MAT 115, Week 4

Dr. Miles Askes

Stellenbosch University

1. Limits and Continuity

The concept of limits is fundamental in calculus, serving as the foundation for derivatives, integrals, and
continuity. The idea of approaching a value without necessarily reaching it was first explored rigorously
in the 19th century by mathematicians such as Cauchy and Weierstrass, although intuitive notions of
limits date back to the ancient Greeks.
To begin our exploration, let’s examine the behavior of the function
x−1
f (x) =
x2 − 1
for values of x near 1. The following table provides values of f (x) for values of x close to 1 but not equal
to 1.

x<1 f (x) x>1 f (x)

0.5 0.666667 1.5 0.400000
0.9 0.526316 1.1 0.476190
0.99 0.502513 1.01 0.497512
0.999 0.500250 1.001 0.499750
0.9999 0.500025 1.0001 0.499975

From the table above, we observe that as x gets closer to 1 from either direction, f (x) approaches 0.5.
In mathematical terms, we say that the limit of f (x) = xx−1
2 −1 as x approaches 1 is 0.5. We express this

formally as:
x−1
lim = 0.5.
x→1 x2 − 1

Definition 1.1 Intuitive Definition of a Limit

Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a, meaning that f is defined on some open
interval containing a (except possibly at a itself). Then we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

and say, “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L,” if we can make f (x) as close as we like
to L by taking x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a).

In simpler terms, this definition means that as x gets arbitrarily close to a, f (x) gets arbitrarily close to
L. It is important to note that we never consider x = a when evaluating limx→a f (x). In fact, f (x) does
not need to be defined at x = a for the limit to exist.
An alternative notation for writing limits is:

f (x) → L as x → a.

This is read as “f (x) approaches L as x approaches a.”

By understanding limits, we build a bridge from algebraic functions to the foundational ideas of calculus,
allowing us to define derivatives, continuity, and integrals in a precise manner.

1
 Example 1.1 Estimate the value of
√
t2 + 9 − 3
lim
t→0 t2

The table lists values of the function for several values of t near 0.
√
t2 +9−3
t t2
±1.0 0.162277 . . .
±0.5 0.165525 . . .
±0.1 0.166620 . . .
±0.05 0.166655 . . .
±0.01 0.166666 . . .

As t approaches 0, the values of the function seem to approach 0.1666666 . . . and so we guess that
√
t2 + 9 − 3 1
lim =
t→0 t2 6
This guess is in fact correct, as will be shown later.

Example 1.2 Find  

cos 5x
lim x3 +
x→0 10, 000

We construct a table of values. From the first table it appears that the limit might be zero.
cos 5x
x x3 + 10,000
1 1.000028
0.5 0.124920
0.1 0.001088
0.05 0.000222
0.01 0.000101

cos 5x
x x3 + 10,000
0.005 0.00010009
0.001 0.00010000

But if we persevere with smaller values of x, the second table suggests that the limit is more likely
to be 0.0001. We will eventually be able to show that limx→0 cos 5x = 1 and that it follows that
 
3 cos 5x 1
lim x + = = 0.0001
x→0 10, 000 10, 000

One-Sided Limits
The Heaviside function H is defined as follows:
(
0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t ≥ 0
This function is named after the English electrical engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925).
Heaviside made significant contributions to the study of electrical circuits and operational calculus. The
function H(t) is particularly useful in engineering and physics, where it models systems that switch on
at a specific moment, such as an electric current activated at t = 0.
From a mathematical perspective, the Heaviside function illustrates an important concept: the limit of
a function may depend on the direction from which the input approaches a given point. Specifically, as

2
t approaches 0 from the left (t → 0− ), the function values approach 0, while as t approaches 0 from
the right (t → 0+ ), the function values approach 1. This discrepancy means that the standard limit
limt→0 H(t) does not exist. Instead, we define and analyze the following one-sided limits:

lim H(t) = 0 and lim H(t) = 1.

t→0− t→0+

These limits capture the behavior of H(t) near t = 0 but from different directions.

