by payload
instruments, corresponding to the number
of imagers or cameras. More formally,

1441
1442 • FRANCES ZHU

throughput is dictated by the frequency of

the function (execs/s) and instructions per
execution and cycles per instruction.

◦ The computer performance depends on all

the applications and functions the
spacecraft mission requires. Typical
functions include [Selva]:

▪ Payload: pointing, on/off.

▪ TT&C: telemetry and command

processing, manage the downlink,
accept the uplink

▪ Attitude/Orbit sensor processing:

gyros, sun sensors, …

▪ ADCNS algorithms: Kalman

filter, integration, orbit
propagation

▪ Attitude control (actuator)

processing: thrusters, reaction
wheels…

▪ Fault detection: monitoring,

identification, and correction

▪ Power Management: charging,

solar array pointing

▪ Thermal Management: heaters,

louvers, coolers, pointing

▪ Momentum management:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1443

momentum wheels

▪ Utilities: basic math functions,

matrix math, time management,
rotations

• Flight computer performance requirements include

Central Processing Unit (CPU) capability, Graphic
Processing Unit (GPU) capability, and Field-
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) capability.

◦ CPUs are evaluated upon their clock speed,

their processor, the number of cores,
caching, and ability to integrate with the
GPU [Patkar].

◦ GPU requirements could be formed around

clock speed, memory, and power
consumption [Walton].

◦ FPGAs requirements include a number of

logic cells, clock speed, computation,
memory bandwidth, and Input/Output (IO)
bandwidth [Storaasli].

• The onboard clock drives the timing accuracy of the

whole system and must be chosen based on the timing
requirements from the payload or subject. Other time-
related requirements include scheduling and
synchronization.

• Hardware interface requirements are driven by the

hardware selection in the other subsystems,

◦ such as the physical connectors that

1444 • FRANCES ZHU

communicate directly to the onboard

computer or indirectly through a
daughterboard. These interfaces come with
inherited communication formats, like
USB, I2C, or SPI.

◦ The hardware outside CDH may come with

manufacturer-installed software in the form
of firmware or drivers that the flight
computer would have to interface with on
the software side.

• Software is evaluated on the basis of reliability and

the availability or ease of use of development tools,
COTS software, emulator, or engineering models.

• Radiation hardened electronics are “resistant to

damage or malfunction caused by high levels of
ionizing radiation” relevant in space environments.
Radiation hardening can prevent ionizing particles
from switching a bit in a data line or memory registry
that sets off a chain of events that the software cannot
recover from. For more information, read up on
radiation effects on electronics.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1445

Space Environment and Related Effects by Kenneth A

LaBel. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Single-Event Latchup (SEL)

◦ A radiation-induced event will inject a

charge that activates the feedback loop and
connects VCC to GND
◦ High current density results in extremely
high, localized heat
1446 • FRANCES ZHU

Latent Damage from Single-Event Latchup. By Jet Propulsion

Laboratory. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Single-Event Upset (SEU)

◦ Flip the state of data by introducing enough

charge to overpower the transistors holding
the value of a data bit
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1447

Illustration of SEU in SRAM-based FPGA affecting the device

configuration. (A) original circuit, (B) SEU affecting LUT equation, (C)
1448 • FRANCES ZHU

SEU affecting routing matrix. (Source: B. Pratt, “Analysis and

Mitigation of SEU-Induced Noise in FPGA-based DSP
Systems”).Image by Brian Hogan Pratt.

• Single-Event Transient (SET)

◦ transient pulses by momentarily turning on

driver transistors that should be off

Long duration transients observed on the OP293 operational amplifier.

More than 10% of OP293 transients are long-duration transients. Figure
from Testing Guidelines for Single Event Transient (SET) Testing of
Linear Devices report. Image courtesy of NASA.

• Total Ionizing Dose (TID)

◦ Cumulative long-term ionizing damage due

to protons and electrons can cause devices
can suffer threshold shifts, increased device
leakage (& power consumption), timing
changes, decreased functionality, etc.

During manufacturing and assembly, the flight computer is the

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1449

only hardware you need to handle as the CDH specialist. Even

then, the integration specialist or electrical power system
specialist may assist you in assembling the hardware. The
handling of the flight computer is much like the handling of the
electrical power system components.

During testing, the software must be flexible to accommodate

various testing configurations, which is not a requirement but a
design consideration. Testing and verification are usually done
incrementally, from a single component to a conglomerate of
components as a subsystem, then to a conglomerate of
subsystems into the fully integrated system. In this way,
software scripts need to be compartmentalized and callable by
other higher-level scripts, like the main script. To verify that the
spacecraft functions as expected on the ground, software must
accommodate the spoofing or emulation of data that makes the
satellite think it’s receiving data from a space environment. This
data is typically provided by a flight simulation that feeds the
flight computer all the sensor measurements; this test is called a
process-in-the-loop test. One step further is to spoof or emulate
space environment conditions with a physical testbed, which
receives simulated conditions and recreates lighting, magnetic,
and dynamic conditions; this test is called hardware-in-the-loop.
There exists an immense amount of software dedicated to testing
that will never be incorporated into the as-flown flight software.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=580#h5p-36
1450 • FRANCES ZHU

Jim Nicholson worked as the Chief Engineer for the Cygnus Spacecraft at
Orbital ATK for the Commercial Orbital Transportation Systems (COTS). Jim
describes the importance and reason to do processor in the loop tests.
Spacecraft and Payloads. Avionics and Software In the Loop Testing by Jim
Nicholson. Video courtesy of NASA.

During transport and handling, the flight computer is off and

self-contained within the satellite. There is no requirement the
CDH specialist needs to adhere to from this phase. From the
time of delivery through on-orbit deployment, the CDH
specialist may have the option to power up the flight computer
and upload new flight software if the previous version is out of
date. If the launch providers are kind enough to allow for any
testing during integration into a deployer or onto the launch
vehicle, the CDH specialist may remotely conduct system
checkouts and run a few test cases. The flight computer and
flight software should accommodate software updates and
remote testing.

Artemis Kit Specific

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1451

Artemis CDH Requirements

3 The CubeSat command and data handling system shall store, proce
.4 providing margin for the data needs of a variety of undergraduate pay

3.4.1 The hard drive memory shall have at least 2 GB of storage.

3.4.2 The onboard computer flash memory shall have at least 32kB

3.4.3 The onboard computer CPU shall have a clock speed of at le

3.4.4 The onboard computer shall be the centralized computer com

3.4.5 The onboard computer shall have at least 1 USB port availab

3.4.6 The flight software must include a timer that counts down 30

Suggested Activity

What kind of CDH requirements must you impose

on your system to fulfill your science mission?

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1452 • FRANCES ZHU

from this version of the text. You can view them

online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=580
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1453

9.5 Typical Avionics

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

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1453
1454 • FRANCES ZHU

Ferrite core memory as used in the Apollo Guidance Computer (MIT

sample for testing). Image by Nova 13.

In spacecraft history, computers have come a long way from

core rope memory on the Apollo Guidance computer to millions
of transistors on a chip smaller than your fingernail. This section
will give an overview of the different modern hardware
components in an onboard computer.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1455

Graphic overview of many commercial available onboard computers.

Image Courtesy of SatSearch.

The on-board processor, or flight computer, holds the clock,

Central Processing Unit (CPU), Graphics Processing Unit
(GPU), maybe a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA),
memory storage, and other circuitry so that these components
can communicate with each other. If you are super ambitious,
1456 • FRANCES ZHU

you may pick your own components and create your own
onboard computer, which is an immense feat. More likely, you
will survey available options and weigh the tradeoffs of the
components of this one flight computer to another flight
computer. This chapter will discuss the core components of a
flight computer that you should pay attention to when selecting
avionics.

The Hawai’i Space Flight Laboratory has been working with Unibap on
the Hyperspectral Thermal Imager (HyTI) mission. The flight computer
physically forms factor compatible with PC104 and configured as four
stacked PCB boards, a standard core processing module (standard
version iX5- CORE-1000), and an interface and storage extension board
(standard version iX5-EXT-100). Image Courtesy of Unibap
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1457

On the heterogeneous compute module, we can see the CPU, GPU,

FPGA, several clocks, DDR3 RAM with error correction code, and an
IO interface to communicate with the other components. Image
Courtesy of Unibap.

On the user Input-Output and Machine Learning board, we have

memory storage, board interfaces, and avionics for specifying a serial
signaling standard (LVDS). Image courtesy of Unibap.
1458 • FRANCES ZHU

Clocks

Crystal Oscillator
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1459

Crystal oscillation modes. Image

by Jitka.
1460 • FRANCES ZHU

Quartz crystal resonator (left) and quartz crystal oscillator (right) CC

BY 3.0. Image by Vahid Alpha.

“A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses

the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric
material to create an electrical signal with a constant frequency”
[Wikipedia]. The most common piezoelectric resonator is the
quartz crystal and when incorporated into an oscillator circuit is
called a crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal may be manipulated
to oscillate at a precise frequency by applying voltage on and
off. These oscillators operate from a few tens of kilohertz to
hundreds of megahertz. Quartz crystals are found in the majority
of timekeeping technology, like wristwatches, computers, and
wall clocks.

The stability of the crystal’s frequency depends on the crystal’s

Q factor or the degree of underdamped response. We want a
high Q factor where the vibration is not damped much or in
other words, energy is not lost. Environmental changes of
temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration can change the
resonant frequency of a quartz crystal. Spurious frequencies
(undesired frequencies) can occur if the crystal is subject to
vibration (something to test for after conducting an
environmental vibration test on a shake table!). During
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1461

manufacturing and assembly, the crystal may experience

mechanical stress due to bonding and mounting or thermal
expansion throughout the crystal’s operational lifetime.
Permanent changes can occur if the crystal incurs mechanical
damage due to shock, which can tear crystals off their mountains
or crack the crystal. Due to the space environment, the
composition of the crystal may permanently change due to the
crystal itself outgassing or surrounding hardware outgassing
onto the crystal. Space radiation can affect the Q factor of the
clock, altering the natural frequency of the oscillator. “Crystals
have no inherent failure mechanisms; some have operated in
devices for decades. Failures may be, however, introduced by
faults in bonding, leaky enclosures, corrosion, frequency shift
by aging, breaking the crystal by too high mechanical shock,
or radiation-induced damage when non swept quartz is used.
Crystals can be also damaged by overdriving” [Wikipedia].
1462 • FRANCES ZHU

Inside a modern DIP package quartz crystal oscillator module. It

includes a ceramic PCB base, oscillator, divider chip (/8), bypass
capacitor, and an AT-cut crystal. CC BY-SA 4.0. Image by Binary
Sequence.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1463

Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an

oscillator. Image by Wolfmankurd.

The important result of clock degradation is clock drift. “By

space navigation standards, quartz crystal clocks aren’t very
stable. After only an hour, even the best-performing quartz
oscillators can be off by a nanosecond (one billionth of a
second). After six weeks, they may be off by a full millisecond
(one-thousandth of a second), or a distance error of 185 miles
(300 kilometers). That would have a huge impact on measuring
the position of a fast-moving spacecraft” [NASA]. When the
spacecraft is not in communication with the ground, the flight
computer relies on the onboard clock as the sole clock. A crystal
oscillator may be unstable and oscillate at an imprecise
frequency, which leads to clock drift. The spacecraft’s clock,
based on the crystal oscillator, may diverge from the mission
1464 • FRANCES ZHU

operator’s reference clock, potentially affecting time-sensitive

operations. Corrections can be made to the spacecraft’s clock
when mission operators contact the spacecraft or when the
spacecraft communicates with other spacecraft with more
precise clocks; GPS atomic clocks are a good reference but even
these satellites must be corrected twice a day from ground-based
clocks.

Artemis Kit Specific

The Artemis CubeSat Kit has MIMXRT1062 from

the Teensy 4.1 and a BCM2835 single-core
processor on the Raspberry Pi Zero W.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1465

Atomic Clock

Cesium, the “heart” of the National Bureau of Standards’ atomic clock,

is contained in a capsule before being put in the “oven” that will
vaporize it into a beam of atoms. The atomic clock counts the vibrations
of these cesium atoms, an incredible 9,192,631,770 per second. Source:
NIST. Image by National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Atomic clocks also use frequencies of natural phenomena, but

instead of mechanical vibration, atomic clocks measure the
electromagnetic signal of electrons as a radioactive element
decays. Atomic clocks are considered the “most accurate time
and frequency standards known” [Wikipedia]. In fact, the way
we keep time on Earth is by averaging measurements of various
atomic clocks around the world, called the International Atomic
Time (TAI), an international effort in which NIST and NASA
JPL are involved. This method is so precise that scientists have
1466 • FRANCES ZHU

defined the “SI unit of a second in terms of exactly 9 192 631

770 oscillations of the cesium atom” [Wikipedia].

Visual representation of how an atomic clock works. Image courtesy of

Watchers.

The most famous implementation of an atomic clock in space

is GPS satellites. Because GPS receivers must measure time
delays of signals, having a precise clock is of utmost importance.
“GPS Time (GPST) is a continuous time scale and theoretically
accurate to about 14 ns” [Allan]. Other satellites that rely on
atomic clocks are the Global Navigation Satellite System, the
Galileo Global Navigation Satellite System, and the Deep Space
Atomic Clock. Atomic clocks used to be reserved for missions
that specifically need nanosecond precision timekeeping as the
cost and development could be prohibitive. A single
microsecond of inaccuracy on a GPS satellite relates to 300
m of error. A commercial atomic clock used to cost on the
order of 30,000 USD but with technological advances, you could
have your very own miniature atomic clock for 1,500 USD
[PhysicsWorld]!
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1467
1468 • FRANCES ZHU

An anatomical view of the world’s first commercially available chip-scale

atomic clock. Image courtesy of Symmetricom, Inc.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=582#h5p-37

NIST Launches a New U.S. Time

Standard: NIST-F2 Atomic Clock video
courtesy of YouTube

A variant of the atomic clock is the quantum clock that utilizes

“laser-cooled single ions confined together in an
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1469

electromagnetic ion trap. Developed in 2010 by physicists as the

U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, the clock
was 37 times more precise than the then-existing international
standard. NIST has attributed the clock’s accuracy to the fact
that it is insensitive to background magnetic and electric fields,
and unaffected by temperature.” [Wikipedia]. These clocks have
not been demonstrated in space but are fun to think about for
potential technology demonstrations of the state of the art.

Watchdog Timer

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=582#h5p-38

This video will describe the workings of the WatchDog Timer on the
ATmega328p microcontroller with a sweet little demo. Arduino Watch Dog
Timer AVR Video courtesy of 0033mer

“A watchdog timer (sometimes called a computer operating

properly or COP timer, or simply a watchdog) is an electronic or
software timer that is used to detect and recover from computer
malfunctions. During normal operation, the computer regularly
resets the watchdog timer to prevent it from elapsing, or “timing
out”. If due to a hardware fault or program error, the computer
fails to reset the watchdog, the timer will elapse and generate a
timeout signal. The timeout signal is used to initiate corrective
actions. The corrective actions typically include placing the
computer system in a safe state and restoring normal system
1470 • FRANCES ZHU

operation. Watchdog timers are commonly found in embedded

systems and other computer-controlled equipment where
humans cannot easily access the equipment or would be unable
to react to faults in a timely manner. In such systems, the
computer cannot depend on a human to invoke a reboot if it
hangs; it must be self-reliant. For example, remote embedded
systems such as space probes are not physically accessible to
human operators; these could become permanently disabled if
they were unable to autonomously recover from faults. A
watchdog timer is usually employed in cases like these”
[Wikipedia]. The watchdog timer is critical for fault detection as
its only function is to serve as a reboot if something goes wrong.
The watchdog is typically connected directly to the CPU and fed
the same clock measurements.

Block diagram of a simple, single-stage watchdog timer. The common

clock is characteristic of basic watchdog circuits found in simple
microcontrollers. CC BY-SA 3.0 Image by Lambtron.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1471

Processors

CPU

Inside of an Intel CPU. Image by Poooow.

The CPU is the main computing unit of the brain, managing

high-level processes in series like how our cerebrum manages
reading, thinking, learning, speech, emotions, and planned
muscle movements. The CPU is made of millions of individual
transistors, “contained on a single metal-oxide-semiconductor
(MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip” [Wikipedia]. Transistors
form the basis of integrated circuits, turning signals on or off,
which is the basis of binary data. “There are 2 parts of the
CPU: The ALU and Control Unit. The Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) performs arithmetic operations (such as addition and
subtraction) and logical operations (such as comparing two
1472 • FRANCES ZHU

values). The Control Unit deciphers and carries out instructions.

Different CPUs have different types of instructions, so software
made for one type of CPU will not run on other kinds” [Gusta].
CPUs are typically classified by the number of cores onboard,
where each core is a computing unit that could focus on one
task. Today, a multi-core (more than one core) processor can
handle multiple tasks simultaneously. When selecting a CPU,
pay attention to:

◦ Instructions per second – For spacecraft

missions, instructions per second relate to
the required throughput and processing
necessary to run executions in a software
environment. Clock speed is not everything
(see Megahertz Myth).

◦ FLOPS – The number of floating-point

operations per second is often important in
selecting computers for scientific
computations.

◦ Performance per watt – For a power-

constrained system, this particular metric is
very important for spacecraft evaluating
relative or scaleable power consumption.

◦ Low power – For systems with limited

power sources like spacecraft, this metric
evaluates absolute maximum power
consumption.

◦ System designers building real-time

computing systems want to guarantee a
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1473

worst-case response. This metric relates to

handling faults during the spaceflight
mission.

Small size or low weight – Compact volume or low mass options

are encouraged for spacecraft systems.

Comparison of NVIDIA, Arm, Intel, and AMD revenue and enterprise

value. Image courtesy of Forrester.

The common manufacturers for CPUs on the ground are Intel,

AMD, and ARM. The fundamental distinction between these
companies is their instruction set architectures. Intel holds the
patents to x86, AMD to x64, and ARM has created its own
ARM architecture. The general differences between the three
companies are summarized by Nachman Networks:

“Intel is the most popular and well-known maker of processors.

Manufacturers like Dell, Apple, Samsung, and HP all use Intel
processors in their computers. Intel processors are the most
stable and offer the best all-around performance. The current
1474 • FRANCES ZHU

i3, i5, and i7 models represent entry, middle and high-level

hardware.

◦ AMD is Intel’s biggest competitor, offering

processors that are similar to Intel’s, but at
a, for the most part, cheaper price. The
majority of computer manufacturers, except
for Apple, also offer products with AMD
processors. AMD’s Athlon processors are
budget models while Phenom and FX are
mainstream and high level respectively.

◦ ARM processors are generally used in

smartphones, mobile devices, and tablets.
Apple’s iPhone and iPad; Samsung’s
Galaxy line and HTC devices all use some
form of ARM processor in their mobile
devices. A rule of thumb is, if it doesn’t
have AMD or Intel in the name, it’s most
likely an ARM processor”.

In space, processing power lags far behind progress on the

ground due to the need for radiation hardening and space
radiation testing. “The Intel 386SX that ran the so-called “glass
cockpit” in space shuttles was clocked roughly at 20MHz. As
we near 2020, the RAD750 stands as the state-of-the-art, single-
core space-grade processor. Curiosity uses two BAE RAD750
processors clocked at up to 200MHz” [Krywko]. The RAD750
is based on the PowerPC 750, created by IBM and Motorola
in 1997 to compete with Intel. The RAD750 costs $200k. “The
BAE RAD5545 is probably the most powerful radiation-
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1475

hardened processor available today”, clocking at 466MHz

[Krywko]. ESA has developed the LEON line of space-grade
processors working in SPARC architecture, which is open
source. The latest LEON processor is the quad-core GR740
clocked at roughly 250MHz. In the future, we can expect the
development of the High-Performance Spaceflight Computing
(HPSC), based on the ARM Cortex A53 quad-core processor
and expected to clock between 1.2 to 1.8 GHz.

