DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

UNIT –I
Introduction to data communication, network protocols & standards and standard
organization line configuration- topology -Transmission mode -Classification of network -OSI
model-layer of OSI model.

Introduction to Data Communication

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and
devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing
of resources and information among interconnected devices.
Data Communication
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows
computers to exchange data.
Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person
to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the
medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired
media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.
For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan
cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

The purpose of Data Communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow
computers with different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to share
resources. The rules and regulations are called protocols and standards in Data
Communications.
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For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware and software. The effectiveness of a data
communication system depends on the three fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery: The System must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are rustles
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video, audio, and voice data, timely delivery means delivering data
as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant
delay. this kind of delivery id called real- time transmission.

Protocols and Standards

Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entries in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. But two entities cannot communicate each other
as sending or receiving. For communication occurs the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. A protocol defines what is
communicated how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol
are syntax, semantics and timing.
Syntax:
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, means to the order how it is presented.
Semantics:
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and when action is to be taken based on the interpretation.
Timing:
Timing refers to two characteristics. They are,
 When data should be sent
 When data to be received.
Standards:
A standard provides a model for development of a product, which is going to develop. Standards
are essential to create and maintain a product.
Standards Organization
ISO (International organization for standardization)
Formed in 1947, ISO is a non-government, independent, international organization. ISO comprises
of 164 national standard bodies from various countries worldwide. ISO has about 23k international
standards covering almost all aspects of technology and manufacturing. Three types of membership
status are there; Member body (or full members), Correspondent members, Subscriber members. The
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member body of ISO from the United States is ANSI and that from India is BIS (Bureau of Indian
Standards).
Out of the popular standards, ISO/IEC 2701- INFORMATION SECURITY MANAGEMENT is
the standard for security of any kind of Digital information. In 1983, ISO developed the OSI reference
model, a 7 layer architecture for computer communication.
International Telecommunications Union–Telecommunications Standards Sector (ITU-T)
Earlier known as Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT)
worked for the research and establishment of the standards in telecommunication. In 1993, it gets the
name ITU-T. ITU-T allocates global radio spectrum and satellite orbits, develops the technical
standards for the interconnection of networks and technologies.
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
Its a private, non-profit, non-government organization. Now its a member body of ISO
representing the US. Primarily focused in the US, it works for coordination of the US standard with
international standards. Its membership comprised of Government agencies, Organizations,
Companies, Academic and International bodies, and individuals.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is the world’s largest technical
professional organization dedicated to advancing innovations in technology. IEEE’s membership has
been composed of engineers, scientists, and allied professionals since earlier. Apart from its
engineering core, IEEE members are also from several other backgrounds like computer scientists,
software developers, information technology professionals, physicists, medical doctors, and many
others. IEEE develops global standards in almost all fields including Information Technology. Among
more than a thousand standards, the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards is widely used in
computer networking which includes 802.3 aka Ethernet, 802.11, aka Wi-FI, etc.
Electronic Industries Alliance/Telecommunication Industry Association (EIA/TIA)
Electronic Industries Alliance(EIA) was known as the Electronic Industries Association until
1997. EIA has developed several electronic signaling information and physical connection interfaces. It
ceased operation in 2011. One of the notable standards of EIA is serial communication standard RS 232.
Though EIA ceased to function, its function was split into different sectors. One of them is TIA
(Telecommunication Industry Association- accredited by ANSI) that developed standards for
Information and communication technology (ICT) products. The cabling standard EIA/TIA 568 for 8
wire is now known as ANSI/TIA 568 standard.
ETSI (European Telecommunication Standard Institute)
It is a European standardization organization that is independent, non-profit, and works in the
Information and communication technology (ICT) industry. It supports the development and testing of
globally applicable ICT enabled systems, services, and applications. ETSI has members from 66
countries/provinces inside and outside of Europe. ETSI is one of the technical bodies of CEN
(European Committee for Standardization).
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W3C (World Wide Web Consortium)

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is an international community where the member
organization and public together work for developing the web standards. Led by its founder (founded in
1994), Tim Berners Lee along the team working together with a mission to ensure that the web is
available to all.
Open Mobile Alliance (OMA)
It is a standard organization formed in 2002, that develops open standards for the mobile phone
sector. It is a non-government forum that works intending to provide interoperability across countries,
operators, and mobile terminals.
Forums
Forums are formed by special interest groups with representatives from concerned corporations.
The work with the universities to test, evaluate, and standardize new innovations. The standards
organizations take too much time in completing the procedures and standardize the technology. The
forums dealing dedicatedly in a particular technology, they speed up and use the technology without
waiting for the standards organizations. Forums are basically community standards intending to
accelerate the concerned technology innovation and creating standards.
There are various forums to name, some of them are :
 Frame Relay Forum
 ATM forum
 Universal Plug n Play (UPnP) forum
 Broadband Forum (BBF)

There are several types of protocols and standards used in computer networks, including Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), Internet Protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and network standards
such as TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, among others.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a fundamental component of computer networks,
designed to ensure accurate and reliable data transmission between devices. As one of the core protocols
in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, TCP guarantees that all information packets arrive at their intended
destination in the correct order and without errors.
TCP's well-established rules help facilitate smooth communication across various network
architectures while maintaining high standards of security and performance. For example, when
downloading a large file from a website or conducting online banking transactions, TCP ensures that our
connection remains stable and secure throughout the entire process.