Definition 1.2 Intuitive Definition of One-Sided Limits

We define one-sided limits as follows:

ˆ The left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is written as

lim f (x) = L,
x→a−

and it means that f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by choosing values of x sufficiently
close to a, but only for x < a.

ˆ The right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is written as

lim f (x) = L,
x→a+

and it means that f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by choosing values of x sufficiently
close to a, but only for x > a.

For example, the notation x → 5− indicates that we consider only values where x < 5, whereas x → 5+
indicates that we consider only values where x > 5.
It is important to note that a function f (x) has a two-sided limit at x = a if and only if both its left-hand
and right-hand limits exist and are equal. That is:

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→a x→a− x→a+

How Can a Limit Fail to Exist?

A limit fails to exist at a number a if the left- and right-hand limits are not equal.

3
Example 1.3 Investigate
π
lim sin
x→0 x

π


Notice that the function f (x) = sin x is undefined at 0. Evaluating the function for some small
values of x, we get

f (1) = sin π = 0
 
1
f = sin 2π = 0
2
 
1
f = sin 3π = 0
3
 
1
f = sin 4π = 0
4
f (0.1) = sin 10π = 0
f (0.01) = sin 100π = 0
Similarly, f (0.001) = f (0.0001) = 0. On the basis of this information we might be
tempted to
guess that the limit is 0, but this time our guess is wrong. Note that although f n1 = sin nπ = 0
2
for any integer n, it is also true that f (x) = 1 for infinitely many values of x (such as 25 or 101 )
that approach 0.
The values of sin πx oscillate between 1 and -1 infinitely often as x approaches 0.

Since the values of f (x) do not approach a fixed number as x approaches 0,

π
lim sin does not exist
x→0 x

1
Example 1.4 Find limx→0 x2 if it exists.

As x becomes close to 0, x2 also becomes close to 0, and x12 becomes very large. (See the following
table.) Thus the values of f (x) do not approach a number, so limx→0 x12 does not exist.

1
x x2
±1 1
±0.5 4
±0.2 25
±0.1 100
±0.05 400
±0.01 10,000
±0.001 1,000,000

To indicate this kind of behavior, we use the notation

1
=∞
lim
x2 x→0

This does not mean that we are regarding ∞ as a number. Nor does it mean that the limit exists.
It simply expresses the particular way in which the limit does not exist: x12 can be made as large
as we like by taking x close enough to 0.
In general, we write symbolically

lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

to indicate that the values of f (x) tend to become larger and larger (or “increase without bound”)
as x becomes closer and closer to a.

4
 Definition 1.3
A function has a vertical asymptote at x = a if the any of the one-sided limits at x = a is
positive or negative infinity.

Theorem 1.1
Consider the limit
1
L = lim , where lim g(x) = 0
x→a g(x) x→a

If for all x close to x = a, but not equal to a, g(x) > 0, then L = +∞. If for all x close to x = a,
but not equal to a, g(x) < 0, then L = −∞.

For an intuitive argument why this theorem is true, consider the graph of a hyperbola! By dividing with
small positive numbers, we get large positive numbers. But by dividing by small negative numbers, we
get large negative numbers.

Example 1.5 Determine

1 − 2x 1 − 2x
lim and lim
x→3+ x−3 x→3− x−3

Notice that

lim (x − 3) = 0
x→3+

Just right of x = 3 are the x − 3 small positive numbers, consequently

1
lim = +∞
x→3+ x−3
Further

lim (1 − 2x) = 1 − 2(3) = −5 < 0

x→3+

Just as ”positive times negative is negative”, it also works here:

1 − 2x
lim = −∞
x→3+ x−3
Lastly, just left of x = 3, the x − 3 are small negative numbers, consequently
1 1 − 2x
lim = −∞ =⇒ lim = +∞
x→3− x−3 x→3− x−3

5
Limit Laws
Definition 1.4 Limit Laws
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits

lim f (x) and lim g(x)

x→a x→a

exist. Then the following properties hold:

1. limx→a [f (x) + g(x)] = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g(x)

2. limx→a [f (x) − g(x)] = limx→a f (x) − limx→a g(x)
3. limx→a [cf (x)] = c limx→a f (x)

4. limx→a [f (x)g(x)] = limx→a f (x) · limx→a g(x)

f (x) limx→a f (x)
5. limx→a g(x) = limx→a g(x) if limx→a g(x) ̸= 0

These five laws can be stated verbally as follows:

1. The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.

2. The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.

3. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the function.
4. The limit of a product is the product of the limits.
5. The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided that the limit of the denominator is
not 0).