AM3358 microprocessor breakdown, used on the BeagleBone

Blackboard. This is the microprocessor the Artemis CubeSat uses.
Image courtesy of Texas Instruments.
1476 • FRANCES ZHU

A few types of integrated processors include microcontrollers,

digital signal processors, and microprocessors. Microprocessors
(PP) are processors on an integrated circuit that are
“multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated
circuits that accept binary data as input, process it according to
instructions stored in its memory, and provide results (also in
binary form) as output” [Wikipedia]. Microprocessors are the
most powerful of the CPU integrated circuits and also consume
the most power, ranging from 50W – 200W. They provide >
1GIPS, 4GB+ RAM, ROM storage, HD’s, CD-ROM’s, etc.
Microprocessors use a general-purpose instruction set. When
you think of the most advanced commercial processors, like
Intel’s latest Core i9 processors, these are microprocessors.
Microprocessors live on your laptop, your cellphone, your
desktop. They are the more general-purpose, workhorse
computing unit. Microprocessors have been used increasingly
in spacecraft and are most likely the central computing unit of
modern spacecraft [Wikichip].

Different types of microcontrollers and composition of a

microcontroller. Courtesy of TheEngineeringKnowledge.com

Microcontrollers are small, dedicated processors to perform very

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1477

specific tasks with clock speeds of about 1-100MHz, <16MB

RAM, Read-Only Memory storage (no HD/Mass storage).
Microcontrollers are everywhere, in “computer keyboards,
monitors, printers, copiers, fax machines, microwave ovens,
washers and dryers, security systems, lawn sprinkler station
controllers, and music/video entertainment components”
[Farahman]. These products have specific, repetitive tasks and
do not have intelligence or adaptability. Specific subsystem
components may come with their own microcontrollers to offer
low-level control for which the central onboard computer must
communicate with. These subsystems and applications may
include [ESA]:

◦ propulsion system control

◦ sensor bus control

◦ robotics applications

◦ simple motors control

◦ mechanisms control

◦ power control

◦ radiation environment monitors

◦ thermal control

◦ antenna pointing control

▪ In-situ ionospheric plasma

measurements [Haas et al.]

▪ Altimeter data [Perschy et al.]

◦ Terrestrial communications [Lefevre et al.]

1478 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ ACS/GNC sensors (Gyroscope, IMU,

Magnetometer)

A simple block diagram of a typical digital signal processing system.

CC BY-SA 3.0. Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

Digital signal processors (DSP) are specialized microprocessor

chips, specifically designed to manage embedded digital
systems and digital signal processing. “They are widely used
in audio signal processing, telecommunications, digital image
processing, radar, sonar and speech recognition systems, and in
common consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones,
disk drives, and high-definition television (HDTV) products”,
with the goal to typically measure, filter, or compress continuous
real-world analog signals [Wikipedia]. DSPs have a high
processing/power ratio (e.g., 1GMIPS @ <6W) with clock
speeds typical of 100MHz – 1GHz, 16MB to 2GB RAM, Read-
Only Memory storage, and FLASH storage. DSPs will most
likely be tied with the spacecraft payload for data-intensive
missions to process experiment data or with telecommunication
subsystems:

◦ In-situ ionospheric plasma measurements

[Haas et al.]

◦ Altimeter data [Perschy et al.]

◦ Terrestrial communications [Lefevre et al.]

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1479

Suggested Readings

Space Technology 8 – Dependable Multiprocessor

https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/nmp/st8/tech/
eaftc_tech1.php

GPU

Underneath the GPU casing lies an exposed NVIDIA G80 GPU Core.
Image by Hyins.

GPUs are power-efficient, computational workhorses that

specialize in processing image data, like our visual cortex.
“Energy efficiency is one of the most important factors that
will affect a broader adoption of GPUs in high-performance
computing” [Jiao]. GPUs have smaller cores than CPUs, which
1480 • FRANCES ZHU

means each core cannot accept the same relative quantity of

instructions. GPUs tend to have much longer pipelines, which
is advantageous if a computational task can be broken down
into several similar subtasks, processed, then combined upon
completion. “While it does not decrease the processing time
for a single data instruction, it increases the throughput of the
system when processing that data” [Wyrwas].

GPUs have seen wide adoption on the ground during the rise
of machine learning and data analytics, utilized for heavy data
processing [NVIDIA]. “The first satellite to include a GPU for
image compression was COROT. COROT is a French national
space agency (CNES)-that led a mission to detect exoplanets
orbiting other stars and to probe the mysteries of stellar
interiors. GPUs and other SoC/SiP devices are highly
susceptible to radiation effects. Many types of radiation may
affect GPGPU logic in operation due to Single Event Transients
(SET)15, corrupting the logic outcome and producing an
erroneous result, and eventually being placed into the memory,
thus very similar to a Single Event Upset (SEU). The radiation
fault could be masked or even propagate to the output generating
single or multiple silent data corruptions. The difference
between both events is the former affects logic circuits and the
latter memory elements. In either situation, the device can have
functional interruptions or even hang” [Wyrwas]. Despite the
risks, the potential benefit of high-performance computation can
be had with rigorous testing and/or radiation protection (refer to
the suggested reading or read on to the Testing and Verification
section in this chapter).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1481

GPU devices depend on the application environment or purpose.

They include:

◦ Native GPU (i.e. Nvidia GeForce)

◦ Application Processor (i.e. TI OMAP)

◦ Accelerator Processing Unit (i.e. AMD’s

Fusion APU)

◦ ASIC/FPGA/PLD (i.e. Xilinx Zynq

UltraScale+ MPSoC)

Potential project vendors include Intel, Nvidia, Apple, Arm,

Qualcomm, Marvell, Vivante, MediaTek, AMD, Texas
Instruments, Altera, Xilinx, PowerVR, STMicroelectronics-
Ericsson, IBM, and ZiiLABS.

Suggested Reading

Body of Knowledge for Graphics Processing Units

(GPUs)
https://nepp.nasa.gov/files/29564/NEPP-
BOK-2018-Wyrwas-GPU-TN60884.pdf
1482 • FRANCES ZHU

FPGA

Xilinx XC3090-70 Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0

International. Image by Kwapix.

FPGAs are reconfigurable integrated circuits that encode

processes directly into the hardware without input from the
CPU, like a spacecraft’s muscle memory. “One of the benefits
of FPGAs over processor-based systems is that the application
logic is implemented in hardware circuits rather than executing
on top of an OS, drivers, and application software. Modern
FPGAs contain components that are specialized for specific
functions as well as more general-purpose configurable logic.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1483

The combination of dedicated functionality components with the

configurable logic has allowed for architectures that consume
less power and perform more efficiently” [Eastland]. FPGAs
can be configured into a specific hardware configuration after
fabrication by loading compiled software “containing
information on how the components should be wired together”,
called Hardware Descriptor Language [NI]; you can liken this
ability to shapeshifting. This configuration can even happen
remotely while the FPGA is in space! FPGAs are generally fast,
reliable, and flexible but are susceptible to the effects of space
radiation.

The Different Parts of an FPGA. Image Courtesy of National

Instruments

“FPGAs are sensitive to both heavy ion and proton-induced

single event upsets (SEUs). Single-event upsets in the FPGA
affect the user design flip-flops, the FPGA configuration
bitstream, and any hidden FPGA registers, latches, or internal
state” [Wirthlin]. To mitigate these radiation effects, we can
resort to hardware redundancy or triple modular redundancy,
1484 • FRANCES ZHU

which is implementing multiple circuits with the same

functionality voting on a process result. Another mitigation
technique could be to “scrub” the FPGA configuration and to
reconfigure the FPGA periodically.

“Historically, there have been two basic options for FPGAs

in space applications: high-density, re-programmable,
conventional SRAM-type FPGAs – repurposed and heavily
modified for space use; and lower-density, non-volatile, one-
time-programmable, anti-fuse devices designed specifically for
space applications. The former were usually supplied by Xilinx
and fit primarily into “payload” type applications. The latter
were usually supplied by Microsemi (formerly Actel) and were
suitable for mission-critical flight control and similar
applications” [Morris]. Specifically, “there are three FPGAs that
comprise the majority of current space-qualified FPGA needs:
the Xilinx Virtex-5QV (SRAM, 65nm), the Microsemi RTG4
(Flash, 65 nm), and the Microsemi RTAX (Anti-fuse, 150 nm)”
[Lee]. Most modern commercial FPGA systems tested so far
perform well in radiation and there is a potential path to flight,
but as of right now, these circuits are not readily adopted as they
are considered risky.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1485

From left to right: the Xilinx Virtex-5QV (SRAM, 65nm), the

Microsemi RTG4 (Flash, 65 nm), and the Microsemi RTAX (Anti-fuse,
150 nm). Image courtesy of Commercial Field-Programmable Gate
Arrays for Space Processing Applications David S. Lee

Memory
Memory stores information for immediate use in a computer.
This section will define different memory types, their functions,
and use cases. A defining characteristic of memory is its
volatility. Volatile memory is stored temporarily and is lost when
the divide is powered off. Non-volatile memory is stored
permanently and the data remains stored even if it is powered off
[geeksforgeeks.org]. Volatile memory has decreased capacity,
and increased power dissipation, but comes with fast access
times and throughput. Applications include run-time memory
and buffering. Non-volatile memory has greater capacity, and
lower power dissipation but comes with slower access time and
throughput. Applications include start-up memory and persistent
storage [Troxel].

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Read-only memory is as the name suggests: read-only. This

type of non-volatile memory is defined by the manufacturer and
cannot be changed. ROM is typically advantageous for storing
1486 • FRANCES ZHU

software that does not change through the system lifetime,

usually dedicated to the firmware. Although ROM can be re-
programmed with special instructions and unusual voltage
settings, ROM can only be rewritten a limited number of times.
A famous use case of ROM is the CD-ROM, clear in the naming
convention. A widely used case of ROM today includes USB
flash drives.

Rope memory from the Apollo Guidance Computer. Image courtesy of

NASA.

Historically, the core rope was used in NASA/MIT’s Apollo

Spacecraft Computers, DEC’s PDP-8 computers. The core rope
is a form of transformer matrix ROM, “programmed by
handweaving ‘world line wires’ inside or outside of ferrite
transformer cores” [Lumen]. Today, electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is typically used
to store a small amount of data for a startup, like a device
configuration, calibration tables, boot code, and debug
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1487

information [Troxel]. The structure of an EEPROM consists of

arrays of floating gate transistors, providing data persistence and
relatively strong Total Ionizing Dose and Single Event Effect
performance. EEPROM includes control circuitry that is
susceptible to radiation. Typical device capabilities include:

◦ 32Kb to 256Kb options

◦ ~1,000,000 rewrite cycles

◦ ~10-year data retention or more

◦ 10K to 1M rad TID tolerance

Commercial options include Actel, Aeroflex, Atmel, Hitachi,

Infineon, Maxwell, Samsung, etc. EEPROM technology is used
for credit cards, SIM cards, and keyless entry.

A sample of EEPROM: Space Grade Radiation Tolerant Memory Stacks

by 3D Plus
1488 • FRANCES ZHU

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random-access memory (RAM) is computer memory that can

be read and changed typically used to store working data and
machine code [Wikipedia]. RAM is volatile memory, which is
lost when power is removed and/or after a reset. RAM is a
fast memory available, running at over 1000 MHz. There are
two types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM
(DRAM).

4 NanoXplore’s NG-Medium space-grade SRAM FPGA contains an

internal scrubber. Image source: NanoXplore

SRAM is typically used for control processing applications, like

buffering between cache and storage and as the processor’s
“main memory”. SRAM cells use latching circuitry (flip-flop)
to store each bit. “Self-reinforcing nature improves SEE
performance and SEFI modes not as varied and often not as
complex” [Troxel]. Commercial options include Aeroflex, BAE,
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1489

Honeywell, Maxwell, Samsung, etc. Typical device capabilities

include:

◦ 4Mb to 64Mb options typical

◦ “infinite” rewrite cycles

◦ No data retention

◦ 100K to 1M rad TID tolerance typical

~10ns access latency typical

Performance comparison of SRAM vs DRAM. Difference between

static RAM and dynamic RAM, Which is Faster? 2020 by
Windows101tricks
1490 • FRANCES ZHU

DRAM is typically used for data processing applications, much

like SRAM but for data. Instead of latching circuitry, DRAM
consists of tiny capacitors and transistors to store memory.
Capacitors leak in charge so “DRAM requires an external
memory refresh circuit which periodically rewrites the data in
the capacitors, restoring them to their original charge. This
refresh process is the defining characteristic of dynamic random-
access memory, in contrast to static random-access memory
(SRAM) which does not require data to be refreshed”
[Wikipedia]. Complex addressing and refresh modes increase
Single Event Functional Interrupts. DRAM is extremely
common in personal computers. Flash memory eventually fails
given a high enough Total Ionizing Dose, up to 200 Krads
from a 2011 study [Oldham]. TID performance is continually
improving, due to smaller feature size reduction “tricks”.
Typical device capabilities include [Troxel]:

◦ 2Gb to 8Gb options typical

◦ “infinite” rewrite cycles

◦ No data retention

◦ Variable TID tolerance

◦ ~50ns access latency typical

Commercial options include Hyundai, Micron, Samsung, etc.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1491

Flash Memory or Non-Volatile Random Access Memory (NVRAM)

Radiation-hardened high-density NAND Flash memory for the Pearl

single-board computer they designed for the NASA BioSentinel
CubeSat spacecraft. They found their solution from Data Device Corp.
(DDC) in Bohemia, N.Y.Courtesy of Military and Aerospace Electronics

The best-known form of NVRAM and EEPROM is flash

memory. Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory, based
upon Electrically Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
technology. Flash is between ROM & RAM mid-speed memory,
which can be easily read and written. Flash memory is typically
used to store large amounts of data for a startup, like a device
configuration, calibration tables, boot code, and debug
configuration. Flash usually stores “software/firmware” that is
expected to be updated but otherwise does not change during
normal operations. Flash has been very common in recent space
applications. “Radiation removes (or masks) electrons from the
floating gate which causes bits to be in error”, as seen in the
1492 • FRANCES ZHU

figure below[Kay et al.]. Typical device capabilities include

[Troxel]:

◦ 256Mb to 8Gb options typical

◦ ~5,000 to ~500,000 rewrite cycles

◦ ~20-year data retention or more

◦ 5K to hundreds of K rad TID tolerance

typical (ELDRS effects)

Commercial options include Hynix, Intel, Micron, Samsung,

Spansion, etc. Xilinx offers flash-based configuration memory
as well.

Radiation Effects in Flash Memory. Flash Memory in Extreme

Environments By Matthew Kay, Matthew Gadlage, Adam Duncan,
Dave Ingalls, and Austin Roach NSWC Crane.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1493

Artemis CubeSat Kit RAM

Mass Storage

Hard Disks/Drives

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=582#h5p-39

Hard drive teardown. Bill tears down a hard drive to show how it stores data.
He explains how smooth the disk surface must be for the device to work, and he
outlines the mathematical technique used to increase data storage. Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Full video by Bill Hammack.

Hard disk drive (hard drive, hard disk, or fixed disk) is an

electromagnetic data storage device that relies on magnetic
storage to retrieve digital data. Hard disk drives (HDDs) are
a type of non-volatile storage that can store up to terabytes
of data. These hard drives are tremendously common within
personal computers and also as external storage devices. These
mass storage devices are susceptible to the vibrations of a harsh
launch environment. The angular momentum of the disk in the
hard drive could affect the angular momentum of the spacecraft.
The rotation rate of the disk also makes the hard drive
susceptible to mechanical failure, which would be critical to
the mission. Due to these reasons, HDDs are not preferred for
spacecraft missions.
1494 • FRANCES ZHU

A disassembled and labeled 1997 HDD lying atop a mirror. Image by

Ben PCC.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1495

Solid-State Drives

Anatomy of a solid-state drive. 1. Controller – the brains of this

operation, and the device that controls the operations of the flash
modules. 2. Buffer – the unit that holds RAM data for easy access. Like
a hard drive, the bigger the buffer, the better for data retrieval. 3. SATA
Connector – this is where the cable plugs in. If you have a hard disk
drive that uses a SATA cable, then you can replace that drive with an
SSD and use the same cable (assuming you’re using the write SATA
interface—SATA I, II, or III). A SATA I drive will work in any SATA
situation, but you’ll only top out at 1.5 GB/s speed. A SATA II can only
work with a SATA II or SATA III controller, and data transfer speed tops
out at 3 GB/s. SATA III can only be used with a SATA III controller. 4.
Power connector – again, if you’re using a SATA hard drive, this is the
same power connector. 5. Flash Memory Modules – these are the actual
semiconductors that hold your data. Image courtesy of B&H Photo.

Solid-state drives (SSDs) do not use mechanical parts, like the

hard drive, but use only electronic circuits to read and write
digital information. Solid-state storage is a type of non-volatile
memory that typically utilizes electrically programmable non-
volatile flash memory. Radiation affects SSDs in the same way
that radiation affects flash memory. SSDs are faster than HDDs
1496 • FRANCES ZHU

because of the lack of mechanical parts but are much more

expensive. Still, they are the preferred storage device for space
missions, like the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Types of flash-
based solid-state storage devices include the following
[Wikipedia]:

◦ MultiMediaCard (MMC) – a memory card

type used in portable devices

◦ Secure Digital (SD) – a memory card type

available in different variants, speeds, and
sizes, used extensively in portable devices

◦ Solid-state drive (SSD) – a computer

storage device available in various form
factors, with different interfaces, and in
various classes targeting different market
segments. The following components are
susceptible to radiation effects and should
be considered for radiation tolerance
[Lamorie and Ricci]:

▪ The core NAND flash

components

▪ The Flash Translation Layer

controller

▪ Configuration memory used for

the Flash Translation Layer
controller

USB flash drive – pocketable removable storage devices that

interface through USB, available in various shapes and sizes
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1497

Artemis CubeSat Kit Mass Storage

The Artemis CubeSat Kit uses a solid-state storage device,
specifically the SD card.

Input/Output Interfaces

Input/Output (I/O) interfaces to exchange information between

avionics components, like storage, sensors, processors, and
memory. These interfaces include data buses, digital I/Os,
analog/digital converters, and port connectors.

Data Bus

The spacecraft data bus, displaying data and power interfaces. Dr.
Daniel Selva. Spacecraft Technologies and Architectures Lecture 22:
avionics

A spacecraft’s data bus connects all subsystems that generate

and receive data/commands, similar to a power bus’s
management of power to all subsystems. The data bus handles
all the internal communications and passes data to the
communications system for external communication. The data
bus is in charge of quick, in-succession data routing and
1498 • FRANCES ZHU

prioritization, as a switchboard operator. Data buses are reserved

for high-speed data transfers (>33Mhz or >500Mbps), typically
connecting the processor to peripheral subsystems to
communicate 16, 32, or 64 bit wide messages. There are
standards for data buses so that design teams don’t have to
reinvent the wheel every time the avionics must be designed.
These standards have a communication protocol, physical
interface, data rates, and primary applications. The most
prevalent standard for spacecraft is the MIL-STD-1553 and for
CubeSat, the CubeSat Space Protocol.

The MIL-STD-1553 is a standard for an avionics data bus used

in aerospace and military applications. There is 1 bus controller
that initiates all exchanges and up to 30 remote terminals. The
overall data bus architecture could include redundant MIL-
STD-1553B buses, a bus controller, a backup bus controller, a
bus monitor, a remote terminal, a subsystem embedded with a
remote terminal, and a subsystem communicating with a remote
terminal. The bus controller operates according to a command
list stored in its local memory, commands the various remote
terminals to send or receive messages, services any requests
that it receives from the remote terminals, detects and recovers
from errors, and keeps a history of errors. The bus monitor’s
primary role is to monitor and record bus transactions. The
remote terminal provides an interface between the MIL-
STD-1553B data bus and an attached subsystem, and a bridge
between a MIL-STD-1553B bus and another MIL-STD-1553B
bus. The hardware includes cabling, stubbing, bus couplers,
cable termination, and connectors. The bus operates at 1 MHz
and between 18 – 27 V.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1499

A crude example of a simple network with computers (BC, RTs, and/or

Monitor), bus cabling, transformer couplers, stub cables, and bus
terminators. Image Courtesy of Alta Data Technologies LLC.
1500 • FRANCES ZHU

An Airbus engineer inspecting a new spacecraft that incorporates the

CAN Bus for Space. Image by Airbus DS.