These laws are also valid for one-sided limits

Examples:
Suppose limx→2 f (x) = 3 and limx→2 g(x) = 5. Then,

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = 3 + 5 = 8.

x→2 x→2 x→2

Suppose limx→3 f (x) = 4 and limx→3 g(x) = 2. Then,

lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = 4 · 2 = 8.

x→3 x→3 x→3

These laws are fundamental in calculus as they allow us to compute limits of complex expressions by
breaking them down into simpler components.
If we use the Product Law repeatedly with g(x) = f (x), we obtain the following law:

Definition 1.5 Power Law

h in
lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) where n is a positive integer
x→a x→a

Similarly, we have

Definition 1.6 Root Law

p q
n
lim f (x) = lim f (x) where n is a positive integer
x→a x→a

[If n is even, we assume that limx→a f (x) > 0.]

We also take note of the following special limits:

6
 Definition 1.7 Special Limits
ˆ
lim c = c
x→a

ˆ
lim x = a
x→a

ˆ
lim xn = an where n is a positive integer
x→a

ˆ √ √
n n
lim x= a where n is a positive integer
x→a

(If n is even, we assume that a > 0.)

Example 1.6 Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.
1. limx→3 (2x2 − 3x + 4)
x3 +2x2 −1
2. limx→−2 5−3x

1. limx→3 (2x2 − 3x + 4) = limx→3 (2x2 ) − limx→3 (3x) + limx→3 4 (by Laws 2 and 1)

= 2 lim x2 − 3 lim x + lim 4

x→3 x→3 x→3
2
= 2(3 ) − 3(3) + 4
= 13

2. We start by using Law 5, but its use is fully justified only at the final stage when we see
that the limits of the numerator and denominator exist and the limit of the denominator is
not 0.

x3 + 2x2 − 1 limx→−2 (x3 + 2x2 − 1)

lim =
x→−2 5 − 3x limx→−2 (5 − 3x)
limx→−2 x3 + 2 limx→−2 x2 − limx→−2 1
=
limx→−2 5 − 3 limx→−2 x
(−2)3 + 2(−2)2 − 1
=
5 − 3(−2)
1
=−
11

Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution

Definition 1.8 Direct Substitution Property

If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f , then

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Consider limits of the form

f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)
If the limit of g is 0, our limit laws are not relevant anymore. If the limit of f is a non-zero constant, we
already know how to handle such limits. But if both the limits of f and g are 0, then the limit is in an

7
indeterminate form of 00 . We will not be able to immediately determine the limit; we should first do
some extra effort.
Functions that have the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a and will be studied later
on. However, not all limits can be evaluated initially by direct substitution, as the following examples
show.

Example 1.7 Find

x2 − 1
lim
x→1 x − 1

2
−1
Let f (x) = xx−1 . We can’t find the limit by substituting x = 1 because f (1) isn’t defined. Nor
can we apply the Quotient Law, because the limit of the denominator is 0. Instead, we need to
do some preliminary algebra. We factor the numerator as a difference of squares:

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
=
x−1 x−1
The numerator and denominator have a common factor of x − 1. When we take the limit as x
approaches 1, we have x ̸= 1 and so x − 1 ̸= 0. Therefore we can cancel the common factor, x − 1,
and then compute the limit by direct substitution as follows:

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
lim = lim
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1
= lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→1

NOTE In the previous example we were able to compute the limit by replacing the given function
2
−1
f (x) = xx−1 by a simpler function, g(x) = x + 1, that has the same limit. This is valid because
f (x) = g(x) except when x = 1, and in computing a limit as x approaches 1 we don’t consider what
happens when x is actually equal to 1. In general, we have the following useful fact:

If f (x) = g(x) when x ̸= a, then limx→a f (x) = limx→a g(x), provided the limits exist.