“A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a robust vehicle

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1501

bus standard designed to allow microcontrollers and devices

to communicate with each other’s applications without a host
computer. It is a message-based protocol, designed originally
for multiplex electrical wiring within automobiles to save on
copper, but can also be used in many other contexts. For each
device, the data in a frame is transmitted sequentially but in such
a way that if more than one device transmits at the same time
the highest priority device is able to continue while the others
back off. Frames are received by all devices, including by the
transmitting device” [Wikipedia]. “The controller area network
(CAN) protocol is a proven, highly reliable communication
system for harsh environments and has been used in automotive
and industrial applications for over 30 years. Below is a list of
the major features and benefits of the CAN protocol” [Renesas]:

◦ The simple two-wire bus topology reduces

wiring and saves space and cost by
eliminating bulky wiring harnesses.

◦ The ISO 11898 standards for the CAN

controller and CAN transceiver ensures
ECUs built by different manufacturers will
work together when put into a CAN
network.

◦ An ECU device can communicate with

multiple devices at the same time.

◦ High transceiver driver output current

drives double-terminated cables and long
cables. Drives up to 120 devices at data
rates up to 1Mbps.
1502 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ The CAN system of arbitration allows easy

connection of multiple devices to the bus
without any additional collision detection.
Arbitration occurs automatically, without
loss of data, and without increasing bus
latency.

◦ Wide CMR of at least -2V to +7V. CAN

allows networks to drive long cables in
harsh environments where nodes may have
large ground differences.

Error detection is built into the protocol for reliable

communications

CAN Networks Significantly Reduce Wiring? Image by Ni Solutions.

“The following outlines the advantages of employing a CAN

bus communications network for data handling in space systems
vs. the conventional MIL-STD-1553 and RS-485 point-to-point
interface solutions. The figure above shows the comparison
between the present conventional topology vs. the CAN two-
wire broadcast topology. Several nodes can be added to a single
bus. This significantly reduces system/cable costs while
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1503

providing a cost-effective way to add functionality. According

to ESA, a satellite’s weight and mass can be reduced by 10%
to 18%. Weight/mass is proportionate to overall satellite and
launch costs”:

◦ The CAN multi-master/multi-drop topology

significantly reduces the amount of wiring
and connectors.

◦ Replaces older, more costly communication

protocols.

◦ CAN has lower power consumption vs. the

conventional MIL-STD-1553 systems.

◦ Data prioritization and data contention are

advantages over other protocols.

◦ Adds several million dollars of

functionality.

CAN enables scalable bus architectures with increased

reliability, observability, and controllability.
1504 • FRANCES ZHU

A PCI-104 single-board computer. Image by Vocaro.

For smaller spacecraft, the CubeSat Kit Bus (CSKB) is a

stackable connector with 104 pins. The CSKB “utilizes the same
physical connectors as the industry-proven PC/104 bus”
[Pumpkin]. Of the 104 total pins, the CSKB offers 28 Input/
Output (I/O) pins to interface with the subsystems. “Additional
pins from the PPM processor to the CubeSat Kit Bus connector
include power and ground, Deployment Switch and Remove-
Before-Flight Switch direct bussed connections, transceiver data
and control signals, user signals, analog references, and
miscellaneous control signals” [Pumpkin].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1505

Two PC104 boards attached. CC BY-SA 3.0 Image by Ruslanleonov

The PC/104 standard allows modular stacking of boards that

can expand functionality. A common PC/104 system will stack
a CPU board, power supply board, and peripheral boards. For
spacecraft, these boards could include a payload board,
telecommunications board, ADCS board, etc. Most PC104
boards include standard PC interfaces like Serial Ports, USB,
Ethernet, and VGA. These Input/Output interfaces will be
expanded upon in a later section of this chapter. The PC/104,
coupled with an x86 instruction set architecture, can run
standard PC operating systems, like DOS, Linux, or Windows.

Artemis Kit Specific

1506 • FRANCES ZHU

Artemis CubeSat Data Bus

• The Artemis CubeSat Kit uses the PC/

104 or CubeSat Kit Bus architecture.

Digital and Analog I/O

“The main purpose of I/O interfaces is to transmit and receive

data” [Smith]. To format the raw subsystem input data in a
digestible way for the processor or whatever end node, the data
must pass through an interface that modifies the data format.
These interfaces could manipulate digital or analog signals, and
can be unidirectional or bidirectional. These interfaces can
consist of port connectors, circuitry, and wire harnessing.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1507

Demonstration of analog to digital conversion and digital to analog

conversion. Image by Megodenas.

The most basic interface is an analog-to-digital converter, or

1508 • FRANCES ZHU

ADC, which converts analog signals to digital signals. The

conversion involves quantization of the input, so it necessarily
introduces a small amount of error or noise. Additionally, the
data product’s bit size affects that accumulation of error; fewer
bits, more error.

Sample functions of a digital I/O interface. Image courtesy of CONTEC.

“A digital I/O board is an interface board that adds the ability

to input and output digital signals in parallel to a computer”
[Contec]. There are various and many applications for digital
I/O interfaces that can be connected in series. A common series
connection could be a sensor outputting an analog signal,
connected to an analog-to-digital converter, then a digital I/O
interface, then the data bus, then finally to the processor.

Port Connectors
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1509

Comparison of parallel communication vs serial communication. Left:

parallel transmission of the letter “C” in binary (01000011), right: serial
transmission of the letter “C” in binary (01000011). BASICS OF THE
SPI COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL Posted by Scott CampbellImage
courtesy of circuit basics.

Port connectors allow electrical signals to pass through physical

connections, think of the end of a USB cable that goes into your
computer. There are many different types of connector types
that have their own communication standards. Different port
connectors are historically used for specific applications and
carry unique advantages/disadvantages. “The benefits of using
commercially based networking standards and protocols have
been widely discussed and are expected to include reduction
in overall mission cost, shortened integration and test (I&T)
schedules, increased operations flexibility, and hardware and
software upgradeability/scalability with developments ongoing
in the commercial world” [Webb and Day]. Characteristics
include baud rate, communication protocol, differential
configuration, directionality, synchronicity, etc. “Baud rate is
a measure of the speed of data transfer, expressed in bits per
second (bps). The bits of data can be transmitted either in
parallel or serial form. In parallel communication, the bits of
data are sent all at the same time, each through a separate wire.
In serial communication, the bits are sent one by one through a
1510 • FRANCES ZHU

single wire” [CircuitBasics]. This section will give an overview

of these various port connections.

Network router with three GPIOs (Banana Pi R1) CC BY-SA 4.0. Image
by BPI Forum.

“The general-purpose input/output (GPIO) is an uncommitted

digital signal pin on an integrated circuit or electronic circuit
board which may be used as an input or output, or both, and is
controllable by the user at runtime. GPIOs have no predefined
purpose and are unused by default. If used, the purpose and
behavior of a GPIO are defined and implemented by the designer
of higher assembly-level circuitry: the circuit board designer in
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1511

the case of integrated circuit GPIOs, or system integrator in the

case of board-level GPIOs. Many circuit boards expose board-
level GPIOs to external circuitry through integrated electrical
connectors. Usually, each such GPIO is accessible via a
dedicated connector pin. GPIOs are also found on embedded
controller boards such as Arduino, BeagleBone, Teensey, and
Raspberry Pi” [Wikipedia]. The Artemis CubeSat Kit has a
Teensy.

Today, UART is being used in many applications like GPS Receivers,

Bluetooth Modules, GSM and GPRS Modems, Wireless
Communication Systems, RFID-based applications, etc. Basics of
UART Communication BY ANUSHA

A universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) is used

for asynchronous serial communication in which the data format
and transmission speeds are configurable. “The hardware for
UART can be a circuit integrated on the microcontroller or a
dedicated integrated circuit. Today, UART is being used in many
applications like GPS Receivers, Bluetooth Modules, GSM and
1512 • FRANCES ZHU

GPRS Modems, Wireless Communication Systems, RFID based

applications, etc” [ElectronicsHub].

Only two wires are needed to transmit data between two UARTs. Data
flows from the Tx pin of the transmitting UART to the Rx pin of the
receiving UART. BASICS OF UART COMMUNICATIONPosted by
Scott Campbell

UART transmitted data is organized into packets. Each packet contains 1

start bit, 5 to 9 data bits (depending on the UART), an optional parity
bit, and 1 or 2 stop bits. BASICS OF UART COMMUNICATIONPosted
by Scott Campbell

“UARTs transmit data asynchronously, which means there is

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1513

no clock signal to synchronize the output of bits from the

transmitting UART to the sampling of bits by the receiving
UART. Instead of a clock signal, the transmitting UART adds
start and stop bits to the data packet being transferred. These bits
define the beginning and end of the data packet so the receiving
UART knows when to start reading the bits. When the receiving
UART detects a start bit, it starts to read the incoming bits at a
specific frequency known as the baud rate”. UART can process
at any speed up to 115,200 baud but typically processes at 9600
baud [CircuitBasics].

ADVANTAGES

• Only uses two wires

• No clock signal is necessary

• Has a parity bit to allow for error checking

• The structure of the data packet can be changed as

long as both sides are set up for it

• Well documented and widely used method

DISADVANTAGES

• The size of the data frame is limited to a maximum of

9 bits

• Doesn’t support multiple slave or multiple master

systems

• The baud rates of each UART must be within 10% of

each other
1514 • FRANCES ZHU

Typical SPI bus: master and three independent slaves. CC BY-SA 3.0.
Image by C. Burnett.

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a synchronous serial

communication interface specification used for short-distance
communication, primarily in embedded systems. SPI devices
use a master-slave architecture, which means one device
controls one or more devices and serves as a central
communication hub. The SPI bus has four logic signals:

• SCLK: Serial Clock (output from master)

• MOSI: Master Out Slave In (data output from master)

• MISO: Master In Slave Out (data output from slave)

• SS: Slave Select (often active low, output from

master)
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1515

A simplified schematic is shown below for the connections

between an ATmega328P and an SD card. Image courtesy of
RJH Coding.

“SPI is a common communication protocol used by

many different devices. For example, SD card
modules, RFID card reader modules, and 2.4 GHz
wireless transmitter/receivers all use SPI to
communicate with microcontrollers. One unique
benefit of SPI is the fact that data can be transferred
without interruption. Any number of bits can be sent
or received in a continuous stream. With I2C and
UART, data is sent in packets, limited to a specific
number of bits. Start and stop conditions define the
beginning and end of each packet, so the data is
interrupted during transmission” [CircuitBasics]. SPI
can communicate up to 10 Mbps.

ADVANTAGES

◦ No start and stop bits, so the data can be

streamed continuously without interruption
1516 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ No complicated slave addressing system

like I2C
◦ Higher data transfer rate than I2C (almost
twice as fast)

◦ Separate MISO and MOSI lines, so data

can be sent and received at the same time

DISADVANTAGES

◦ Uses four wires (I2C and UARTs use two)

◦ No acknowledgment that the data has been

successfully received (I2C has this)

◦ No form of error checking like the parity bit

in UART

◦ Only allows for a single master

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1517

I2C is a serial communication protocol, so data is transferred bit by bit

along a single wire (the SDA line). SDA (Serial Data) – The line for the
master and slave to send and receive data. SCL (Serial Clock) – The line
that carries the clock signal. BASICS OF THE I2C
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL Posted by Scott Campbell.

I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit), pronounced I-squared-C, is a

synchronous, multi-master, multi-slave, packet-switched, single-
ended, serial communication bus. “I2C combines the best
features of SPI and UARTs. With I2C, you can connect multiple
slaves to a single master (like SPI) and you can have multiple
masters controlling single, or multiple slaves. This is really
useful when you want to have more than one microcontroller
logging data to a single memory card or displaying text to a
single LCD” [CircuitBasics].
1518 • FRANCES ZHU

Adafruit’s TSL2561 breakout board, a 3.3V device that uses I²C to

communicate with its host microcontroller. Image courtesy of
Electricimp.

“You’ll probably find yourself using I2C if you ever build

projects that use OLED displays, barometric pressure sensors,
or gyroscope/accelerometer modules. Like SPI, I2C is
synchronous, so the output of bits is synchronized to the
sampling of bits by a clock signal shared between the master and
the slave. The clock signal is always controlled by the master.
With I2C, data is transferred in messages. Messages are broken
up into frames of data. Each message has an address frame that
contains the binary address of the slave, and one or more data
frames that contain the data being transmitted” [CircuitBasics].
I2C can transmit at 4 speeds: standard mode (100 kbps), fast
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1519

mode (400 kbps), high-speed mode (3.4 Mbps), and ultra-fast

mode (5 Mbps).

I2C messages include start and stop conditions, read/write bits, and
ACK/NACK bits between each data frame. BASICS OF THE I2C
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLPosted by Scott Campbell

ADVANTAGES

• Only uses two wires

• Supports multiple masters and multiple slaves

• ACK/NACK bit gives confirmation that each frame is

transferred successfully

• Hardware is less complicated than with UARTs

• A well known and widely used protocol

DISADVANTAGES

• Slower data transfer rate than SPI

• The size of the data frame is limited to 8 bits

More complicated hardware needed to implement than SPI

1520 • FRANCES ZHU

PCI Express x1 card with one RS-232 port on a 9-pin connector. Image
by Towel 401.

“RS-232, Recommended Standard 232, is a standard for serial

communication transmission of data. It formally defines signals
connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as
a computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit-terminating
equipment or data communication equipment), such as a
modem. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and
timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size
and pinout of connectors. In RS-232, user data is sent as a time
series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions
are supported by the standard” [Wikipedia]. “RS232 is, without
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1521

doubt, the best-known interface, because this serial interface is

implemented on almost all computers available today” [Bies].
The RS-232 port connector, commonly around the D-
subminiature standard, assigns pins based on signals.

Other standards, like RS-422 and RS-485, are also serial

communication standards but vary by the number of drivers,
network topology, differential interfaces, etc.

Characteristics of RS485 compared to RS232, RS422, and RS423.

Image courtesy of Lammertbies.
1522 • FRANCES ZHU

USB endpoints reside on the connected device: the channels to the host
are referred to as pipes. Image by Benjamin D. Esham.

“Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry-standard that

establishes specifications for cables and connectors and
protocols for connection, communication, and power supply
(interfacing) between computers, peripherals, and other
computers. There have been four generations of USB
specifications: USB 1.x, USB 2.0, USB 3.x, and USB4. USB
device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). A
pipe is a connection from the host controller to a logical entity
within a device, called an endpoint. Because pipes correspond to
endpoints, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Each
USB device can have up to 32 endpoints (16 in and 16 out),
though it is rare to have so many. Endpoints are defined and
numbered by the device during initialization (the period after
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1523

physical connection called “enumeration”) and so are relatively

permanent, whereas pipes may be opened and closed. There are
two types of pipe: stream and message. A message pipe is bi-
directional and is used for control transfers. Message pipes are
typically used for short, simple commands to the device, and for
status responses from the device, used, for example, by the bus
control pipe number 0. A stream pipe is a uni-directional pipe
connected to a uni-directional endpoint that transfers data using
an isochronous, interrupt, or bulk transfer” [Wikipedia].

Two USB 3.0 Standard-A receptacles (left) and two USB 2.0
Standard-A receptacles (right) on a computer’s front panel. CC BY-SA
3.0 Image Bubba 73.

“USB supplies power at 5 V ± 5% to power USB downstream

devices. USB signals are transmitted using differential signaling
on a twisted-pair data cable with 90 Ω ± 15% characteristic
impedance. During USB communication, data is transmitted as
packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the
root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those
packets direct a device to send some packets in reply. The basic
transactions of USB are OUT transaction, IN transaction,
1524 • FRANCES ZHU

SETUP transaction, and Control transfer exchange”

[Wikipedia].

Suggested Reading

Use of USB interfaces in Space Programs

USB connectors have 4 pinouts: two for power (+5v and GND) and two
for differential data signals (labeled as D+ and D- in pinout. Copyright
© 2000-2020 Image by pinouts.ru team.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1525

A twisted pair cable with an 8P8C modular connector attached to a

laptop computer, used for Ethernet CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Someone’s
Moving Castle.

The Ethernet standard came from the IEEE 802.3 Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access
Method and Physical Layer Specifications, inspired by
ALOHAnet from the University of Hawai’i. “The original
10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a shared medium, while
the newer Ethernet variants use twisted pair and fiber optic links
in conjunction with switches. Over the course of its history,
Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the
original 2.94 megabits per second (Mbit/s) to the latest 400
gigabits per second (Gbit/s). The Ethernet standards comprise
several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer
in use with Ethernet. Systems communicating over Ethernet
divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. Each
1526 • FRANCES ZHU

frame contains the source and destination addresses, and error-

checking data so that damaged frames can be detected and
discarded; most often, higher-layer protocols trigger the
retransmission of lost frames. As per the OSI model, Ethernet
provides services up to and including the data link layer. The
48-bit MAC address was adopted by other IEEE 802 networking
standards, including IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, as well as by FDDI,
and EtherType values are also used in Subnetwork Access
Protocol (SNAP) headers. Ethernet is widely used in homes and
industries and works well with Wi-Fi. The Internet Protocol is
commonly carried over Ethernet and so it is considered one of
the key technologies that make up the Internet” [Wikipedia].

Pinout of Ethernet 10 / 100 / 1000 Mbit (cat 5, cat 5e, and cat 6) network
cable wiring. Image courtesy of Pinouts Guide.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1527

“In IEEE 802.3, a datagram is called a packet or frame. The

packet is used to describe the overall transmission unit and
includes the preamble, start frame delimiter (SFD), and carrier
extension (if present). The frame begins after the start frame
delimiter with a frame header featuring source and destination
MAC addresses and the EtherType field giving either the
protocol type for the payload protocol or the length of the
payload. The middle section of the frame consists of payload
data including any headers for other protocols (for example,
Internet Protocol) carried in the frame. The frame ends with
a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check, which is used to detect
corruption of data in transit” [Wikipedia].

Suggested Reading

Ethernet for Space Flight Applications

1528 • FRANCES ZHU

MicroMach® connectors are able to reach far lower Crosstalk levels

than previous connectors – on average 25dB lower. By providing better
signal integrity, MicroMach links are also able to reach far higher data
rates (up to 3 GB/s). Image courtesy of European Space Agency.

“SpaceWire is a spacecraft communication network based in

part on the IEEE 1355 standard of communications. It is
coordinated by the European Space Agency (ESA) in
collaboration with international space agencies including
NASA, JAXA, and RKA. Within a SpaceWire network the
nodes are connected through low-cost, low-latency, full-duplex,
point-to-point serial links, and packet switching wormhole
routing routers. SpaceWire covers two (physical and data-link)
of the seven layers of the OSI model for communications.
SpaceWire’s modulation and data formats generally follow the
data strobe encoding – differential ended signaling (DS-DE) part
of the IEEE Std 1355-1995. SpaceWire utilizes asynchronous
communication and allows speeds between 2 Mbit/s and 400
Mbit/s, with an initial signaling rate of 10Mbit/s. DS-DE is well-
favored because it describes modulation, bit formats, routing,
flow control, and error detection in hardware, with little need for
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1529

software. SpaceWire also has very low error rates, deterministic

system behavior, and relatively simple digital electronics.
SpaceWire replaced old PECL differential drivers in the physical
layer of IEEE 1355 DS-DE with low-voltage differential
signaling (LVDS). SpaceWire also proposes the use of space-
qualified 9-pin connectors. SpaceWire and IEEE 1355 DS-DE
allows for a wider set of speeds for data transmission and some
new features for automatic failover. The fail-over features let
data find alternate routes, so a spacecraft can have multiple data
buses, and be made fault-tolerant. SpaceWire also allows the
propagation of time interrupts over SpaceWire links, eliminating
the need for separate time discrete.

SpaceWire Connector Pin-Out: The SpaceWire connector has eight

signal contacts plus a screen termination contact. A nine-pin
micro-miniature D-type is specified as the SpaceWire connector. This
type of connector is available qualified for space use. Image courtesy of
Stardundee.

SpaceWire is used all around the globe. Its use began primarily
in ESA projects, but it is currently used by NASA, JAXA, RKA,
1530 • FRANCES ZHU

and many other organizations and companies. Some NASA

projects using it include the James Webb Space Telescope,
Swift’s Burst Alert Telescope, the Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter, LCROSS, the Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES-R), and the SCaN Testbed,
previously known as the Communications, Navigation, and
Networking Reconfigurable Testbed (CoNNeCT). It has also
been selected by the United States Department of Defense for
Operationally Responsive Space. SpaceWire initiatives are
being coordinated between several Space Agencies in the frame
of CCSDS in order to extend its communication model to the
Network and Transport Layers of the OSI model. SpaceWire
supports highly fault-tolerant networks and systems, which is
one reason for its popularity” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1531

TacSat-4 SES chassis w/ PMC SpaceWire Card. Lessons Learned From

Implementing Non-Standard SpaceWire Cabling For Tacsat-4 by Derek
Schierlmann, Eric Rossland, and Paul Jaffe.