Example 1.8 Find limx→1 g(x) where

(
x+1 if x ̸= 1
g(x) =
π if x = 1

Here g is defined at x = 1 and g(1) = π, but the value of a limit as x approaches 1 does not
depend on the value of the function at 1. Since g(x) = x + 1 for x ̸= 1, we have

lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 2

x→1 x→1

8
 Example 1.9 Evaluate
(3 + h)2 − 9
lim
h→0 h

If we define

(3 + h)2 − 9
F (h) =
h
then we can’t compute limh→0 F (h) by letting h = 0 because F (0) is undefined. But if we simplify
F (h) algebraically, we find that

(9 + 6h + h2 ) − 9 6h + h2
F (h) = =
h h
h(6 + h)
= =6+h
h
(Recall that we consider only h ̸= 0 when letting h approach 0.) Thus

(3 + h)2 − 9
lim = lim (6 + h) = 6
h→0 h h→0

Example 1.10 Find √

t2 + 9 − 3
lim
t→0 t2

We can’t apply the Quotient Law immediately because the limit of the denominator is 0. Here
the preliminary algebra consists of rationalizing the numerator:
√ √ √
t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 − 3 t2 + 9 + 3
lim = lim · √
t→0 t2 t→0 t2 t2 + 9 + 3
2
(t + 9) − 9
= lim √
t→0 t2 ( t2 + 9 + 3)

t2
= lim √
t→0 t2 ( t2 + 9 + 3)

1
= lim √
t→0 2
t +9+3
1
=p
limt→0 (t2 + 9) + 3
1 1
= =
3+3 6
This calculation confirms the guess that we made in Example 1.1.

Using One-Sided Limits

Some limits are best evaluated by first computing the left-hand and right-hand limits separately. A
fundamental result states that a two-sided limit exists if and only if both one-sided limits exist and are
equal.

Theorem 1.2

limx→a f (x) = L if and only if limx→a− f (x) = L = limx→a+ f (x)

When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also hold for one-sided limits.

9
Example 1.11 Show that
lim |x| = 0
x→0

Recall that the absolute value function is defined piecewise as:

(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
For x > 0, we have:

lim |x| = lim x = 0.

x→0+ x→0+

For x < 0, we use |x| = −x:

lim |x| = lim− (−x) = 0.

x→0− x→0

Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are equal, it follows from Theorem 1 that:

lim |x| = 0.
x→0

Example 1.12 Prove that

|x|
lim
x→0 x
does not exist.
Using the definition of absolute value, we analyze the one-sided limits:

|x| x
lim = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1,
x→0+ x x→0 x x→0
|x| −x
lim = lim− = lim− (−1) = −1.
x→0− x x→0 x x→0
|x|
Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are different, it follows that lim does not exist.
x→0 x

y
|x|
lim x =1
x→0+

x
|x|
lim− x = −1
x→0
−1

This graph clearly shows the jump discontinuity at x = 0. Since the one-sided limits are not equal,
the overall limit does not exist.

10
 Example 1.13 If (√
x−4 if x > 4
f (x) =
8 − 2x if x < 4
determine whether limx→4 f (x) exists.

For x > 4, we evaluate the right-hand limit:

√ √
lim+ f (x) = lim+ x−4= 4 − 4 = 0.
x→4 x→4

For x < 4, we evaluate the left-hand limit:

lim f (x) = lim (8 − 2x) = 8 − 2(4) = 0.

x→4− x→4−

Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are equal, the overall limit exists, and we conclude:

lim f (x) = 0.
x→4

The Squeeze Theorem

The Squeeze Theorem, sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem, is a funda-
mental result in calculus that helps evaluate limits of functions when direct computation is difficult. The
following two theorems describe how the limits of functions are related when one function is bounded by
others. Their proofs can be found in Appendix F of the textbook.

Theorem 1.3

If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist as x
approaches a, then

lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x)

x→a x→a

Theorem 1.4 The Squeeze Theorem

If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a

then

lim g(x) = L
x→a

Intuitively, the Squeeze Theorem states that if g(x) is squeezed between two functions, f (x) and h(x),
which both have the same limit at a, then g(x) must also approach the same limit.

Historical Note The Squeeze Theorem has been used implicitly for centuries, though it was not always
explicitly named. Mathematicians like Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Karl Weierstrass formalized limit
concepts in the 19th century, providing rigorous foundations for analysis. The theorem itself is a direct
application of the epsilon-delta definition of limits, making it an essential tool in rigorous calculus.

11
Example 1.14 Show that
1
lim x2 sin =0
x→0 x

First, note that we cannot rewrite the limit as the product of the limits limx→0 x2 and limx→0 sin x1
because limx→0 sin x1 does not exist due to oscillations.
We can, however, apply the Squeeze Theorem. To do so, we need to find two functions, f (x) and
h(x), that bound g(x) = x2 sin x1 and both converge to the same limit as x → 0. Since the sine
function is always bounded by -1 and 1, we have:
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1.
x
Multiplying through by x2 (which is always positive), we obtain:
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2 .
x
Since we know that:

lim x2 = 0 and lim (−x2 ) = 0,

x→0 x→0

the Squeeze Theorem guarantees that:

1
lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x
y
0.4

0.2

L=0 x
−0.4 −0.2 0.2 0.4

−0.2

−0.4

1
f (x) = x2 h(x) = −x2


g(x) = x2 sin x

Theorem 1.5
sin x
limx→0 x =1

12
 Example 1.15 Determine
sin(πt)
lim
t→0 t

Make a substitution of x = πt. Note that if t → 0, then x → 0. Thus, our limit becomes

sin(πt) sin x sin x

lim = lim = π lim =π·1=π
t→0 t x→0 x/π x→0 x

sin(x−1)
Example 1.16 Determine limx→1 x3 −1

sin(x − 1) sin(x − 1)
lim = lim
x→1 x3 − 1 x→1 (x − 1) (x2 + x + 1)

Notice that if a = x − 1, then a → 0 as x → 1, thus

sin(x − 1) sin a
lim = lim =1
x→1 x−1 a→0 a

With this in mind, we get

sin(x − 1) 1 1
lim =1· 2 =
x→1 (x − 1) (x2 + x + 1) 1 +1+1 3
An alternative approach would have been to do substitution with a = x−1 with the entire fraction:

sin(x − 1) sin a sin a sin a 1 1 1

lim = lim = lim 3 = lim · 2 =1· =
x→1 x3 − 1 a→0 (a + 1)3 − 1 a→0 a + 3a2 + 3a a→0 a a + 3a + 3 3 3

Continuity
Continuity of a Function
We noticed previously that the limit of a function as x approaches a can often be found simply by
calculating the value of the function at a. Functions having this property are called continuous at a. We
will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds closely with the meaning of the word
continuity in everyday language. (A continuous process is one that takes place without interruption.)

Definition 1.9
A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Notice that this definition implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a:

1. f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )

2. limx→a f (x) exists

3. limx→a f (x) = f (a)

The definition says that f is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x approaches a. Thus a continuous
function f has the property that a small change in x produces only a small change in f (x). In fact, the
change in f (x) can be kept as small as we please by keeping the change in x sufficiently small.
If f is defined near a (in other words, f is defined on an open interval containing a, except possibly at
a), we say that f is discontinuous at a (or f has a discontinuity at a) if f is not continuous at a.

13
Physical phenomena are usually continuous. For instance, the displacement or velocity of a moving vehicle
varies continuously with time, as does a person’s height. But discontinuities do occur in such situations
as electric currents (such as in the Heaviside function).
Geometrically, you can think of a function that is continuous at every number in an interval as a function
whose graph has no break in it: the graph can be drawn without removing your pen from the paper.

Example 1.17 Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

x2 −x−2
1. f (x) = x−2
(
x2 −x−2
x−2 if x ̸= 2
2. f (x) =
1 if x = 2
(
1
x2 if x ̸= 0
3. f (x) =
1 if x = 0

1. Notice that f (2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at 2. Later we’ll see why f is continuous
at all other numbers.
2. Here f (2) = 1 is defined and

x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

exists. But

lim f (x) ̸= f (2)

x→2

so f is not continuous at 2.
3. Here f (0) = 1 is defined but

1
lim f (x) = lim
x→0 x→0 x2
does not exist. So f is discontinuous at 0.