Suggested Reading

SpaceWire’s User Guide

1532 • FRANCES ZHU

A 1.8-inch (46 mm) micro SATA hard drive with numbered data and
power pins on the connector. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Fustigate314159.

Serial ATA (SATA, abbreviated from Serial AT Attachment) is a

computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters to mass
storage devices and has become the predominant interface for
storage devices, such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and
solid-state drives. SATA data transfer rates range from 1.5 Gbit/s
to 6 Gbit/s. Since these connectors are rarely seen outside the
context of mass storage devices, we won’t delve further into
SATA descriptions.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1533

SATA (left) and eSATA (right) connectors BY-SA 2.0. Image by Smial.

Integrated Computers
1534 • FRANCES ZHU

Detailed functional block diagram of the ESS processor (nominal

unit).Performance of the Mission-critical Electrical Support System
(ESS) which handled communications and data Transfer between the
Rosetta Orbiter and ist Lander Philae while en route to and at comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by Acta Astronautica

Now that we are familiar with all the parts that go into an
onboard computer, we can talk about how these discrete
components are integrated onto single or multiple boards. An
onboard computer is an embedded computer, a computer that is
integrated into a product, the spacecraft. Embedded computers
do not usually have a keyboard, mouse, or monitor interface.

The detailed functional block diagram above is an example of

an onboard computer that has many of the components we have
surveyed. The crystal oscillator in the top left acts as the clock
and there is a watchdog timer to detect faults lower in that
first column. To the right of the clock, the CPU is downstream
of the clock and watchdog signals and upstream of commands
sent to the system bus. The CPU also interacts with a direct
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1535

memory access (DMA) controller, a type of RAM, and a local

bus, which funnels data from the data bus. To the far right, we
have ROM and RAM, receiving data through the data bus from
the system bus. Everything above the system bus dividing line
consists of the guts of an onboard computer. Everything below
the system bus dividing line interfaces to peripheral systems,
like power, telecommunications, payloads, etc. Working from
the left to the right and from the bottom towards the system bus,
the J12 connector communicates bidirectional signals from a
subsystem to CMOS drivers through a UART interface through
a data bus to finally reach the system bus. The J12 connector
also interfaces with a telecommunication interface through the
radio frequency (RF) interface through a data bus to finally
reach the system bus. You can work down the line of how the
other subsystem components communicate to the system bus;
the take-home message is that the interfaces are specific to the
subsystem it must accommodate and must funnel the signals into
the system bus in a uniform manner.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=582
1536 • FRANCES ZHU

9.6 Data Budget and Profiling

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=584#oembed-1

A data budget assists the CDH specialist in choosing

components that satisfy the mission. The payload and other
subsystem components must generally have their memory,
throughput, update rate/frequency, connector, and
communication protocols. The task now is if you put all of
these components together, what would the spacecraft need in
the way of processing power, memory, timing accuracy, data
bus connections, and protocols? Just like the power budget and
profiling exercise, we will step through the process step by step
to analyze the accumulation of data, the necessary computation
or throughput, and the timing accuracy in each mission
operational mode. In the power budget, we’ve already defined

1536
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1537

time in each mission operation phase and components that are

on/off in each mode, so we will start the data budget process by:

1. Defining the subsystem components’ throughput, CPU

utilization, non-volatile memory, volatile memory, update
frequency, and required timing synchronization.

Volatil
Throughput CPU Non-volatile
Subsystem Component Proces
Estimation Utilization Memory
Memor

Payload High High High High

Structures and Deployment

Low
Mechanisms Mechanisms

Thermal
Temp Sensor Low Low Low
Control

Heater Low Low Low

Power
(Including Battery Low Medium Low
Harness)

Telemetry and
Receiver Low Low Low
Control

Transmitter High Medium High

Command
On-Board
and Data Medium High Medium High
Computer
Handling

Attitude and Inertial

Determination Measurement Low Low Low Medium
Control Unit

Torque Coils Low Low Low Low

2. Summarize the computer characteristics for each mode by

1538 • FRANCES ZHU

summing the individual characteristics of each component in

each mode and determine which mode will drive the computer
design. Typically, science operations and communications drive
the computer component characteristics

Radio
Pointing/ Sun
Computer Initial Initial Science Data Pointing/
Characteristic Checkouts Deployment Operations Uplink Spacecraf
and Charging
Downlink

Throughput
Low High High Low
Estimations

CPU
Medium Low High Medium Medium
Utilization

Non-volatile
Low High High Low
Memory

Volatile
Processor Low High High Medium
Memory

Update
Low High High
Frequency

Timing
Low Strict Strict Medium
Accuracy

3. Derive the data generation and downlink profile over time of

an orbit using your payload throughput, compression estimate,
communication downlink rate, and ground pass characteristics.
An analogy to the power generation profile is that your mass
storage is like your battery: you want to pay attention to the
total capacity of your mass storage and make sure you are
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1539

downlinking at about an equal rate as you are generating payload

or housekeeping data.
1540 • FRANCES ZHU

Available
Mass
Data Data Space on
Time Storage
Mode Generated Downloaded Mass
(min) Balance
(KB) (KB) Storage
(KB)
(MB)

0 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.920655

1 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.84131

2 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.761965

3 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.68262

4 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.603275

5 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.52393

6 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.444585

7 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.36524

8 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.285895

9 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.20655

10 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.127205

11 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.04786

12 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.968515

13 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.88917

14 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.809825

15 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.73048

16 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.651135

17 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.57179

18 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.492445

19 Nominal 854.345 0 -854.345 9.6381

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1541

Data
20 79.345 0 -79.345 9.558755
Received

Data
21 79.345 2250 2170.655 11.72941
Transmit

Data
22 79.345 2250 2170.655 12
Transmit

Data
23 79.345 2250 2170.655 12
Transmit

Data
24 79.345 2250 2170.655 12
Transmit

25 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.920655

26 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.84131

27 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.761965

28 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.68262

29 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.603275

30 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.52393

31 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.444585

32 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.36524

33 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.285895

34 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.20655

35 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.127205

36 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 11.04786

37 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.968515

38 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.88917

39 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.809825

40 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.73048

1542 • FRANCES ZHU

41 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.651135

42 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.57179

43 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.492445

44 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.4131

45 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.333755

46 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.25441

47 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.175065

48 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.09572

49 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 10.01675

50 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.93703

51 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.857685

52 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.77834

53 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.698995

54 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.61965

55 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.540305

56 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.46096

57 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.381615

58 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.30227

59 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.222922

60 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.14358

61 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 9.064235

62 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.98489

63 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.905545

64 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.8262

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1543

65 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.746855

66 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.66751

67 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.588165

68 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.50882

69 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.429475

70 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.35013

71 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.270785

72 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.19144

73 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.112095

74 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 8.03275

75 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.953405

76 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.87406

77 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.794715

78 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.71537

79 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.636025

80 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.55668

81 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.477335

82 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.39799

83 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.318645

84 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.2393

85 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.159955

86 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.08061

87 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 7.001265

88 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 6.92192

1544 • FRANCES ZHU

89 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 6.842575

90 Nominal 79.345 0 -79.345 6.76323

From this analysis, we see that the non-volatile memory capacity

over the orbit returns back to empty, verifying that the mission
is sufficiently supported by the mass storage system. If the mass
storage slowly fills up every orbit,

• the CDH specialist must find a larger mass storage

system, or

• the systems engineer must modify the mission

operations timeline to spend longer periods in
downlink mode or make more frequent passes
overground stations, or

• the communications specialist must find a radio that

is more capable of downlinking data.

If the data budget reveals a large surplus of mass storage that’s

just sitting there, the systems engineer may decide to utilize that
mass storage by modifying the mission operations to downlink
less, save on the power consumption to conduct more science.

Artemis Kit Specific

Artemis CubeSat Kit Data Profile

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1545

• Based on our basic payload and radio,

the Artemis CubeSat Kit needs at least 8
MB of dedicated mass storage in order to
avoid running negative over time.

Suggested Activity
1546 • FRANCES ZHU

Produce a data budget and profile with your

payload, ground stations, and radio specifications.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=584
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1547

9.7 Avionics Reliability and Fault

Tolerance

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
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We would like for all these hardware components to be reliable

until the end of the spacecraft mission. Unfortunately, each
hardware component is susceptible to radiation effects in single
events or accumulated as a total ionizing dose. The result of
radiation effects is faulting in two types: “permanent
faults—that is, faults that break computer components—and soft
errors, which cause an error but do not cause permanent damage.
Techniques have been developed to deal with both types of
faults. Unfortunately, these techniques, especially those for

1547
1548 • FRANCES ZHU

fixing soft errors, rob the computer of much of its efficiency”

[NASA]. Solution includes:

Redundant processors that combine or replicate results or vote

on the final result.

Example of triple modular redundancy where the same inputs go to three

separate processors, that go through a voting process before producing
an output https://slideplayer.com/slide/3943663/13/images/7/
Fault+Tolerance+Usually+involves+some+form+of+redundancy.jpg
NSF Center for High-Performance Reconfigurable Computing

• Distributing processing across multiple processors to

distribute the risk of failure.

• Liberal use of watchdogs in multiple places to

monitor critical components.

• Make use of reconfigurable hardware elements, i.e.,

sets of digital hardware elements whose wiring could
be “programmed” as needed, like FPGAs, we could
use these reconfigurable logic parts to implement the
required algorithms on an as-need basis.

• Keep a replica of startup software in non-volatile

memory for times when the system needs to reset.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1549

• Encode intelligence in the software to detect and

correct errors but are limited in their
application—that is, they cannot cover all machine
operations.

• Enable spacecraft to accept software updates during

missions to mitigate, prevent, or correct soft errors.

Fault tolerance techniques for scientific applications in the cloud. Image

by Suruchi Talwani, I. Chana with Semantic Scholar.
1550 • FRANCES ZHU

Basic Concepts and Taxonomy of Dependable and Secure Computing.

Image by Brian Randall, Algirdas Avizienis, J.-C. Laprie and Carl
Landwehr.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=586
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1551

9.8 Typical Software

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from this version of the text. You can view them
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The software has many roles in a spacecraft’s lifetime. In

chronological order, the spacecraft must have ground test
software, embedded flight software, and mission operations
software. During testing and verification, the spacecraft will
need software to communicate and verify the functionality of
the spacecraft sensors and actuators. During the space mission,
the spacecraft will rely on embedded flight software to fulfill
the mission. During the space mission, the mission operators
will need software to monitor the spacecraft’s status and send
the spacecraft commands. This section will primarily focus on
the flight software but will also conceptually review ground test
software and mission operations software.

1551
1552 • FRANCES ZHU

Flight Software

Software Architecture

Flight software is software that runs on the spacecraft during

the mission. For spacecraft that use an embedded computer
(computer with no mouse, keyboard, or monitor), the flight
software is a type of embedded software. Fundamentally, the
software must receive, transmit, manipulate, and store data from
the hardware.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1553

Interfaces between hardware, flight software, and the user (mission

operator).Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.
Image by Golftheman.

Flight software consists of an operating system and application

software. Most of these general functions are handled by an
1554 • FRANCES ZHU

operating system (OS), “a system software that manages

computer hardware, software resources, and provides common
services for computer programs” [Wikipedia]. The operating
system keeps track of time to schedule tasks, processor time, and
mass storage. The OS interacts with embedded hardware, like
memory, and peripheral devices through input/output interfaces,
like the payload. An embedded operating system utilizes real-
time preemptive multi-tasking and is typically smaller than
Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux, like VxWorks, RTEMS, and
FreeRTOS.

A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a

computer. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Bobbo.

The components of an OS that make a computer work together

include a kernel, networking, security, and a user interface;
although, networking and a user interface are less prevalent
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1555

in space. “With the aid of the firmware and device drivers,

the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of
the computer’s hardware devices. It manages memory access
for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get
access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the
CPU’s operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it
organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with file
systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc. The
operating system provides an interface between an application
program and the computer hardware so that an application
program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules
and procedures programmed into the operating system”
[Wikipedia]. Networking on the ground refers to “computers
running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a
common network for sharing resources such as computing, files,
printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless
connections” [Wikipedia].

Star link phase one and two. Image courtesy of SpaceX

1556 • FRANCES ZHU

In space, the spacecraft typically only communicates with the

ground but recent advances in constellations, like SpaceX
Starlink, and decentralized intelligence may force us to think
about networking in space more deeply. For security, “the
operating system must be capable of distinguishing between
requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others
which should not be processed” [Wikipedia]. “Hackers could
pull off a cyberattack by taking remote control of a satellite
or by spoofing or jamming its signals. With spoofing, a hacker
can send out fake signals to disguise their activity. Jamming
is designed to flood a server with so much traffic it causes
an interruption” [Newcomb]. As satellite communication
frequencies are regulated, a hacker can transmit fake signals
with a strong enough antenna. “For example, an attacker could
access the systems on the Hubble Telescope and open its camera
hatch while pointed at the sun, destroying the sensitive optics.
They could also use solar panels to blow out the batteries. Many
satellites are also vulnerable to jamming attacks that could
disrupt important commands from ground control. Malik
suggests using frequency hops to make it harder for attackers to
jam signals. In the case of GPS, ground systems should make
greater use of GPS authentication to ensure the signals are
authentic and not manipulated by a third party. Thankfully,
newer satellites are using encryption, but Malik stresses that is
not a silver bullet. Operators still need to carefully monitor and
log satellite traffic” [Whitwam]. An embedded operating system
will not need a user interface but will need a way to ingest user
commands.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1557

Key differences between operating system and application software

Image courtesy of Lithmee.

Application software includes mission-specific software which

1558 • FRANCES ZHU

does work required by the user or the mission rather than in

support of the computer. We can think of application software
as one level of abstraction closer to the user, higher-level
intelligence that has to do with the mission. The following table
contrasts the duties of an operating system vs. application
software.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1559

Operating System Application Software

Responsibility Responsibility

ingesting data from the payload

deciding when to conduct the
then stores payload data and
science mission with the payload.
spacecraft state of health data.

managing or coordinating the

deciding which sensors to be
passing of data through the
collecting data from.
software pipeline.

receiving data from the receiver deciding when to transmit data

and passing data to the and when to be listening for
transmitter. commands.

executing user commands and

transition between user-dictated handling mode transitions
modes of operations (event without user intervention.
sequencing).

detecting, isolating, and

monitoring health and recovering from spacecraft
performances of all subsystems. failures, commonly reverting to a
safe mode.

calculating thruster commands

for orbit control.

calculating orientation of solar

panels for sun charging.

calculating momentum control

for pointing or tracking
maneuvers.

turning on heaters to keep

temperature-sensitive equipment
within an acceptable operating
temperature range.

Aspects of flight software include real-time processing and

centralization. Real-time processing or computing is the ability
of a program to guarantee a response within specified time
1560 • FRANCES ZHU

constraints in the order of milliseconds, and sometimes

microseconds [Wikipedia]. The stringency of real-time
processing may be characterized by “hard” or “soft” real-time
processing. Hard real-time requires precise timing to achieve
correct results, where absolute deadlines must be met, and
missing a time boundary has severe consequences, like entry,
descent, and landing (EDL) operations, some critical orbit
maneuvers, and observation of fast-moving or transient
phenomena. These mission components are tied to fast
dynamical systems for which the system must react. Soft real-
time requires that the tasks be performed in a timely manner,
where missing a time boundary results in degraded but
continuous performance, like coarse pointing maneuvers to
transmit to the ground station and orientation of solar panels.

Characteristics Hard Real-Time Soft Real-Time

Response Time Hard Required Soft Desired

Peak Load
Predictable Degraded
Performance

Control of Pace Environment Computer

Safety Often Critical Non-Critical

Size of Data Files Small/Medium Large

Checkpoint
Redundancy Type Active
Recovery

Data Integrity Short Term Long Term

Error Detection Autonomous User Assisted

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1561

Breakdown of hard vs soft real-time systems by Kanaka Juvva. Image courtesy

of Carnegie Mellon University

Centralization refers to the degree of that computing happens

on one or multiple processors. A centralized system has one
processor designated as the master unit, which provides all
housekeeping and data handling. All commands are processed
and routed through this central unit. Distributed (multi-
processor) architectures use multiple processors to divide the
avionics tasks into two possible configurations: distributed
computing and/or redundant processing. In distributed
computing, executive tasks are shared by all processors,
dedicated processors are assigned to each sub-system, and
processors communicate through the spacecraft bus. Redundant
processing utilizes multiple processors for which any can
assume the role of master. This architecture tolerates faults well
as redundant systems can implement voting logic.

Visual depiction of the differences between centralized, distributed, and

decentralized computing. By Nonveiller and Larouche. Image courtesy
of Nebula Ai.

Flight software falls under the categorization of embedded

software. “Embedded software needs to include all needed
device drivers at manufacturing time, and the device drivers
are written for the specific hardware. The software is highly
1562 • FRANCES ZHU

dependent on the CPU and specific chips were chosen”

[Wikipedia]. For example, operating systems run on
microprocessors and not microcontrollers, so the hardware
dictates the ability to boot an operating system. “Most embedded
software engineers have at least a passing knowledge of reading
schematics, and reading datasheets for components to determine
usage of registers and communication system. Web applications
are rarely used, although XML files and other output may be
passed to a computer for display. File systems with folders are
typically absent as are SQL databases. Software development
requires the use of a cross compiler, which runs on a computer
but produces executable code for the target device. Debugging
requires the use of an in-circuit emulator, JTAG or SWD.
Software developers often have access to the complete kernel
(OS) source code” [Wikipedia].

Cross-compiling files on a development machine and transferring them

to an embedded system for operations. By David Mandala. Image
courtesy of 96 Boards.

To develop flight software, we typically use a process called

cross-development. We write code on a Windows, Mac, or Linux
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1563

computer, cross-compile for target processors, transfer object

code to embedded computers, and control embedded systems
with a ground system. Cross compilers create executable code
for a platform other than the one on which the compiler is
running [Wikipedia]. The object code is the product of a
compiler. The source code that creates the object code is
typically in C, C++, Assembly Language, sometimes Ada and
runs on real-time operating systems like Linux, VxWorks,
RTEMS, and FreeRTOS. The control of the embedded system
comes from the mission operators that pass through a ground
station and through the spacecraft communications systems.

Core Flight system (cFS) Background and Overview. The architecture

Layers. Image courtesy of NASA.
1564 • FRANCES ZHU

Core Flight Systems. Background and Overview. Cfs Overview Of

applications. Image courtesy of NASA.

Examples of flight software architectures include HSFL’s

Comprehensive Open-architecture Solution for Mission
Operations Systems (COSMOS) and NASA’s core Flight
System. The cFS is a re-usable spacecraft flight software
architecture that provides flight software services, applications,
and operating environments [NASA]. cFS is a layered
architecture that supports a variety of hardware platforms,
provides standardized Application Programmer Interfaces
(API), supports and hosts flight software (FSW) applications,
supports software development for on-board FSW, desktop FSW
development, and simulators, and contains platform and mission
configuration parameters that are used to tailor to a specific
platform and mission. Applications can be added and removed
at run-time (eases system integration and FSW maintenance).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1565

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=588#h5p-40

Cosmos Agents Demo with MOST. Video courtesy of Miguel Nunes with
HSFL.

For the Artemis CubeSat Kit, the flight software runs on a Linux
operating system in a framework called COSMOS. COSMOS
is an open-software framework designed to primarily support
the development, mission operations, and flight software of one
or more small spacecraft. If you are developing the software in
Linux, the flight software does not need to be cross-compiled.
COSMOS is a suite of software tools (including external
modules) that enables the operations team to interface with the
spacecraft, ground control network, payload, and other
customers in order to perform the mission operations functions
including mission planning and scheduling; contact operations;
data management and analysis; simulations (including the
operational testbed); ground network control; payload
operations; flight dynamics; and system management. COSMOS
is also being designed to be easily adapted for new spacecraft or
installation in new mission operations centers (MOCs).
1566 • FRANCES ZHU

Communication Architecture

Example of the composition of flight software and how cFS

applications, mission applications, and core services/applications
interact with a software bus. Image courtesy of NASA.

Communications between processors and between one processor

and other components are essential. This communication
typically occurs across a software bus or pipeline in which all
telemetry and commands pass through the same bus/pipeline.
The applications that need certain telemetry or commands can
subscribe and unsubscribe to any and all messages that travel
across the bus. The software bus is used for data and control
flow. All messages on the software bus or between hardware
have messages formatted in command and telemetry packet
standards, defined by communication protocols in a protocol
stack or Open Systems Interconnection Model. There are
different protocol stacks so we will explore the most common
and minimal layers necessary for spacecraft. The OSI Model
is commonly used to describe computing on ground and has
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1567

language we would associate with the Internet of Things. The

SpaceFibre Protocol has multiple lower-level layers, lane layers,
and a management layer between layers that are specific to this
framework.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model in which each of these

layers speaks only to a layer above or below it. Each of these layers
executes a specific function. Network layers and protocol By
Router-Switch. Image courtesy of Router-Switch.
1568 • FRANCES ZHU

SpaceFibre Protocol Stack. Image courtesy of Star-Dundee.

Communication protocols occur between different levels or

layers, typically: physical, data link, network, and user layers.
The physical layer is responsible for the serialization and de-
serialization, electrical driver and receiver, connectors and
cables, in short, the individual bits. Common physical and lane
layer protocols interfacing with hardware include I²C, SPI, serial
ports, and USB. The common physical layer protocols specific
to spacecraft include MIL-STD-1553 bus protocol and
SpaceWire Protocol, which will be discussed in a later section.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1569

Device Interface Software Design Pattern. General control/data

conceptual flow: Each communication bus has a specific protocol.
Architectural role: Read device data and publish on software bus;
Receive software bus messages and send to the device.

Device drivers provide a software interface to a hardware device.

Data-link protocols specify how devices detect and recover from

such collisions, and may provide mechanisms to reduce or
prevent them. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data,
called frames, between nodes on a network segment across the
physical layer. Examples of data link protocols are Ethernet for
local area networks (multi-node), the Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP), HDLC, and ADCCP for point-to-point (dual-node)
connections. In the figure below, the Ethernet protocol attaches
a header and trailer that act to direct the flow of data with the
ability to detect, recover from, reduce, or prevent collisions in
this frame stream.
1570 • FRANCES ZHU

The TCP/IP protocol stack is at the heart of the Internet. It can be

represented using the OSI seven-layer reference model, as illustrated
below. The top three layers are grouped together, which simplifies the
model. People Internet vs. Device Internet. Image courtesy of Micrium
Embedded Software.

The network layer is responsible for packet forwarding

including routing through intermediate routers. Network layer
protocols include the CubeSat Space Protocol and Internet
Protocols, like IPv4.

Satellites Communications Modulation. Image courtesy of Springer

Nature.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1571

The transport layer ensures the data reaches without errors. The
SpaceFibre communication protocol doesn’t have a transport
layer but terminates at the User Application, which is application
software embedded onto the spacecraft. This software encodes
spacecraft autonomy or mission operator control. The layer
beyond the spacecraft’s embedded software is the
communication link with the ground, which is the Space
Development Agency’s interpretation of the transport layer. This
communication link depends on digital modulation schemes,
like amplitude-shift keying (ASK), phase-shift keying (PSK),
frequency-shift keying (FSK), and quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM), which we talk about in the communications
chapter [Hsu].

Open Mission Control / Pocket Mission Control Center Monitor View.

Image courtesy of Open Mission Control.
1572 • FRANCES ZHU

The last layers (session, presentation, and application) are the

layers going from the ground station to the mission operator’s
monitor. Generally, “the application layer is the scope within
which applications, or processes, create user data and
communicate this data to other applications on another or the
same host” [Wikipedia]. This final layer strips away all the
headers and we are left with the actual data, which can be
displayed, interpreted, and acted upon in the mission control
center.

A selected list of features to consider when selecting a

communication architecture include [Gwaltney and Briscoe]:

◦ Communication Control Event-

/TimeTriggered, etc.

◦ Maximum Data Rate (MB/s)

◦ Message Size

◦ Message CRC (Yes/No)

◦ Provide All Nodes With Data Transmitted

by Other Nodes for Local Node Use as
Required

◦ Duplex

◦ Media Access

◦ Media Access Without Arbitration (Yes/No)

◦ Clock Synchronization

◦ Global Time Base (Yes/No)

◦ Latency Jitter
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1573

Suggested Reading

Comparison of Communication Architectures for

Spacecraft Modular Avionics Systems

Comparison matrix for the features of various communication

architectures. Image courtesy of European Space Agency and NASA.
Comparison of Communication Architectures for Spacecraft Modular
Avionics Systems D.A. Gwaltney and J.M. Briscoe Marshall Space
Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama.
1574 • FRANCES ZHU

Communication Protocols

Physical Layer

At the physical layer, the MIL-STD-1553 bus protocol is a

specific format for messages that consists of 16-bit words in
Manchester code. All communication on the bus is under the
control of the bus controller using commands from the bus
controller to the remote terminals to receive or transmit.
Messages include command words, status words, and data
words. The bus controller can pursue a transaction with a
specific remote terminal or broadcast to all capable remote
terminals. The information transfer formats for the specific
transactions are in the figure below. A visualization of the
electric signal from a transaction is shown.

Information transfer formats. Image by Graham Fountain.

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1575

This image shows a MIL-STD-1553 signal. The signal carries the

information of a Remote Terminal (RT) to Bus Controller (BC), with 1
Data Word (DW). The difference in amplitude between the Transmit
Command Word and the Status and Data Words is due to the different
attenuations during the transmission. CC BY-SA 3.0. Image by Roland
Gamper.

As discussed previously in I/O interfaces, SpaceWire not only

has a physical architecture but also has multiple communication
protocols. SpaceWire’s modulation and data formats generally
follow the data strobe encoding – differential ended signaling
(DS-DE) part of the IEEE Std 1355-1995. SpaceWire utilizes
asynchronous communication and allows speeds between 2
Mbit/s and 400 Mbit/s, with the initial signaling rate of 10Mbit/
s, through the use of space-qualified 9-pin connectors.

Data Link Layer

The Ethernet II frame, the most common Ethernet Frame format,

1576 • FRANCES ZHU

“preceded by destination and source MAC addresses, that

identifies an upper layer protocol encapsulated by the frame
data. Since the recipient still needs to know how to interpret the
frame, the standard required an IEEE 802.2 header to follow the
length and specify the type” [Wikipedia].

The most common Ethernet Frame format, type II. Image by Bruce
Adler.

The SpaceFibre data link layer “sends packet information in

frames of up to 256 bytes” [STAR-Dundee]. “Each transferred
character starts with a Parity bit and a Data-Control Flag bit.
If Data-Control Flag is a 0-bit, an 8-bit LSB character follows.
Otherwise one of the control codes, including end of packet
(EOP)” [Wikipedia].
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1577

Network Layer. Data and Control Characters and Control Codes. Space
wire character. Image courtesy of Star-Dundee.

Decomposition of the quad-dotted IPv4 address representation to its

binary value. Image by Indeterminate.
1578 • FRANCES ZHU

Ports 0 to 7 are used for general services such as ping and buffer status
and are implemented by the CSP service handler. The ports from 8 to 47
are used for subsystem-specific services. All remaining ports, from 48 to
63, are ephemeral ports used for outgoing connections. The bits from 28
to 31 are used for marking packets with HMAC, XTEA encryption,
RDP header, and CRC32 checksum. Image by UAA Space.

“Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the

Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the core protocols of
standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet and
other packet-switched networks. IPv4 uses a 32-bit address
space which provides 4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses, but
large blocks are reserved for special networking methods. An
IP packet consists of a header section and a data section. An
IP packet has no data checksum or any other footer after the
data section. Typically the link-layer encapsulates IP packets
in frames with a CRC footer that detects most errors, many
transport-layer protocols carried by IP also have their own error
checking. The IPv4 packet header consists of 14 fields, of which
13 are required. The 14th field is optional and aptly named:
options. The fields in the header are packed with the most
significant byte first (big-endian), and for the diagram and
discussion, the most significant bits are considered to come
first (MSB 0 bit numbering)” [Wikipedia]. The CubeSat Space
Protocol was created as a small network-layer delivery protocol
specifically for CubeSats. “The protocol is based on a 32-bit
header containing both network and transport layer information.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1579

The implementation is written in C and is ported to run on

FreeRTOS and POSIX and pthreads-based operating systems
such as Linux. The protocol and the implementation are actively
maintained by the students at Aalborg University and the spin-
off company GomSpace. The source code is available under an
LGPL license and hosted on GitHub” [Wikipedia].

Ports 0 to 7 are used for general services such as ping and buffer status
and are implemented by the CSP service handler. The ports from 8 to 47
are used for subsystem-specific services. All remaining ports, from 48 to
63, are ephemeral ports used for outgoing connections. The bits from 28
to 31 are used for marking packets with HMAC, XTEA encryption,
RDP header, and CRC32 checksum. Image by AAU SPACE.

SpaceWire’s network layer has the following data frame format:

“One or more address bytes are used for the routing. Addresses
are either physical ones (0-31) or logical ones. The difference
is that the physical addresses are deleted from the frame header
during routing – which is used for hop-based routing (based
on the path specified in the frame itself). Logical addresses
may be deleted as well, depending on the router configuration”
[Wikipedia]. The ESA has a draft specification in place for the
1580 • FRANCES ZHU

Protocol ID. The following Protocol ID’s have been assigned in

ECSS-E-ST-50-11 [SpaceWire Handbook]:

Artemis CubeSat Kit Communication Protocol

general overview of COSMOS functional elements. Image courtesy of

Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.

The Artemis CubeSat Kit uses a variety of physical layer

communication protocols, like SPI, I2C, UART, Camera
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1581

Software Interface (CSI), seen in the figure above. For Ethernet

connections, a SLIP protocol with a 16bit CRC appended to each
packet is used for any Serial interactions. At the data link and
network layers, standard IP protocols are used for all Ethernet
interactions; only UDP –based protocols are used for Earth/
Space communications. The application layer displays
information through the COSMOS mission operations support
tool (MOST).

General overview of COSMOS functional elements. Image courtesy of

Hawaii Space Flight Laboratory.
1582 • FRANCES ZHU

Modes

Like the idea of modes in the power chapter, the command and
data handling system dictate and transition between software
modes. The CDH system coordinates with the power
management system to dictate which components to supply
power to, the components to collect information from, and the
components to command. Each software mode has a series of
functions to perform and conditional gates to pass to
autonomously transition to the next mode. Mode transitions can
also be commanded by the ground from mission operators.
Common operating modes will be discussed in the mission
operations chapter but briefly include [Pasetti]:

• Stand-By Mode generates basic housekeeping

telemetry and listens for incoming telemetry but takes
no action to control the spacecraft. The satellite is
typically in this mode before it separates from the
launcher and in the first seconds after separation.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1583

◦ Housekeeping telemetry includes

temperatures, pressures, voltages, currents
of critical components like pressure vessels
and batteries.

Software considerations could be the frequency at which we

ping the subsystems for this information, likened to the heartbeat
of the spacecraft.

NASA Uses Stateflow and Simulink Coder to Generate Fault-Protection

Code for Deep Space 1. NASA Uses Stateflow and Simulink Coder to
Generate Fault-Protection Code for Deep Space 1. By Dr. Wesley
Huntress Image courtesy of NASA and Mathworks.

• Initial Checkouts are typically entered after the

satellite has separated from the launcher. In this
mode, the satellite must perform its initialization,
acquire a nominal attitude, and communicate with the
1584 • FRANCES ZHU

ground as soon as possible. Initial checkouts may also

be entered as part of the recovery sequence after a
failure. The onboard computer must

◦ collect attitude and orbit information, then

calculate an initial estimate of attitude,
position, and rate

▪ Software considerations could be

the computational intensity of
processing the attitude and orbit
determination algorithms
onboard, the number of sensor
measurements to keep post-
calculation, and the precision of
the attitude and orbit estimate.

◦ ensure that each subsystem can

communicate and read sensible data, or
passes on housekeeping information from
all subsystem components to send to
mission operators to interpret the state of
health

▪ Software considerations could be

the level to which we check the
functionality of each subsystem.
For passive components, a simple
measurement of the gyroscope
could be compared to the
expected tip-off rate from
deployment, encoded in a
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1585

statement: if the gyroscope reads

an angular rate value within this
expected range, then the
gyroscope sensor is healthy and
the spacecraft is behaving as
expected. For active components,
a functionality check could be
spinning up reaction wheels,
ensuring that the wheels are
operating at the right current/
voltage, and measuring the
angular rate as a result of this
spin-up.

◦ must compress, store, and wait to transmit

this information to ground

▪ Software considerations could be

the maximum size of data able to
transmit to the ground, the
necessary information to transmit
to the ground, and the degree to
which we compress the data to fit
the information in one ground
pass.

• Normal Mode (NM): in NM the satellite performs the

tasks for which it was designed. Most of a mission is
to be spent in this mode if everything goes nominally.
This set of modes has functional modes for a nominal
mission but also has modes to catch failures. This set
of modes can be thought of as a state machine where
1586 • FRANCES ZHU

the spacecraft always occupies a specific mode but is

always checking to see if it should transition to
another mode with conditional statements (if, then).

System-level state-machine of the Flying Laptop mission.

Image courtesy of Researchgate by Jens Eickhoff.

▪ Science Operations – given

enough charge in the battery, the
onboard computer needs to
coordinate with the payload,
attitude control, and other
subsystems to conduct science
operations. The onboard
computer must

▪ calculate or be told
from mission operators
the relative orientation
of the subject to
observe for the payload
to point at
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1587

▪ coordinate with the

attitude control system
to point at that subject,
refer to the attitude
control function

▪ collect data from the

payload

▪ Software
consideration
s could be the
payload
throughput to
the flight
computer, the
total mass
storage
onboard to
hold all the
payload data,
and the need
to compress
the payload
data.

▪ compress and store the

data in mass storage,
then wait to transmit
this information to
ground
1588 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ Data uplink and downlink – given

enough charge in the battery, the
onboard computer needs to
coordinate with the
telecommunications, attitude
control, and other subsystems to
transmit and receive data. The
onboard computer must

▪ calculate the relative

orientation of a ground
station

▪ coordinate with the

attitude control system
to point toward and
track the ground station
during a ground pass,
refer to the attitude
control function

▪ transmit data to the

ground station

▪ Software
consideration
s could be the
degree of
compression/
loss or
encryption
for the
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1589

transmitted
data packets.
▪ receive confirmation of
receipt and delete
redundant data from
mass storage

▪ rece
ive
co
mm
and
s or
oth
er
data
fro
m
the
gro
und
stati
on

▪ Spacecraft charging/sun pointing

– if the spacecraft is not actively
in another mode or the battery
needs more charge, the onboard
computer needs to coordinate
with attitude control to point solar
panels toward the sun. The
1590 • FRANCES ZHU

onboard computer must

▪ e
n
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A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1591

y
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1592 • FRANCES ZHU

h
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A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1593
1594 • FRANCES ZHU
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1595
1596 • FRANCES ZHU
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1597
1598 • FRANCES ZHU
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1599
1600 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ c
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1601

a
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1602 • FRANCES ZHU

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A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1603

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1604 • FRANCES ZHU

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A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1605

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1606 • FRANCES ZHU

e
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A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1607

e
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t

▪ Attitude Control Function – the

onboard computer must track,
point, or slew at a desired
orientation or angular rate
1608 • FRANCES ZHU

• Software considerations could be the processing rate

at which the estimation and control algorithms can
update (real-time operations) and the precision to
which the estimation algorithm can generate an
estimate / the control algorithm can point.

Master simulation including guidance, slew & tracking, thrust control, detumble
control, and mode logic. Image courtesy of Science Direct. Licensing made
available under Elsevier.

◦ Orbit Control Function – the onboard

computer must control the spacecraft’s
orbit, whether that be maintaining the same
orbit or transferring to a new orbit

▪ Software considerations could be

the criticality of timing to achieve
the desired orbit.

◦ Failure Detection and Isolation – the

onboard computer must detect when a fault
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1609

or failure has occurred. A hardware failure

could manifest as sensor measurements that
are outside of expected bounds and persists
even after software reset. A software failure
due to radiation effects could manifest as
garbled data packets. A software failure due
to bad code could manifest as the spacecraft
getting stuck in modes or not handling
sensor measurements outside of expected
ranges. This mode must encode
autonomous transition to a safe mode in
which these discrepancies can be parsed out
or a software reset can happen safely.

▪ Software considerations could be

how often we ping the
subsystems for the state of health,
how often to evaluate if a failure
has happened, to what degree we
explicitly encode fault detection
(amount of code), and where to
put conditional gates in other
mode’s code to detect failure.

◦ Failure Recovery – the onboard computer

must autonomously recover from a failure
when detected. Typically, failure recovery
comes out of a safe mode. This recovery
process could include reaching out to
mission operators for help if the spacecraft
is functional enough to transition between
1610 • FRANCES ZHU

modes. If the spacecraft is stuck in failure,

the last option could be rebooting the
system.

▪ Software considerations could be

what software to keep in non-
volatile memory upon reboot and
the condition statements to
encode to lead to and from failure
recovery.

◦ Reconfigurations – the onboard computer

can accept software updates from the
ground to improve performance, fix
damaging code, or finish unfinished code!
In NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity, the
“software for Mars surface operations was
uploaded to the rover’s memory during the
Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft’s flight
from Earth” [NASA].

• Safe Mode (SM): SM is entered after a very serious

anomaly has been detected. The objective of SM is to
keep the satellite in a safe state (ie. a state where no
permanent damage is done to it or its instruments)
and to keep the radio link with the ground open (to
allow the ground to identify the cause of the anomaly
and if possible to take remedial action).

Suggested Activity
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1611

Produce a script for your payload

Simulation/Emulators

Block diagram describing the interconnections between each module of

the StarBox spacecraft simulator by Henri Christian Kjellberg.

We’d like to test our spacecraft on the ground before we send

it to space and can’t change the design anymore. Testing
rigorously and comprehensively on the ground can flesh out
software glitches, like being stuck in an unsafe mode or not
being able to get out of safe mode. To replicate the space
environment and physics in microgravity, we need to create or
use a simulation that:
1612 • FRANCES ZHU

• replicates what the spacecraft would feel or see from

the environment
◦ Atmospheric density, pressure, temperature

◦ Magnetic field

◦ Sun position yields solar pressure,

irradiance

▪ Temperature distribution of
spacecraft

▪ Power generation from solar

panels

◦ Earth albedo or another planetary albedo

▪ Optical brightness

◦ Star map

• spoofs measurements that the sensors would read

within the spacecraft

◦ Pressure transducer based upon

atmospheric density, pressure

◦ Thermistor or temperature sensor from

atmospheric temperature and sun solar
irradiance

◦ Magnetometer based on the magnetic field

and electromagnetic interference noise

◦ Attitude based upon stars in the field of

view

• propagates orbital mechanics and attitude dynamics

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1613

◦ Atmospheric density, pressure, temperature

leads to atmospheric drag
◦ Sun position leads to solar pressure

◦ Magnetic field leads to magnetic torque

◦ thruster and momentum control

contribution

◦ integral to developing attitude and orbit

control algorithms

Simulation software is written in MATLAB, C, C++, Python,

Java, Ruby, etc.:

• 42 is a comprehensive general-purpose simulation of

spacecraft attitude and orbit dynamics. Its primary
purpose is to support the design and validation of
attitude control systems, from concept studies through
integration and test.

GMAT is designed to model, optimize, and estimate spacecraft

trajectories in flight regimes ranging from low Earth orbit to
lunar applications, interplanetary trajectories, and other deep
space missions. Analysts model space missions in GMAT by
first creating resources such as spacecraft, propagators,
estimators, and optimizers.
1614 • FRANCES ZHU

GMAT solution is shown that uses a low thrust propulsion system and a
cube-sat for a lunar mission. Image courtesy of GMAT.

• Orekit, a low-level space dynamics library written in

Java, has gained widespread recognition since it was
released under an open-source license in 2008.

• Basilisk astrodynamics software architecture is being

designed to be capable of both faster-than-real-time
simulations, including repeatable Monte-Carlo
simulation options, as well as providing real-time
options for hardware-in-the-loop simulations.