The kind of discontinuity illustrated in parts (1) and (2) is called removable because we could remove
the discontinuity by redefining f at just the single number 2. [If we redefine f to be 3 at x = 2, then f is
equivalent to the function g(x) = x + 1, which is continuous.] The discontinuity in part (3) is called an
infinite discontinuity. If we were to re-look at example 1.11 we would see that it would be discontinuous
at x = 0, this discontinuity is called a jump discontinuity because the function “jumps” from one value
to another.

Definition 1.10
ˆ If f is not continuous at a, then we say that f is discontinuous at a.

ˆ If limx→a f (x) exists, but f (a) does not exist or is not equal to the limit, then we say that
f has a removable discontinuity at a.
ˆ If the two one-sided limits at a exist, but are not equal, then we say that f has a jump
discontinuity at a.

ˆ If one of the one-sided limits at a is infinite, then we say that f has an infinite discontinuity
at a.

14
Definition 1.11
A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a−

Definition 1.12

A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the interval. (If

f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we understand continuous at the
endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous from the left.) That is: A function f
is continuous on an interval [a, b] if
ˆ f is continuous at every point in (a, b)

ˆ f is continuous from the right at a

ˆ f is continuous from the left at b

√
Example 1.18 Show that the function f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is continuous on the interval
[−1, 1].

If −1 < a < 1, then using the Limit Laws, we have

p
lim f (x) = lim (1 − 1 − x2 )
x→a x→a
p
= 1 − lim 1 − x2
x→a
q
= 1 − lim (1 − x2 )
x→a
p
= 1 − 1 − a2
= f (a)
Thus, f is continuous at a if −1 < a < 1. Similar calculations show that

lim f (x) = 1 = f (−1) and lim f (x) = 1 = f (1)

x→−1+ x→1−

so f is continuous from the right at -1 and continuous from the left at 1. Therefore, according to
the definition, f is continuous on [−1, 1].

x
−1 1

15
Properties of Continuous Functions

Theorem 1.6
If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following functions are also continuous
at a:

1. f + g
2. f − g
3. cf

4. f g
f
5. g if g(a) ̸= 0

Each of the five parts of this theorem follows directly from the corresponding Limit Law. The idea behind
these rules is simple: continuity of the sum, difference, product, or quotient of functions follows from the
continuity of the individual functions involved. We illustrate this with a proof of part 1. Since f and g
are continuous at a, we have

lim f (x) = f (a) and lim g(x) = g(a).

x→a x→a

Therefore,
lim (f + g)(x) = lim [f (x) + g(x)]
x→a x→a
= lim f (x) + lim g(x) (by Law 1)
x→a x→a
= f (a) + g(a)
= (f + g)(a).
This demonstrates that f + g is continuous at a. By similar arguments, it follows that if f and g are
continuous on an interval, then so are the functions f + g, f − g, cf , f g, and (if g is never zero) fg .

Theorem 1.7

1. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on R = (−∞, ∞).

2. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous on its
domain.

Proof:
1. A polynomial is a function of the form

P (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 ,

where c0 , c1 , . . . , cn are constants. From the properties of limits, we know that

lim c0 = c0
x→a

and
lim xm = am m = 1, 2, . . . , n.
x→a

This shows that f (x) = xm is continuous. By part 3 of Theorem 1.6, the function g(x) = cxm
is continuous. Since P is a sum of continuous functions (each of which is either a constant or
a power of x), it follows from part 1 of Theorem 1.6 that P is continuous.

16
 2. A rational function is a function of the form
P (x)
f (x) = ,
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials. The domain of f is D = {x ∈ R | Q(x) ̸= 0}. We know

from part (a) that P and Q are continuous everywhere, so by part 5 of Theorem 1.6, f is
continuous at every point in D.