• Poliastro is an open-source (MIT) collection of

Python functions useful in Astrodynamics and Orbital
Mechanics, focusing on interplanetary applications. It
provides a simple and intuitive API and handles
physical quantities with units.

• STK SOLIS is a commercial plug-in to the Analytical

Graphics, Inc (AGI) Systems ToolKit (STK™)
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1615

mission analysis software, providing integrated end-

to-end spacecraft simulation.

COSMOS architecture includes the visualization tools, support

tools, and underlying programs that produce and manipulate
the data needed by the rest of the toolsets. It combines both
the software and unique hardware needed to support mission
operations, including an operations testbed (OTB) and
simulators. The simulators are all software applications, and
the OTB combines simulators with spacecraft hardware where
possible to mimic as closely as possible the reaction of the
spacecraft to commands and operational states.

The functional flow block diagram of COSMOS to show the interaction

between major processes. Image courtesy of COSMOS

To select a simulation, consider:

• Capabilities to :

◦ Define the parameters of body

1616 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ Simulate attitude dynamics

◦ Orbit modeling and simulation

◦ Control policy design

◦ Availability of constants and coordinates

◦ Integrators

• Extensive documentation and tutorials are found on

this website.

• 3-D Visualization for orbits and trajectories

• Time to set up for concept studies

• Extrapolation to the entire CubeSat design and

mission lifetime

• Programming Language

• Maintenance and Support

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1617

Mission Operations Interface

MOST Overview Display for 3-U CubeSat.Created by Miguel A Nunes

with HSFL.

Mission operators need to monitor various critical aspects of

the spacecraft (the state of health, orbit, attitude) and are able
to command the spacecraft (desired mode, attitude, orbit). A
graphical user interface (GUI) is a visually intuitive interface
for mission operators to be able to monitor and command the
spacecraft, although we weren’t always able to get such high
definition or visual aids in our monitors. The number of
monitors necessary to view critical information depends on the
complexity of the mission. The Apollo missions were huge
projects and the technology for monitor displays was much
coarser in the number of pixels that could display information.
The mission operations team resorted to many monitors (and
physical buttons for commands), typically one or monitor per
subsystem, to be able to support the flagship mission
[Hutchinson]. Today, we can have a single mission operator in
1618 • FRANCES ZHU

front of one LCD display monitoring all of the subsystems and

speaking directly to the spacecraft, which is a reasonable task for
small spacecraft like CubeSats.

View of the Apollo Mission Control Center. Space Center Houston.

Image courtesy of NASA.

The CDH specialist will collaborate with the mission operations

specialist to help create an intuitive and informative interface.
Outside of making sure the spacecraft data reaches the mission
control center, the data must be intuitively displayed on the
monitors. For values that are changing with time, like orbital
trajectories or power draw, time series are intuitive displays. For
attitude or angular rate for tumbling or pointing, an updating,
rotating CAD could be the most intuitive way to display this
information. Precise numbers could display values like latitude
and longitude of a ground track. This process also helps the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1619

CDH specialist know what information the spacecraft should

transmit back to the ground.

Close-up view of a mission operator’s monitor and buttons at the Apollo

mission control center. Space Center Houston. Image courtesy of
NASA.
1620 • FRANCES ZHU

Suggested Reading

NASA Study on Flight Software Complexity.

Mars Code by Gerard Holzmann

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=588

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=588
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1621

COSMOS Lab

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2793#h5p-165

COSMOS: Comprehensive Open-architecture Solution for

Mission Operations SystemsCOSMOS is a software framework
for operating distributed robotic systems, focusing on space
systems such as CubeSats, including satellite swarms and
constellations. It is a software ecosystem with various
applications from the embedded flight software to ground station
management software, to the mission operations center user
interfaces. COSMOS is developed at the Hawaii Space Flight
Laboratory and can be deployed in CubeSats, Rovers, Scientific
Instruments, and more. Let’s build the COSMOS for your next
amazing application!

1621
1622 • FRANCES ZHU

COSMOS is a system that is designed to primarily support the

development and operations of one or more small spacecraft and
is particularly suited for organizations with limited development
and operations budgets, such as universities. COSMOS is
currently in active development. COSMOS is designed to be
seamlessly integrated and compatible with multiple different
resources (nodal architecture) or nodes such as satellites,
unmanned air systems (UASs), ground control stations,
computer stations, etc. and it is being expanded to address
simulation scenarios with complex nodal architectures where
events can be detected and actions triggered. It has been
developed in the new paradigm of the network of things where
any asset can be connected to the system in a plug-and-play
approach making it very generic for the inclusion and removal of
assets. When an asset is connected and is COSMOS compatible,
all the systems can be informed of its presence and receive
telemetry that can be processed to take action. COSMOS is a
suite of software (including external modules) that enables the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1623

operations team to interface with the spacecraft, ground control

network, payload, and other customers in order to perform the
mission operations functions including mission planning and
scheduling; contact operations; data management and analysis;
simulations (including the operational testbed); ground network
control; payload operations; flight dynamics; and system
management. COSMOS is being designed to easily be adapted
for new spacecraft or installation in new mission operations
centers (MOCs).

Getting Started
We recommend installing COSMOS via Docker. By using
Docker containers you will get all the COSMOS dependencies
automatically resolved. This process works well for users and
developers.

• Install Docker Desktop

• Install Docker Compose (Only needed for a Linux

OS. Docker compose is automatically installed on
Docker Desktop on Windows and macOS)

Once you have Docker installed we are going to clone the

cosmos repository. Open your terminal window, copy and run
the following commands.

Install Instructions (via Docker)

Windows Instructions:
1624 • FRANCES ZHU

Open a command prompt window and enter the following two

commands:

On Windows: clone cosmos to c:/cosmos (recommended path)

git clone https://github.com/hsfl/cosmos.git c:/cosmos

As well as :

git clone https://github.com/hsfl/cosmos-web.git c:/cosmos/tools/

cosmos-web

Linux/macOS Instructions:

Open a terminal window and enter the following two

commands:

clone cosmos to the home folder ~/cosmos (recommended path)

git clone https://github.com/hsfl/cosmos.git ~/cosmos

As well as :

git clone https://github.com/hsfl/cosmos-web.git ~/cosmos/tools/

cosmos-web

AFTER you have completed the prior steps, continue with the
following steps. Note these steps are the same for both operating
systems.

Open the terminal in your newly created cosmos folder. To build

the cosmos image go into the newly created folder and run the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1625

Docker build command (this step may take several minutes to

complete):

Windows:

cd c:/cosmos

macOS:

cd cosmos

Copy the .env.example file and name it .env

Windows:

copy .env.example .env

macOS/Linux:

cp .env.example .env

Then change the variables inside the .env file to configure your
setup. If the next step fails with ERROR: Missing mandatory
value for “environment” option be sure that the .env file was
copied and created and filled out.

Next, run the following command to get the

containers up in the terminal, this builds the
telegraf, influxdb, and grafana containers needed
1626 • FRANCES ZHU

for COSMOS. (this process may take a few

minutes)

docker-compose up -d

Once this is finished you have successfully installed COSMOS.

(HOORAY!)

Installing Teensy Software

Installation for Windows

The first step to getting started with your Teensy 4.1 is to

download and install the Arduino Software. Remember the
location where you extracted or copied the Arduino software
since you will need it shortly. The Arduino software does not
come with support for the Teensy, so you must run the
Teensyduino installer to add the Teensy files to your Arduino
software. The installer will only ask 1 question, the location of
your Arduino software. The “Next” button will only activate
until a directory containing the Arduino software is selected.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1627

Just continue clicking “Next” until the installation is completed.

If you are using Windows, you should also run this Windows
Serial Installer. If you choose the “USB Serial” option, this will
allow the Windows Found New Hardware Wizard to properly
find the driver.

Installation for macOS

Download Teensyduino “Macintosh Complete Software“.

Note: This download is a complete copy of all software. No

separate installer is used like the Windows installation.

On first use, you must allow access to your Documents folder.

Using Arduino IDE

Continue if you have the correct Arduino IDE program for
1628 • FRANCES ZHU

your operating system. Now you are ready to run Arduino. The
first step is to select the board you will be using, from the
Tools→Boards menu. This menu will have entries for Teensy
because you have run the Teensyduino installer

(Note: This photo shows the user selecting Teensy 2.0, but you
will be selecting Teensy 4.1)

To test that Teensy has been set up correctly we are going to

test it with an example program. The Arduino Software comes
with many examples, however, we are going to use the
File→Examples→Digital→Blink menu to open the LED blink
example.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1629

The Teensy has its LED connected to a different pin, so you will
need to change the pin number. Find the line “int ledPin = 13;”
and change the number.
1630 • FRANCES ZHU

To compile this code, click the “upload” button.

A message will appear showing the compiled size. The Teensy

Loader will automatically update with the new file. Just press
the button on the Teensy to program the code. You can try
changing the delay times. Just recompile and download again.
When Teensy is running a previously loaded program, you can
also use the “Upload” button. If the LED on your Teensy is
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1631

blinking that means that you have done the above steps correctly
and your Teesny is properly set up.

Installing Artemis Library

To install a new library into your Arduino IDE you can use the
Library Manager (available from IDE version 1.6.2). Open your
Arduino program and click to Tools > Manage Libraries…

Then the Library Manager will open and you will find a list
of libraries that are already installed or ready for installation.
At the top there will be a search bar where you can search for
Artemis-teensy, this is the library we have created for you with
programs that will allow you to read data from your satellite.
Once you have found it make sure the latest version is selected
and click install and wait for the IDE to install the new library.
1632 • FRANCES ZHU

Downloading may take time depending on your connection

speed. Once it has finished, the install button should appear
grayed out meaning the library has been installed. You can now
close the library manager.

You can now find the new library available in the Sketch >
Include Library menu.

Importing COSMOS Web Artemis template

The first step is to start the Cosmos Docker container.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1633

Next, open up the Grafana webpage in the COSMOS Docker

Container.

To import a dashboard click Import under the Dashboards icon

in the side menu.
1634 • FRANCES ZHU

From here you can upload a dashboard JSON file or paste

dashboard JSON text directly into the text area. The JSON file
can be found here.

In step 2 of the import process, Grafana will let you change

the name of the dashboard, pick what data source you want the
dashboard to use, and specify any metric prefixes.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1635

Visualizing Sensor Data through the On-Board

Computer

Components Needed

• Artemis Kit

• Ethernet Cable

• USB-A to micro USB cable

Software Prerequisites

• Download Docker and install Cosmos

◦ You may need to download the WSL 2

Linux Kernel

• Download git

• Download Arduino IDE

◦ Download the correct version for your
operating system

• Install the Artemis-teensy library

• Import Artemis Grafana template

Retrieving Kit data through the OBC

1. Installing COSMOS

2. Installing required Teensy 4.1 software

3. Installing COSMOS Web Artemis Template

4. Viewing Artemis kit data in COSMOS Web

1636 • FRANCES ZHU

Viewing Artemis Kit data in COSMOS Web

COSMOS mission patch design on the left and Teensy 4.1 on the right.

First, plug in the kit to your computer via a USB to micro USB
cable from the Teensy 4.1 to your computer.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1637

Next, make sure the OBC board is properly connected to the

antenna board. Then connect an ethernet cable to the ethernet
port found on the antenna board.

Open Arduino IDE or Teensyduino depending on your operating

system.

Start the Cosmos Docker container.

1638 • FRANCES ZHU

In the Arduino IDE load the CosmosWeb_Display example is

found in the Artemis-teensy library and compile it to the Teensy.
Remember to change the IP address to your computer’s personal
IP address in the sketch.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1639

Open up the Grafana webpage in the COSMOS Docker

Container.
1640 • FRANCES ZHU

Once the sketch has been compiled you should see a dashboard
showing data from the kit displayed in COSMOS web.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1643

11. System Integration

Learning Objectives

• Understand the process of starting

from a design and delivering a functional
spacecraft
• Internalize processes downstream from
the design process that affects the design

Learning Objectives

11.1 Definition

◦ Static Verification

◦ Dynamic Verification

1643
1644 • FRANCES ZHU

11.2 General Design Process

◦ System Implementation (buy, build, re-use)

◦ Integration, Verification & Validation

11.3 Typical Requirements and Design Considerations

◦ Fabrication

◦ Integration

◦ Modularity and Ease of Access

11.4 General Setup and Design Drivers

◦ EDU vs Flight Unit

◦ Umbilical

◦ Simulators for Functional Testing

◦ Best Practices for Functional Testing

◦ Testbeds for Survivability

◦ Test Scripts that are Not Flight Software

◦ Fault Testing

11.5 When to Use the Design Verification Methods

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1645

11.1 Definition

A system specifically refers to your spacecraft but could refer

to any level of system you’re interested in. You can think of
a system as “a set of things working together as parts of a
mechanism or an interconnecting network.” A Soyuz capsule
traveling to the ISS is a spacecraft system. The ISS is a distinct
spacecraft system.

1645
1646 • FRANCES ZHU

More than 100 Soviet and Russian crewed Soyuz spacecraft (TMA
version shown) have flown since 1967 and now support the International
Space Station. Image by Thegreenj.

The Soyuz capsule and the ISS docked together can also be
considered a spacecraft system, which may be useful for
calculating the dynamics of these two rigidly mounted bodies
that now act as one rigid body.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1647

Aug. 12, 2021: International Space Station Configuration. Four

spaceships are parked at the space station including Northrop
Grumman’s Cygnus space freighter, the SpaceX Crew Dragon, and
Russia’s Soyuz MS-18 crew ship, and ISS Progress 78 resupply ship.
Image courtesy of NASA.

Integration is the process of uniting disparate components,

subsystems, or systems, typically vertically up and down a
hierarchy. The final spacecraft is the product of integrating all
spacecraft systems. In the previous example, the Soyuz capsule
was integrated into the ISS. Integration could also refer to a
component, like a reaction wheel, being joined together into an
attitude determination and control module, consisting of a frame
and ADCS sensors (component integrated into subsystem).
Components can be integrated together to form the beginning of
a subsystem. Subsystems can be integrated together to form the
beginning of a system.
1648 • FRANCES ZHU

The EXIS and SUVI instruments are installed onto the sun-pointing
platform of the GOES-R spacecraft. Credit: Lockheed Martin.

Testing is the verification process to ensure that the spacecraft

meets requirements and the spacecraft functions as designed
for aspects that are not covered explicitly by the requirements.
Testing exercises a system, whereas not all verification requires
that the system be exercised, like static analysis or system
proving. The intention of this word “testing” is to encapsulate all
forms of verification.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1649

Approaches specific to software verification with analogies to

verification as a whole. Verification techniques can be classified
according to whether or not they involve exercising the system.
Verifying a system without actual execution is static verification. Such
verification can be conducted: . on the system itself, in the form of 1)
static analysis(e.g., inspections or walk-through, data flow analysis,
complexity analysis, abstract interpretation, compiler checks,
vulnerability search, etc.) or 2) theorem proving; . on a model of the
system behavior, where the model is usually a state-transition model
(Petri nets, finite or infinite-state automata), leading to model checking.
Verifying a system through exercising it constitutes dynamic
verification; the inputs supplied to the system can be either symbolic in
the case of symbolic execution, or actual in the case of verification
testing, usually simply termed testing. Image by Algirdas Avizienis

Let’s walk through this verification tree, which I’ve borrowed

from software engineers. As a reminder, verification is checking
if the system does what you expected it to do or meets your
predefined requirements, whereas validation is if the
functionality meets the stakeholder’s needs.
1650 • FRANCES ZHU

Comparison of experiment and finite element analysis for centered web

hole. Image by Amir M. Yousefi.

Verification can first be separated into two categories, whether

the system is exercised or not. Exercising a system means that
you have the as-built system (software, electrical, or
mechanical) in front of you and you run a test on that as-
built system. We call this type of verification dynamic because
the system can interact with inputs and modify its behavior. A
system that is not exercised is instead verified through more
abstract venues, like theoretical models. These methods of
verification are static in that we take a snapshot of the system
and conduct our analysis on that single instantiation without the
physical system’s feedback, although we can simulate feedback.
The picture of the structural verification above shows the
difference between dynamic analysis (testing) and static analysis
(model checking).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1651

Static Verification

Alter Technology’s Soldering Verification of Surface Mounted Devices

and Printed Board Assemblies. Image by Alter Technology.

Static verification is further split into two categories: system

and behavior model. System modeling can further be split into
static analysis and theorem proving. Of system modeling, static
program analysis is the analysis of computer software that is
performed without actually executing programs. For physical
systems, this verification could be inspecting the components
for any mechanical or electrical defects before testing and
integration. The other side of system modeling is theorem
proving, which “provides mathematical reasoning on the
correctness of system properties” [ScienceDirect]. Instead of
looking for syntax errors in code or little nicks in a material, we
are inspecting the content and analyzing theoretical guarantees
given possible states of the spacecraft. An example of theorem
proving for the ADCS system could be the spacecraft’s
1652 • FRANCES ZHU

dynamics over time. We can prove that a spacecraft design with

a permanent bar magnet is going to eventually damp out any
tumbling, or kinetic energy, over time.

The first model run simulates one hysteresis rod on the Y and Z axes.
The angular velocity decay over time is shown. Images by Gerhardt.

With a behavior model, we can verify with model checking. We

can actually simulate the dynamics of a spacecraft and analyze
the spacecraft’s behavior, the dynamics. The difference between
theorem proving and model checking is a numerical simulation.
With theorem proving, you can check that your feedback
controller has negative real poles whereas with model checking,
you can see that the controller behavior drives the spacecraft
states to 0. Similar conclusions but behavior models offer more
granularity.

Dynamic Verification
Dynamic verification, a verification that exercises the actual
system, is broken down into symbolic execution and testing.
For software, symbolic execution is the act of inputting symbols
into a program and tracking the evolution of that symbol until
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1653

the program produces its various outputs. There may not be a

clear hardware analog for this type of verification. Testing takes
in actual inputs, like actual numerical values in the place of
variables for code or a physical load on a structure.

An illustrative example of symbolic execution. Image by Mayur Naik.

There are many, many physical tests that can be conducted on a

spacecraft. Here are some examples by the subsystem:

• Payload: capture an image of an object and analyze

the image with a post-processing algorithm

• Structures: compress a structure with the expected

critical load to verify survivability

• Power: shine a sun simulator set to expected power

intensity in orbit onto a solar cell to verify expected
voltage output
1654 • FRANCES ZHU

• Command and Data Handling: collect actual sensor

data from the actual sensors
• Communications: transmit a command from a ground
station at the defined frequency and modulation and
receive this signal at the spacecraft radio

• Thermal: place integrated spacecraft into a thermal

vacuum chamber and measure temperature
distribution within satellite when heaters are on

• Attitude Determination, Control, and Sensing: turn

torque coils on and measure the resultant magnetic
field generated

This list is not exhaustive but is representative of all the labs you
did or will do with the Artemis CubeSat kit!
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1655

11.2 General Design Process

General Design Process

Remember the V&V model? You’ll never escape this diagram
because this diagram shows all the phases of project definition
to implementation and the connection between phases upstream
and downstream.

1655
1656 • FRANCES ZHU

A common NASA software development process. The software

development process for such systems should emphasize verification,
validation. Image courtesy of NASA.

System Implementation (buy, build, re-use)

We don’t talk much about the fabrication subphase of Phase C:
Final Design and Fabrication because fabrication is a relatively
straightforward process. Fabrication includes the verbs: buy,
build, and re-use. Buying refers to procuring standalone
components that engineers/scientists specified in the final
design. Building refers to the creation of structures, avionics,
or software from more basic components, like stock metal. Re-
using refers to the repurposing of heritage components that are
already in possession, like the Perseverance mission in re-using
Curiosity’s leftover components to minimize cost.

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 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1657

this version of the text. You can view it online here:

https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2434#h5p-150

An overview of NASA’s PerseveranceRover, the rocket that will take it there,

the timeline, the landing sequence, and then compare it to its older sibling,
Curiosity to see what’s changed and what has stayed the same including its
instruments and mission. Video by Everyday Astronaut.

Artemis Kit Specific

For the Artemis CubeSat Kit, most of the kit buses

will be re-used. For you to implement your system,
you will need to buy your payload, create interfaces
for your payload, and write software for your
payload.
1658 • FRANCES ZHU

Integration, Verification & Validation

Rapid Assembly, Integration, and Test Flow. Image by Lisa A. Baghal.