As an illustration of Theorem 1.7, observe that the volume of a sphere varies continuously with its radius
because the formula V (r) = 43 πr3 shows that V is a polynomial function of r. Similarly, the height of a
ball thrown vertically into the air with an initial velocity of 15 m/s is given by the formula h = 15t−4.9t2 ,
which is also a polynomial function. Therefore, the height is a continuous function of the elapsed time,
as we would expect.
Knowledge of which functions are continuous helps us evaluate limits more easily, as the following example
demonstrates.

Example 1.19 Find

x3 + 2x2 − 1
lim
x→−2 5 − 3x

The function

x3 + 2x2 − 1
f (x) =
5 − 3x
is rational, so by Theorem 1.7 it is continuous on its domain, which is {x | x ̸= 35 }. Therefore

x3 + 2x2 − 1
lim = lim f (x) = f (−2)
x→−2 5 − 3x x→−2
(−2)3 + 2(−2)2 − 1 1
= =−
5 − 3(−2) 11

In fact, most familiar functions are continuous at every number in their domains.
The sine and cosine functions, which have been known since ancient Greece, were studied by mathemati-
cians such as Hipparchus and Ptolemy. These functions are continuous, and it follows from part 5 of
Theorem 1.6 that
sin x
tan x =
cos x
is continuous except where cos x = 0. This occurs when x is an odd multiple of π2 , causing infinite
discontinuities at x = ± π2 , ± 3π 5π
2 , ± 2 , and so on.

Theorem 1.8
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:
1. polynomials
2. rational functions

3. root functions
4. trigonometric functions
5. inverse trigonometric functions
6. exponential functions

7. logarithmic functions

17
 ln x+tan−1 x
Example 1.20 Where is the function f (x) = x2 −1 continuous?

We know from Theorem 1.8 that the function y = ln x is continuous for x > 0 and y = tan−1 x
is continuous on R. Thus, by part 1 of Theorem 1.6, y = ln x + tan−1 x is continuous on (0, ∞).
The denominator, y = x2 − 1, is a polynomial, so it is continuous everywhere. Therefore, by part
5 of Theorem 1.6, f is continuous at all positive numbers x except where x2 − 1 = 0 ⇝ x = ±1.
So f is continuous on the intervals (0, 1) and (1, ∞).

Example 1.21 Evaluate

sin x
lim
x→π 2 + cos x

Theorem 1.8 tells us that y = sin x is continuous. The denominator y = 2 + cos x is the sum of
two continuous functions, so it is also continuous. Importantly, this function is never zero because
cos x ≥ −1 for all x, ensuring 2 + cos x > 0 everywhere. Therefore, the function
sin x
f (x) =
2 + cos x
is continuous everywhere. Hence, by the definition of a continuous function,
sin x sin π 0
lim = lim f (x) = f (π) = = = 0.
x→π 2 + cos x x→π 2 + cos π 2−1

Example 1.22 At which points is f discontinuous?

(a)
x2 − x − 2
f (x) =
x−2
(b) (
x2 −x−2
x−2 if x ̸= 2
f (x) =
3 if x=2

(a) Since f is a rational function, it is continuous at all points Df . The only problem is then at
x = 2. Since f is not defined at x = 2, f is discontinuous at x = 2.
(b) If x ̸= 2, then f is a rational function with D = R\{2}. Thus f is continuous everywhere
where x ̸= 2. The only possible problem is at x = 2. We have

x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 2 + 1 = 3
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Since f (2) = 3, f is continuous at x = 2. Consequently, f is continuous at all real numbers,

and discontinuous nowhere.

Another way of combining continuous functions f and g to get a new continuous function is to form the
composite function f ◦ g. This is captured by the following theorem.

Theorem 1.9

If f is continuous at b and limx→a g(x) = b, then limx→a f (g(x)) = f (b). In other words,
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
x→a x→a

This theorem says a limit symbol can be moved through a function symbol if the function is con-
tinuous and the limit exists. In other words, the order of these two symbols can be reversed.

18
Intuitively, this is reasonable because if x is close to a, then g(x) is close to b, and since f is continuous
at b, if g(x) is close to b, then f (g(x)) is close to f (b). A proof of Theorem 1.9 is given in Appendix F of
the textbook.

Theorem 1.10

If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite function f ◦ g given by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
This theorem is often expressed informally by saying “a continuous function of a continuous func-
tion is a continuous function.”

Proof:
Since g is continuous at a, we have

lim g(x) = g(a)

x→a

Since f is continuous at b = g(a), we can apply Theorem 1.9 to obtain

lim f (g(x)) = f (g(a))

x→a

which is precisely the statement that the function h(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a; that is, f ◦ g
is continuous at a.

Example 1.23 Where is the function h(x) = sin(x2 ) continuous?

We have h(x) = f (g(x)), where

g(x) = x2 and f (x) = sin x

We know that g is continuous on R since it is a polynomial, and f is also continuous everywhere.
Thus h = f ◦ g is continuous on R by Theorem 1.10.

Example 1.24 Determine all values for a such that f is continuous at x = 2.

(
1 + ax2 + 3 , x < 2
f (x) =
ax + 2, x≥2

We have

lim f (x) = lim− 1 + ax2 + 3

= 1 + |4a + 3|
x→2− x→2
lim f (x) = lim+ (ax + 2) = 2a + 2 = f (2)
x→2+ x→2

Since the limit at 2 must exist, we must have

1 + |4a + 3| = 2a + 2 =⇒ |4a + 3| = 2a + 1 and 2a + 1 ≥ 0

Thus
2
4a + 3 = 2a + 1 or 4a + 3 = −2a − 1 =⇒ a = −1 or a=−
3
But notice that for both of these values, 2a + 1 < 0. Thus there are no values for a such that f is
continuous at x = 2.

19
The Intermediate Value Theorem
An important property of continuous functions is expressed by the following theorem, whose proof is
found in more advanced books on calculus.

Theorem 1.11 The Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N be any number between f (a)
and f (b), where f (a) ̸= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate value
between the function values f (a) and f (b).
If we think of a continuous function as a function whose graph has no hole or break, then it is easy to
believe that the Intermediate Value Theorem is true. In geometric terms it says that if any horizontal
line y = N is given between y = f (a) and y = f (b), then the graph of f can’t jump over the line. It must
intersect y = N somewhere.
It is important that the function f in Theorem 1.11 be continuous. The Intermediate Value Theorem is
not true in general for discontinuous functions.
One use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is in locating solutions of equations as in the following
example.

Example 1.25 Show that there is a solution of the equation

4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0

between 1 and 2.

Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2. We are looking for a solution of the given equation, that is, a
number c between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0. Therefore we take a = 1, b = 2, and N = 0 in
Theorem 11. We have

f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0
f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0
and
Thus f (1) < 0 < f (2); that is, N = 0 is a number between f (1) and f (2). The function f is
continuous since it is a polynomial, so the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number c
between 1 and 2 such that f (c) = 0. In other words, the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 has at
least one solution c in the interval (1, 2).
In fact, we can locate a solution more precisely by using the Intermediate Value Theorem again.
Since

f (1.2) = −0.128 < 0 and f (1.3) = 0.548 > 0

a solution must lie between 1.2 and 1.3. A calculator gives, by trial and error,

f (1.22) = −0.007008 < 0 and f (1.23) = 0.056068 > 0

so a solution lies in the interval (1.22, 1.23).

20
 Example 1.26 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the following equa-
tion has a solution:
√ 1
x−5=
x+3

To apply the Intermediate Value Theorem, we must find a suitable function f and an interval
[a, b]. Notice that
√ 1 √ 1
x−5= ⇐⇒ x−5− =0
x+3 x+3
√ 1
Define f (x) = x−5− x+3 . Df = [5, ∞). We have
√ 1 1
f (5) = 5−5− =− <0
5+3 8
√ 1 1
f (6) = 6 − 5 − =1− >0
6+3 9
Since f is continuous on [5, 6] and 0 is between f (5) and f (6), there exists a c ∈ (5, 6) such that
√ 1
f (c) = 0; that is c−5=
c+3

The Intermediate Value Theorem plays a role in the way that graphing devices work. A computer
calculates a finite number of points on the graph and turns on the pixels that contain these calculated
points. It assumes that the function is continuous and takes on all the intermediate values between two
consecutive points. The computer therefore “connects the dots” by turning on the intermediate pixels.

21