Rapid AIT Activity Summary. Image by Lisa A. Baghal.

Within NASA’s Project Phase D: System Assembly, Integration

and Test, Launch is sequential integration and testing from
components to subsystems to the whole system. The NASA
Systems Engineering Handbook describes the activity as
“assembl[ing] and integrat[ing] the system (hardware, software,
and humans), meanwhile developing confidence that it will be
able to meet the system requirements. Perform system end
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1659

product implementation, assembly, integration and test, and

transition to using” [NASA SE Handbook].

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Time-lapse footage of engineers assembling the two halves of the James Webb
Space Telescope together at Northrop Grumman in Redondo Beach, CA from
GoPro camera 3. Video courtesy of NASA.

Further, typical activities and products include:

• Update documents developed and baselined in

previous phases

• Monitor project progress against plans

• Identify and update risks

• Integrate/assemble components according to the
integration plans

• Perform verification and validation on assemblies

according to the V&V Plan and procedures

◦ Perform system qualification verifications,

including environmental verifications

◦ Perform system acceptance verifications

and validation(s) (e.g., end-to-end tests
encompassing all elements; i.e., space
element, ground system, data processing
1660 • FRANCES ZHU

system)

◦ Assess and approve verification and

validation results

◦ Resolve verification and validation

discrepancies

◦ Archive documentation for verifications

and validations performed

◦ Baseline verification and validation report

The flow of the verification chart by Dr. Selva

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1661

Integration and testing are not isolated processes. Integration

happens bit by bit and testing happens every time a new
component or subsystem is integrated, such that the system is
verified at every configuration. The complexity of a system,
like a spacecraft, can become overwhelming. Imagine yourself
with all the components of a spacecraft. You decide to put them
all together without seeing if the payload itself can measure
anything. You power on the spacecraft and command the
payload to take a measurement but it cannot. In this fully
integrated configuration, your inability to receive a payload
measurement could be due to a multitude of factors: the software
has a bug, the onboard computer isn’t wired to the payload
correctly, the power distribution system did not power on the
payload correctly, or the payload itself is not functional. For this
reason, to mitigate any kind of ambiguity of what components
worked or at what stage of the configuration the spacecraft
is still functional, we verify, validate, and document as we
integrate. If your requirements are comprehensive, your
verification methods from your components to your system
should lay out a rough roadmap for how you will verify as you
go.

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To test the James Webb Space Telescope’s readiness for its journey in space,
technicians successfully commanded it to deploy and extend a critical part of
the observatory known as the Deployable Tower Assembly. In this test, the
1662 • FRANCES ZHU

deployable tower was commanded to extend 48 inches (1.2 meters) over the
course of several hours to ensure that the observatory will be able to complete
this process once in space. Producer, Videographer, Editor – Michael McClare
(KBRwyle).Video courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Testing processes include vibration, shock, acoustics (VS&A),

thermal, and mechanisms. These tests intend to exercise the
spacecraft in an aggressive, relevant environment that the
spacecraft would see in space but hasn’t seen yet on the ground.
Vibration, shock, and acoustics testing stem from launch
conditions. Thermal testing in thermal vacuum chambers aims
to imitate space’s vacuum and consequential radiation-dominant
heat transfer. Testing mechanisms with gravity off-loading
mechanisms and frictionless testbeds produce spacecraft
behavior closer to the ultimate microgravity space environment.
To conduct these tests, you will need access to specialized
testbeds, like the ones that the Malaysian Space Agency has
created:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1663

Testing and Measurement Services offered at this facility Vibration Test

Electromagnetic Compatibility Test Thermal Vacuum Test
Reverberation Acoustic Test Alignment Measurement Mass Properties
Measurement.
1664 • FRANCES ZHU

11.3 Typical Requirements and

Design Considerations

Requirements considering integration and testing fall under

manufacturability (for fabrication), technical interfaces (for
integration), modularity, and ease of access (for testing). Other
than the technical interface requirements, many of these other
-ility requirements are programmatic requirements that optimize
for schedule, labor, and cost.

1664
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1665

Fabrication

Larger corner radii allow for larger diameter selection which increases
the ability for the tool to reach further down without shaking. Cycle time
drops and cost goes down. While less than the $200 savings derived
from going to a casting, a 17% savings is certainly worth the effort of
the re-design. Image by Apriori.

During the fabrication phase, manufacturability could refer to

how simple a metal structure is to cut from a block of metal,
affecting the number of capable vendors and the cost of the
part, or how simple an electronics board is to manufacture at a
boarding house, affecting schedule and cost.

Integration
Consistent and specific technical interfaces ensure smooth
integration and expected functionality. Interface aspects include
mechanical (e.g. bolt hole size and placement), electrical (e.g.
voltage and current limits), and software (e.g. object structures).
These interfaces are especially important when you are adopting
someone else’s design, such as when you buy a component
that you must interact with. The component comes with a set
mechanical and electrical design; you did not get to design this
interface but you had a hand in choosing what this interface
1666 • FRANCES ZHU

would be. The component or subsystem should also come with

an interface control document (ICD) or User Manual that tells
you, the user, how to interact with the component/subsystem. A
common ICD that all spacecraft teams will become accustomed
to is their launch provider’s vehicle ICD or User Manual, like
this LM-3A Manual.

Mechanical drawing of launch vehicle interface to user’s spacecraft.

Image by LM-3A.

Artemis Kit Specific

For the Artemis CubeSat Kit, interfaces within the

satellite include but is not limited to:
A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1667

• The bolt pattern on each board of the

stack to mate with the four threaded
roads
• Geometry and smoothness of structure
rails to slide within a standard CubeSat
deployer
• CubeSat Kit Header to align power,
ground, and data pins between the boards
• Bolt standard to join structure pieces
to each other
• Bolt pattern to mount solar panels to
the structure look around the kit. Identify
joints in which one component touches
another component. That’s an interface.
You’ll see there are a lot of places where
two parts connect. Design interfaces take
meticulous coordination between within
and between subsystems. While you’re
designing your spacecraft in the earlier
project phases, communicate frequently
with engineers and scientists who will be
affected by your design decision,
document your design interfaces
explicitly, and try to make your interfaces
as simple as possible (like using a
standard bolt size across various
interfaces).
1668 • FRANCES ZHU

Modularity and Ease of Access

During integration and testing, modularity and ease of access
help the spacecraft team isolate problems. Modularity speaks to
how “densely connected compartments within a system can be
decoupled into separate communities or clusters which interact
more among themselves rather than other communities”
[ScienceDirect]. Modularity could manifest itself in a spacecraft
where all the functionality of an entire subsystem is on a single
board, as the Power Distribution Unit. If power is not correctly
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1669

distributed to the other subsystems and we suspect the problem

is in the PDU board, we can easily disintegrate the PDU board
from the larger assembly to conduct further inspection and
testing. Therein lies the beauty of modularity. Ease of access
is a similar concept in which aspects of the design are readily
available to de-integrate due to bolt placement of probe due
to electrical pin placement. Ease of access could be creating/
attaching a breakout board to a component specifically designed
to allow a testing engineer to monitor signals, or routing
electrical pins that carry important information to an easily
accessible spot, like the outside of the CubeSat.
1670 • FRANCES ZHU

11.4 General Setup and Design

Drivers

General setup doesn’t pertain to one subsystem at a time, but a

system as a whole.

• How do we integrate and test a satellite?

• What are best practices when integrating and testing?

• What do the support equipment and environment

testbeds look like and what do their capabilities need
to be?

A typical testing flow looks like this:

1670
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1671

Typical Qualification Test Flow. Image by Lisa A. Baghal.

System-Level Test Descriptions. Image by Lisa A. Baghal.

EDU vs Flight Unit

If a project has enough money, the engineers will buy duplicate
units. One unit is dedicated to engineering development (EDU)
and the other to flight. The EDU is identical in hardware and
software, functionally equivalent, but may not have been
environmentally tested. The EDU may be cheaper during
procurement due to less rigorous or complex manufacturing
and testing standards. The EDU is meant to be exercised in
1672 • FRANCES ZHU

functional tests at the component to system levels. The idea is to

rigorously test this less expensive unit and reduce wear-and-tear
on the unit that will actually go into space, the flight unit. Before
delivery, the flight unit’s health is checked out by engineers/
scientists and lightly exercised to ensure system functionality.
The majority of the flight unit’s operations are reserved for in-
space nominal operations.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1673

Environmental testing philosophy for a Sandia National Laboratories

small satellite. Image by Jerome Cap et al.
1674 • FRANCES ZHU

Umbilical

The Generic Engineering Model (GEM) has been developed with the
aim of providing nanosatellite developers with a standard and integrated
setup to jumpstart their payload and software development. Its
accessibility and versatility also make it a relevant and affordable tool
for educational and outreach purposes. The GEM platform has an
architecture based on the previous ISIS successful missions. It includes
CubeSat subsystems with high heritage to provide a reliable and
representative environment of development. The work done on this bus
can be easily implemented on a future or ongoing Flight Model satellite
project. Furthermore, the setup includes all required ground support
equipment and software libraries for interfacing with the satellite.

In space, a spacecraft will be a free-floating object, self-

contained and hopefully self-sustaining. While on the ground,
the spacecraft will have an umbilical cord to supply the
integrated subsystems’ power and data for testing and
operations. The umbilical port typically taps right into the data
bus of the satellite, allowing operators to interact with the system
digitally. Interactions include monitoring signals, injecting
commands, or even re-coding software! This umbilical port and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1675

associated harnessing is not necessary for flight but makes

testing on the ground much, much easier.

Simulators for Functional Testing

To test the satellite in spacelike conditions on the ground, we
use simulators and support equipment to mimic phenomena of
space. Some examples include microgravity dynamics (ADCS
testbed), LEO solar irradiance (power support equipment), and
vacuum (thermal testbed). Ideally, all subsystems undergo some
test on the ground analogous to space-like conditions, simulating
as close to the physical phenomenon as possible.

Electrical Ground Support Equipment (EGSE). Image by Atos.

1676 • FRANCES ZHU

“Electrical Ground Support Equipment (EGSE) are tools used

by satellite and sub-system manufacturers and integrators to test
and validate electrical functions of the satellite on the ground
before launch” [Celestia]. The electrical subsystems under test
are typically the payload, power, and communications. The test
equipment typically consists of a way to calibrate and a method
of functionally verifying the subsystem works. Calibration
“quantifies and controls errors or uncertainties within
measurement processes to an acceptable level. The goal of
calibration is to minimize any measurement uncertainty by
ensuring the accuracy” of the test sensor [LabFacility].
Functional verification for the communications system
essentially requires a simulated ground station but scaled with
the distance/power of the test. Examples of EGSE include power
supplies, digital multimeters, signal generators, solar array
simulators, battery simulators, GPS simulators, load simulators,
and adaptable ground stations, etc.; all calibrated. This
equipment typically measures and stores data; visualizes data
for an operator; and may have capabilities of setting limits or
warnings for anomalies.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1677

Sample Ground Support Equipment. Image by Lisa A. Baghal.

1678 • FRANCES ZHU

Orolia GPS Simulator. Image by Orolia.

The EGSE covers all subsystems except for ADCS, thermal,

and structures. Metal structures are characterized well by finite
element analysis, so physical simulators are not necessary unless
the structure is made of a specialized material or we want to test
a mechanism. For the first case of a special material, tension or
compression machines can simulate expected loads in space or
launch conditions. For mechanisms, gravity off-loading testbeds
can simulate microgravity dynamics, like in these solar panel
deployment tests.

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GOES-R Solar Array Deployment Test at Lockheed Martin. Video by Lockheed

Martin.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1679

The mechanisms typically simulate linear (translational) motion

but for ADCS, we want to simulate rotational motion and sensor
readings that pertain to attitude determination. The ADCS
simulator has capabilities of at least 1 degree and up to 3 degrees
of near frictionless rotation, typically supplied through an air
bearing. This motion can be sensed with an onboard rate sensor
or IMU and controlled with some momentum control device,
like reaction wheels.

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epet302/?p=2445#h5p-154

CubeSat Hybrid Attitude Determination and Control Through HiL Simulation.

Source Youtube, Spacecraft Robotics Laboratory.

The sensors that need to be fed some input typically include

a magnetometer, sun sensor, nadir sensor, and star tracker. The
magnetic field can be spoofed with a Helmholtz cage. The sun
can be spoofed with a bright, directed light. Earth’s limb can
be simulated with large studio light. The celestial sphere can
be simulated with a black dome and precisely-placed holes
(NASA’s Formational Control Testbed) or a digital screen
casting white pixels against a black background to simulate stars
(NASA’s Small Satellite Dynamics Testbed).
1680 • FRANCES ZHU

ADCS Test Facility for testing small satellites. Image courtesy of HSFL.

The thermal environment in space is typically simulated with

a thermal vacuum chamber. On the ground, most external heat
transfer is by way of convection, whereas space is dominated
by radiation. Spacecraft experience conduction internally in both
environments. A spacecraft within a thermal vacuum chamber
experiences near-vacuum in a controlled thermal environment,
where hot plates and cold shrouds are toggled to simulate the
thermal cycles across an orbit. These thermal profiles aim to
provide thermally and temporally realistic inputs to a spacecraft
to evaluate the spacecraft’s thermal subsystem’s performance in
keeping the spacecraft in a comfortable operating range.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1681

Thermal vacuum chamber set up for UPSat. Image by Pierros Papadeas.

Best Practices for Functional Testing

Testing and verification are usually done incrementally, from
a single component to a conglomerate of components as a
subsystem, then to a conglomerate of subsystems into the fully
integrated system. This type of testing is called bottom-up
testing, seen in the figure. Initially, the software and hardware
are separate, then integrated after individual module/component
testing. The avionics is then integrated into the main system
incrementally, one subsystem interface at a time. We also want
to enable on-orbit check-out and calibration in the testing scripts,
derived from ground tests. High-level testing means we are
issuing commands at a high level and we do not know what
problems we’re looking for! By attempting to transition from
one mode to the next, you may discover that the communication
1682 • FRANCES ZHU

protocol for the radio to the onboard computer is ill-defined and

these data packets are garbled. This process usually consumes
half of the development costs and time!

From the way we described testing, software scripts need to

be compartmentalized and callable by other higher-level scripts,
like the main script. To verify that the spacecraft functions as
expected on the ground, software must accommodate the
spoofing or emulation of data that makes the satellite think it’s
receiving data from a space environment. This data is typically
provided by a simulation that feeds the flight computer all the
sensor measurements, refer back to the Simulator section; this
test is called a process-in-the-loop test. One step further is to
spoof or emulate space environment conditions with a physical
testbed, which receives simulated conditions and recreates
lighting, magnetic, and dynamic conditions; this test is called
hardware-in-the-loop. The CDH specialist collaborates with the
integration and testing engineers to establish the
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1683

compartmentalization, the proper interfaces and switching

between simulated/emulated vs. real data.

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Simulating and Testing TargetLink code

(PIL). Vide by dSPACE.

Testbeds for Survivability

All of the above simulators stress functionality in a space
1684 • FRANCES ZHU

environment analog. Outside of functional testing, we need to

make sure the system survives and functions in an environment
with a representative amount of radiation. The test setup
involves beaming radiation in a controlled line toward the device
under test (DUT) and only the device under test. “Shielding of
electronics that control the test setup is very necessary if they are
close to the beamline. In a Total Ionizing Dose (TID) test, having
a separate voltage-bias circuit board to power the DUT while
in the radiation chamber is often necessary to protect control
electronics. The test environment (i.e. ionizing radiation) is the
primary constraint when testing and how it may affect other
components on the circuit card is critical to building a good test
setup” [NASA].

Suggested Reading

Body of Knowledge for Graphics Processing Units

(GPUs) (nasa.gov)

Other things to consider within the environment are the

operating system supervisors, the physical location of software
payloads (inputs) and results (outputs), the integrity of data
paths, and control of electrical and thermal loads.

The following list of accessible nodes provides some high-level

guidelines for where to monitor a test.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1685

• Network

◦ Heartbeat by inbound ping from the

operator area

◦ Heartbeat by timestamp upload via file

from DUT

• Peripherals response

◦ “Num lock” toggle on the keyboard

◦ Blinking cursor at terminal client prompt

• Visual check

◦ Remotely view screen via remote desktop

application (i.e. VNC)

◦ Local view of the screen via a long cable

run

◦ Remote viewing of the local screen using IP

camera

• Electrical states

◦ At the system via power supply control

◦ At the DUT via interposer and monitoring

circuit

• Temperature

◦ At the DUT (microenvironment)

◦ Around the DUT (macro environment)

◦ Ambient
1686 • FRANCES ZHU

Another simulator that tests survivability is a vibration table,

which simulates the vibration from a launch vehicle. A vibration
test does not emphasize functionality but the survivability of the
entire system. This testbed and test are usually reserved after
every single hardware component is finalized and integrated.
After a vibration test, the spacecraft’s health is rechecked to see
if all components and interfaces survived the test.

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this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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epet302/?p=2445#h5p-156

James Webb Space Telescope Vibration Test. Video courtesy of NASA.

Test Scripts that are Not Flight Software

To support all the physical testing previously mentioned, users
must develop test scripts specific to the tests they are running
that differ from the software that will go into space. Test scripts
may:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1687

• Set different configuration parameters in sensors to

account for simulated ground conditions vs space
conditions

• Log data more frequently or for a longer period of

time

• Explore edge cases or extreme settings that won’t

necessarily be seen in space operations

• Post-process and analyze the system’s performance

• Be based upon flight software with additional

modifications for ground

These test scripts may be developed for the simulators and for
the spacecraft. Scripts specific for testing may be loaded directly
onto the spacecraft but should be steadily transitioned to flight
software as delivery approaches.

Fault Testing
Adopting terminology from a secure computing paper, there are
three things to consider when crafting a verification test: testing
purpose, system model, and fault model [Avizienis]. There are
two testing purposes: conformance testing, to see if the system
is able to deliver a specific service or meet a requirement, and
fault-finding testing, which reveals faults. The system model
under test may be separated into the functional objects
(components and subsystems themselves) and interfaces (the
structure that binds the objects together). Fault model refers to
the existence or absence of faults you want in your test. Do you
want to test nominal operations, no faults, or faulty behavior?
1688 • FRANCES ZHU

Given different permutations of each consideration, the resultant

test is given on the far right.

Testing approaches according to test pattern selection. Image by Brian

Randell

The order of the testing is listed sequentially. The first test

you should conduct is functional testing of a module (at the
component, subsystem, or system level) in the absence of faults,
the best-case scenario. Then on the second row, you can extend
this test to explore cases in which you anticipate faults occur to
verify their existence. The third row is the attempt to find faults
in operations where faults are not anticipated to occur. The last
two rows mimic fault finding but at the interfaces.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1689

11.5 When to Use the Design

Verification Methods

The definition section surveyed the types of verification

methods possible. The general setup section described the tools
available for testing. This section will provide guidance in how
to select/craft a verification method given the intention of
meeting a requirement or managing risk. Functional testing is
to ensure that a component, subsystem, or system meets a
performance requirement and does not fail along the way.
Functional tests are going to vary with respect to the system
under test and the evaluation criteria, for example, the star
tracker and quaternion output precision. How does one know
which verification style to take? The picture is reiterated for your
convenience.

1689
1690 • FRANCES ZHU

These verification methods ascend in the level of effort and

rigor all to mitigate some amount of risk, which isn’t always
quantifiable. The line of questioning should begin with: “What
level of testing will provide me sufficient confidence that this
spacecraft will meet its requirements in space?” For example,
given a structure with a finite element analysis factor of safety
margin of 10, a simple inspection of the fabricated structure
prior to assembly may suffice. The structure is metal and the
simulated model characterizes structure behavior well. This
component began with a very low probability of failure so the
level of effort in verification shall be analogously low. On the
other extreme, payloads that are state-of-the-art and custom-
built for a mission have a very critical role in a mission and
a high-risk posture due to its unprecedented operation. This
system would likely need to go through all verification methods,
leading up to the culminating testing of hardware and software
simultaneously, pushed to the limits of operation to characterize
capabilities. Something embedded in this discussion is the idea
of heritage, whether a component has been built, functional, or
operated in space before.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1691

Qualification Tests to Identify Failure Modes [7]. Image by Lisa A.

Baghal.

A formalized way to think about risk is the possible failure

mechanisms or hazards with their associated likelihood. The
table above provides some general guidelines as to the
qualification test that can identify the potential failure
mechanism given a justified suspicion of this hazard. There
is a risk that an acceptance can lead to a failure mechanism,
shown in the table below. We want our testing to be rigorous yet
minimal to prevent undue stress on the spacecraft.
1692 • FRANCES ZHU

Acceptance Tests to Precipitate Failure Modes [7]. Image by Lisa A.

Baghal.

Let’s talk about the Artemis CubeSat Kit’s thought process

behind verification methods. For each subsystem, the following
objects and conditions are of concern and a justification for a
verification method is posed. Historical mission failures should
inform you how worried you should be about those aspects
failing you. Here’s the original smallsat mission failure survey;
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1693

please peruse Appendix A: Small Satellite Missions that

Partially or Totally Failed.

• Structures:

◦ The primary structure is under critical load.

The primary structure is aluminum, a well-
characterized alloy. The critical load is the
compression from the deployer. The point
application of the critical load is at the
structure’s rails. A finite element simulation
result should be sufficient to retire any
concerns around the structure’s ability to
survive this critical load if the margin of
safety is above 1.6. Results show a margin
much higher than 1.6.
1694 • FRANCES ZHU

◦ The antenna burn-wire mechanism upon

deployment. The burn-wire deployment
mechanism is popular and commonly used
but the circuit was designed in-house. To
verify that the circuit for the burn-wire
deployer works, a physical test is
implemented: a realistic voltage and current
are supplied to the circuit to observe if the
mechanism deploys.

An interactive H5P element has

been excluded from this version of
the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-
dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2447#h5p-157

◦ The integrated structure is under a launch-

like vibration profile. The many mechanical
joints in the CubeSat are at risk of
loosening or disconnecting. Although the
quality of integration can be verified
through inspection, a much more rigorous
test that most launch providers require is a
vibration test, which physically simulates
realistic vibration profiles.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1695

https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2447#h5p-158

◦ Some reasons for mission failure [NASA]:

▪ ISAS & NASDA’s DASH

satellite likely did not separate
from the main satellite after
launch. No contact was
established.

▪ Deployable solar panels not

deployed. Not enough power was
generated.

▪ Despite many attempts, DOS

(DeOrbitSail)’s de-orbit sail could
not be deployed.

◦ A detailed analysis of structures verification

for the ISS modules is written by ESA.

• Power

◦ The power distribution unit’s ability to

supply sufficient power to the other
subsystem components in the worst-case
scenario that all components (that do not
directly conflict) are on. A downstream
result that verifies that all systems are
functional is if the onboard computer can
read all sensor measurements and command
all actuators, and further, that all
1696 • FRANCES ZHU

measurements are sensible and actuators

behave sensibly. As this power distribution
unit was designed in-house, this design
must be rigorously stress-tested.

Flatsat Electrical Testbed. Image by Glenn Lightsey.

◦ Solar panel’s ability to charge the battery

and supply the satellite with enough energy
to last the whole mission. The solar panels
may function differently than the
manufacturer’s reported ideal conditions.
To verify the charge rate, a sun simulator
should simulate the sun’s irradiance at the
CubeSat’s anticipated orbit for a realistic
duration of the orbit. The physical test
verifies the component’s as-built
performance which can then be injected
into the power budget and profile. The
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1697

analysis on the profile with these updated

numbers should reveal the solar panels and
battery’s capability to supply enough
energy to the spacecraft through the entirety
of the mission.

Solar Panel Measurements. Image by Alternative

Energy Tutorials.

◦ The battery safety and survivability through

vibration tests, as specifically dictated by
the JSC 20793 Crewed Space Vehicle
Battery Safety Requirements.
1698 • FRANCES ZHU

Vibration Test Stand in the paper A Battery

Certification Testbed for Small Satellite Missions.
Image courtesy of NASA.

◦ The integrated structure is under a launch-

like vibration profile. The many electrical
joints in the CubeSat are at risk of
loosening or disconnecting. Although the
quality of integration can be verified
through inspection, a much more rigorous
test that most launch providers require is a
vibration test, which physically simulates
realistic vibration profiles.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1699

Vibration Test acquired ISO-17025 certification. Image by Center for

NanoSat Testing.

◦ A lot of small satellites become inoperable

due to power problems. Some reasons may
be [NASA]:

▪ The battery state of charge is not

accurately estimated or the
threshold to go into safe mode is
too high. The satellite is forced to
go into a safe mode to conserve
energy when in reality, there is
plenty of juice in the satellite but
it’ll never leave safe mode.

▪ ASUSat-1’s power system

prevented solar arrays from
1700 • FRANCES ZHU

charging the batteries.

▪ FalconSat-1’s power system was

unable to charge the batteries.

▪ US Naval Academy and George

Washington University’s
BRICSat-P had issues with the
power system that prevented
consistent communication from
being established.

◦ Communications

▪ Previously mentioned: antenna

deployment. Mechanisms are
always risky so we need to ensure
that this mechanism works
reliably, otherwise, we will not be
able to receive any commands
from the ground.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2447#h5p-159

Nayif-1 CubeSat Antenna Deployment Test – slow motion. Video by Wouter

Weggelaar

◦ Radios establishing a link. A plurality, if

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1701

not majority, of mission failures, are due to

communication failures. The design for the
communications system, on the satellite and
on-ground, must be verified, at first with a
detailed link budget and then with physical
testing. The as-built communications
system should be physically tested with
realistic input power and physical distance
between the radio and receiver with
attenuation on the ground station side to
simulate the additional effects of
atmosphere and orbital distance. A monitor
at the ground station should be able to pick
up a distinct signal from the satellite’s radio
and vice versa.

Get ready for over-the-air (OTA) testing! Image by Rohde and Schwarz.
1702 • FRANCES ZHU

EIRP here means Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power, which is the

transmitted power times the antenna gain in a given direction, relative to
the isotropic antenna of a radio transmitter. Image by Yash.

◦ Signals are properly encoded and decoded

such that the original signal can be
interpreted. A step further from just
detecting that a signal is received is if that
signal can be decoded into useful
information. We should know the signal
that we’ve sent from the satellite. The
signal is then encoded with some
modulation and coding scheme, the ground
station picks up the said signal, the software
decodes it and we should be able to see that
original signal. There is a risk that bits are
flipped or that the signal is below the noise
floor (the signal strength is so small that it
is obscured by white noise).
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1703

Receiving and decoding data from the outernet. Image by RTL-SDR.

Satellite TV beacons. Image by RTL-SDR.

◦ Here are some mission failures [NASA]:

▪ No signal was received at the

ground station.
1704 • FRANCES ZHU

▪ SimpleSat could not be contacted;

suspected transmitter failure.
▪ DTUSat could not establish two-
way contact with the satellite.

▪ Russian Academy of Science’s

COMPASS-2 spacecraft lost
communication after launch due
to a stabilization problem. The
spacecraft did not respond to
ground commands for six
months. Although
communications with the satellite
were restored, a failure with the
power system allowed only a very
limited amount of data to be
transmitted.

▪ Tokyo Tech Engineering

Satellite’s CUTE-1.7+APD had
failures in the communication
system after launch that made it
impossible to conduct any
experiments. A single event latch-
up (SEL) is suspected as the
cause.

▪ The University of Michigan and

NRL’s CADRE successfully
deployed from ISS, but no signals
were received.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1705

In this zone of silence, satellite antennas are tested ahead of launch.

Metal walls form a ‘Faraday cage’ to block all external signals, isolating
the facility from TV and radio broadcasts, aircraft and ship radars, and
even mobile calls. Spiky foam cladding absorbs radio signals internally
to create conditions simulating the infinite void of space. Image by ESA.

◦ Command and Data Handling

▪ The onboard mass storage

memory handles and stores all
payload, sensor, and health data.
The data estimates for the various
components are a sufficient
baseline for how to size the mass
storage, but a physical test must
be conducted to get a more
realistic estimate of data
generation and storage in real
operations. There may be
additional bits that must be stored
1706 • FRANCES ZHU

in implementation that are not

accounted for in the initial
estimate.

Functional architecture of On-Board Data System. Image by ESA.

◦ The data bus and onboard computer need to

handle and route all data without losing any
bits. Depending on the frequency of
sampling and the timing of when these
signals must be handled, the onboard
computer might experience race conditions
in which data is lost or garbled. These
issues only come up in implementation so a
physical test is necessary.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1707

Race condition in a logic circuit. Here, ∆t1 and ∆t2 represent the
propagation delays of the logic elements. When the input value A
changes from low to high, the circuit outputs a short spike of duration
(∆t1 + ∆t2) − ∆t2 = ∆t1. Image by Sakurambo.

◦ The onboard computer processing needs to

be powerful enough to complete processes
1708 • FRANCES ZHU

in a timely fashion such that their products

are delivered to programs when they are
needed. Given the way, a program is written
and the computational burden on the
computer, the processing is going to take a
range of runtimes that can only be
characterized with physical testing.
Through testing, the runtime can be
shortened and optimized.

Summary of methods to measure execution time. Image by Embedded

Staff.

◦ Here are some mission failures [NASA]:

▪ Aalborg University’s AAU-

CubeSat-2 operating system
malfunction. Rebooted 10-14
times daily caused by timing
errors on the bus. Flight plan
erased and de-tumbling
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1709

inactivated with every reboot.

Some data received showed
tumbling above 2 Hz.

▪ Delft University of Technology’s

Delfi-C3 CDHS design has an
inherent flaw that often prevented
data transmission on the bus,
leading to either insertion of
zero’s in the telemetry data,
arbitrary switch off of
subsystems, a reset of the
computer, or even a fallback to a
very limited back-up mode.

• Attitude Determination Control and Sensing

Sensor polarities may be integrated into the software or structure

incorrectly, like in the Proton rocket. These incorrect mourning
configurations or negative signs in software lead to unstable
control of the vehicle’s dynamics, which can cause catastrophic
failures. For critical events like launch or detumbling, sensor and
actuator polarity is critical to test on ground. For less critical
maneuvers, this kind of failure can be corrected with updated
software.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from

this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2447#h5p-160
1710 • FRANCES ZHU

Proton-M rocket catastrophic failure due to wrong sensor polarity. Video by

TheMrSuslov

◦ Actuator failure. Some actuators, like

reaction wheels and control moment
gyroscopes, have moving parts: the rotor
and gimbals. These joints can lock up or
wear down until dysfunctional. These
components rely heavily on space heritage
on previous missions because ground
testing doesn’t totally represent behavior in
space. Ground tests on redundant units can
reveal failure modes due to fatigue. For
these reasons, spacecraft include redundant
actuators.

The second of Kepler’s four reaction wheels (shown above during

testing) has failed. Image by Ball Aerospace.

◦ Here are some mission failures [NASA]:

▪ DLR’s BIRD had 3 of 4 reaction

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1711

wheels fail, plus the failure of the

gyroscope.
▪ Academy of Sciences of the
Czech Republic’s MIMOSA
never became fully functional due
to accelerometer proof mass
being able to move freely in only
two axes.

▪ The Aerospace Corporation’s

PSSCT lost spin stabilization
caused by eddy currents in the
aluminum hull that prevented
desired solar cell performance
data to be obtained.

• Thermal

◦ The Heater’s ability to warm or sinks

ability to cool temperature-sensitive
components. The amount of surface area
and the quality of contact that a sink or
heater has with the component we’d like to
transfer heat from or to can only be verified
physically. Finite element analyses can
inform a design, but the implementation
must be physically tested. A poor thermal
connection risks degraded performance for
the element it is trying to cool or warm,
whether that’s a battery (which can freeze
up if it’s too cold) or a mirror (which can
1712 • FRANCES ZHU

warp if it’s too warm).

Typical Heater Application in a Spacecraft. Image by Reinhard Schlitt et

al.

◦ Radiation-dominated heat transfer of the

spacecraft system. Finite element analyses
cannot fully characterize all the details and
as-built nuances in a satellite system.
Further, ground testing in the open air does
not characterize radiation-dominated heat
transfer. Thermal vacuum chamber tests are
the standard to verify a thermal subsystem’s
efficacy.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1713

NASA’s CYGNSS Spacecraft Beings Environmental Testing. Image by

NASA.

◦ Here are some mission failures [NASA]:

▪ The University of Applied

Science at Aachen, Germany’s
COMPASS-1 hard reset put the
satellite into emergency mode for
several days, causing the heater to
fail.

▪ Stanford University’s QuakeSat

lost its batteries due to what they
thought were high battery
temperatures (120 degrees
Fahrenheit), which may have
caused the electrolyte to bake out
since the batteries were not sealed
1714 • FRANCES ZHU

beyond the normal factory

packaging.
▪ Tohoku University of Sendai’s
SpriteSat battery charging system
allowed the temperature of the
battery to reach critical levels
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1715

Systems Integration Hardware

Lab

Here is where it all comes together. Awesome job so far.

Provided below are some images to showcase the different views
of the CubeSat to reference before you assemble it in its entirety.

1715
1716 • FRANCES ZHU

This view showcases how the CubeSat will be orientated pointing

towards the Earth. You can see the camera from the payload.

This view shows what the CubeSat would look like sitting on a table
with the antennas deployed. This is the orientation that you will be
building the CubeSat.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1717

This is what the CubeSat would look like with no solar panels,
top, or antennas. Just to see how all the layers align inside the
CubeSat.
1718 • FRANCES ZHU

This is an exploded view of the initial image. It showcases the rod and
screw placement within the structure.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1719

Here is the exploded view of the image of the CubeSat sitting on the
table. It also showcases screw and rod placement within the structure
1720 • FRANCES ZHU

Artemis Mechanical Integration

Bottom Plate

This will be the base of your assembly.

Spring Plungers

• Screw spring plungers into the bottom of rails

• Secure with 6-32 Thread, .5-1.5 lb. Nose Force

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1721
1722 • FRANCES ZHU

Deployment Switches

• Insert screws: M2, 10 mm

countersink

• Insert nut: M2

Repeat for each deployment

switch. There will be a total
of 4 switches located on all of
the rails. This part may be a
little tricky. Your finger
dexterity will be put to the test. Take your time and go nice and
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1723

slow. After you do two the next two will be easy. Take note of
the order screw, frame, washer, switch, and nut. Installing these
now will make your life easier later.

Side Panels

• Place two side panels on the bottom plate

• Screw-in with 2, 90-degree countersink M2 x 0.4mm

thread, 6mm long screws for each side panel
1724 • FRANCES ZHU

Rods

• Slide rods into holes and screw countersink screws

into rods

• Secure with 90-degree countersink M2.5 x 0.45

Thread Size, 6mm long
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1725

Battery Board

• Slide 16mm spacers on rods

1726 • FRANCES ZHU

• Place PyCubed battery board on top of spacers with

the batteries facing down
• Apply heater across the battery pack using Kapton
Tape (aka the duct tape of the aerospace industry)

Take note that only one or two small pieces of tape will be
enough. The weight of the next board will keep it in place.

PDU Board

• Place 12 mm spacers

• Place PDU board using rods

 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1727

• Place 18 mm spacers on top of the board

OBC Board

• Place OBC board on top of spacers

• Place 10 mm and 8 mm spacers on top of the board

1728 • FRANCES ZHU

Top Panel

• Place top panel on the top

• Secure with 4 M2x 0.4mm thread, 6mm long screws

• Screw-in 2-56 Thread Size, 1/4″ Long screws on top

of rods
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1729

Antenna and Antenna Board

Fasteners to attach the antenna to board

• Screw-6-32 ⅜” thread

• Washer- 0.15inches, for #6 screws

• Nuts-6-32 thread size

• Antenna Deployment system on the bottom of the

bottom panel
• Screw into frames using M2 x 0.4 mm Thread, 8 mm
Long
1730 • FRANCES ZHU

Payload

• Secure camera with M2.5 screws and nuts to the

camera board

• Place camera board on the top panel

• Screw into frames using M2 x 0.4 mm Thread, 8 mm

Long
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1731

Solar Panels

• Connect Wires from PDU board

• Screw solar panels onto side panels

• Secure with M2 x 0.4 mm Thread, 8 mm Long screws

A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1733

12. Ethics

1733
1734 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1735

12.1 Ethics Case I

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2926#oembed-1

1735
1736 • FRANCES ZHU

12.2 Ethics Case II

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2929#oembed-1

1736
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1737

12.3 Ethics Case III

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2931#oembed-1

1737
1738 • FRANCES ZHU

12.4 Ethics Case IV

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2933#oembed-1

1738
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1739

12.5 Ethics Case V

One or more interactive elements has been excluded

from this version of the text. You can view them
online here: https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/
epet302/?p=2935#oembed-1

1739
1740 • FRANCES ZHU
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1741

Appendix

References:
Basic of Spaceflight by David Doody:

https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/

Cost estimating handbook with a bunch of appendix links

https://www.nasa.gov/offices/ocfo/nasa-cost-estimating-
handbook-ceh

NASA systems engineering handbook:

https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/
nasa_systems_engineering_handbook_0.pdf

And expanded handbook: https://strives-uploads-prod.s3.us-

1741
1742 • FRANCES ZHU

gov-west-1.amazonaws.com/20170007238/
20170007238.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIASEVSKC45ZTTM
42XZ&Expires=1600731454&Signature=ElZSdp9x8xpiILB9H
qT86U%2F44W4%3D

Work breakdown structure handbook: https://strives-uploads-

prod.s3.us-gov-west-1.amazonaws.com/20180000844/
20180000844.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIASEVSKC45ZTTM
42XZ&Expires=1600718169&Signature=sKIlvOcR%2BVGE5
Y4%2BTXUBf9sqCoc%3D

State of the Art of Small Spacecraft Technology

https://sst-soa.arc.nasa.gov/01-introduction

Commercial space transportation study, a survey and business

assessment of existing, emerging, and potential new space
markets in 1997: https://www.hq.nasa.gov/webaccess/
CommSpaceTrans/

Small Mission Design Tools:

https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/space-mission-design-
tools
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1743

SMAD references: http://sme-smad.com/ password:

ASTRODATA (not case-sensitive)

NASA Socioeconomic impacts: https://www.nasa.gov/sites/

default/files/files/SEINSI.pdf

NASA Space Technology: Investments in our Future FY 2012:

https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/
527871main_Space_Technology_FY12_Overview_external_ve
rs2.pdf

Database of all satellites around Earth: https://www.ucsusa.org/

resources/satellite-
database#:~:text=UCS%20Satellite%20Database,purpose%2C
%20and%20other%20operational%20details.

NASA General Environmental Verification Standard:

https://standards.nasa.gov/standard/gsfc/gsfc-std-7000

US Export Controls for Commercial Space Industry:

https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/
1744 • FRANCES ZHU

media/
export_controls_guidebook_for_commercial_space_industry_d
oc_faa_nov_508.pdf

Guidance On Obtaining Licenses For Small Satellites:

https://www.fcc.gov/document/guidance-obtaining-licenses-
small-satellites

NASA Spectrum Policy and Guidance: https://www.nasa.gov/

directorates/heo/scan/spectrum/policy_and_guidance.html

The Space Environment: Implications for Spacecraft Design –

Revised and Expanded Edition: https://www.jstor.org/stable/
j.ctvzxx9nh

UCS Satellite Database: In-depth details on the 2,666 satellites

currently orbiting Earth, including their country of origin,
purpose, and other operational details.

https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-
database#:~:text=UCS%20Satellite%20Database,purpose%2C
%20and%20other%20operational%20details.
 A GUIDE TO CUBESAT MISSION AND BUS DESIGN • 1745

CubeSat Design Specification Rev. 14 CalPoly SLO:

https://static1.squarespace.com/static/
5418c831e4b0fa4ecac1bacd/t/5f24997b6deea10cc52bb016/
1596234122437/CDS+REV14+2020-07-31+DRAFT.pdf

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND TEST FACTORS OF SAFETY

FOR SPACEFLIGHT HARDWARE

https://standards.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/nasa-
std-5001b_w_change_1.pdf

NanoRacks External CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD-E) Interface

Definition Document (IDD) 08/31/2018:

https://nanoracks.com/wp-content/uploads/Nanoracks-External-
Cygnus-Deployer-E-NRCSD-IDD.pdf

Technology for Small Spacecraft (1994): https://www.nap.edu/

catalog/2351/technology-for-small-spacecraft

Artemis CubeSat Kit Website: https://hsfl.github.io/artemis/

index.html