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Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP) is a fundamental network protocol that enables data communication
across the internet. It is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets from one device to another,
based on their unique addressing scheme.
IP addresses are used to identify devices that are connected to a network, allowing them to
communicate with each other.
One of the key features of IP is its ability to work in conjunction with other protocols such as
TCP or UDP, forming the backbone of the internet's infrastructure. Without it, we wouldn't be able to send
emails or browse web pages online.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that operates on top of the Internet
Protocol (IP). It is faster than Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) because it does not guarantee the
delivery of packets or in order delivery, making it less reliable.
UDP is commonly used for time-sensitive applications such as online gaming, video streaming, and
voice-over-IP (VoIP), where speed and efficiency are more important than reliability.
It should be noted that while UDP does not provide flow control or error correction like TCP, it has
several benefits. For one thing, it requires fewer resources than TCP since no state tracking is required at
either end of the communication channel.
Professionals who work with computer networks must understand which protocols to use for specific
applications to optimize network performance effectively.
Network Standards (TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, Etc.)
There are different types of network standards used in computer networks that are essential for data
communication. These include −
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) − TCP/IP is the most commonly
used protocol and standard in computer networks. It is responsible for ensuring reliable data transmission
over the internet by breaking down data into smaller packets that can be sent across different network
devices.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) − HTTP is a standard protocol used for transmitting web
pages and other content on the World Wide Web. It defines how web clients such as browsers
communicate with servers to retrieve information.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) − FTP is another protocol used to transfer files between devices on
a network. It provides a simple way of sending and receiving files, making it an essential tool for
businesses that need to transfer large amounts of data.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) − SMTP is a standard protocol used for sending email
messages between different email clients and servers on the internet.

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 Domain Name System (DNS) − DNS is a set of protocols that translates human-readable domain
names into IP addresses used by computers to locate websites and other resources on the internet.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is a set of conventions or
rules and methods that are used to interconnect network devices on the Internet. The internet protocol
suite is commonly known as TCP/IP, as the foundational protocols in the suite are Transmission
Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
It chooses how the information will be traded over the web through end-to-end communications that
incorporate how the information ought to be organized into bundles (bundles of data), addressed, sent,
and received at the goal. This communication protocol can also be utilized to interconnect organize
devices in a private network such as an intranet or an extranet.

TCP/IP Layers

 Application Layer An application layer is the topmost layer within the TCP/IP model. When
one application layer protocol needs to communicate with another application layer, it forwards its
information to the transport layer.
The application layer provides the user interface with which the user interacts with the
network and accesses the services or resources he wants to access.
Remote access, email services, shared databases, NVT (Network Virtual Transmission), DNS (Domain
Name System) are services of the application layer.SSH, TELNET, HTTP/HTTPS, POP, IMAP, SMTP,
FTP, etc. are the protocols used in the application layer.

 Transport Layer It is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data that is
being sent over the network. There are two protocols used in this layer are User Datagram Protocol
and Transmission control protocol.
Different processes are running on different machines, so the transport layer is responsible
for the process-to-process delivery of data between communication devices. Transport Layer
provides responsibilities as follow:

1. Service point addressing

2. Segmentation and Reassembling
3. Connection control
4. Flow control and Error control
 Service point addressing: The transport layer header includes the service-point address
(port address) that identifies the system’s processes.
For example, two devices are communicating over a network. Now, Host-1 sends data to Host-
2. But Host-2 often runs multiple processes at the same time, so Host-2 will use the port address to
identify the process that will access the data sent by Host-1.

 Segmentation and Reassembling: The message sent by the sender is divided into
segments including the sequence number in each segment. When the receiver receives the message, it will
reassemble the message using the sequence numbers correctly.
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 Connection control: The transport layer uses two types of connections, the first is TCP
and the second is UDP.
o TCP is used for connection-oriented protocol and hence it guarantees to deliver the
message to the receiver. So, one can say that TCP is reliable.
o UDP is a connectionless protocol and hence it does not give any guarantee of
message delivery to the receiver. So, one can say that UDP is unreliable.
o Sending an email message is an example of TCP, and video streaming is an
example of UDP.
 Flow control and Error control: Flow control (flow of data) and Error control (damage
or loss) are performed between processes in the transport layer.

 Internet/Network Layer It is the third layer of the TCP/IP Model and also known as the
Network layer. The main responsibility of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and they
arrive at the goal irrespective of the route they take.

The network layer is responsible for the host-to-host delivery of packets. It converts the
segments received from the transport layer into packets. The responsibilities and services of the
network layer are as follows:

 Logical addressing: The network layer adds headers to the packet. The NL header
contains the logical address (IP address) of the sender and receiver, allowing for host-to-host delivery
success.
 Routing: How our data travels over the network depends on routing. The network layer
uses the router so that the layers below the network layer can also use the functionality of the router.

o Router use two rules which are as follow:

 The router always works based on the destination address.
 The router uses the store and forward mechanism to store the packet and forward it
to the nearest device.

 Network Access Layer It is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP Model. It is the combination of the
Physical Layer and the Data link layer which present in the OSI Model. Its main responsibility is to the
transmission of information over the same network between two devices.
 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Application/Uses of TCP/IP

Some Real-Time Applications are:

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP): It helps to send email to another email address.
 File Transfer Protocol(FTP): It is used for sending large files.
 Dynamic Host Configure Protocol(DHCP): It assigns the IP address.
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 Telnet: Bi-directional text communication via a terminal application.
 HyperText Transfer Protocol(HTTP): Used to transfer the web pages.
 Domain Name System(DNS): It translates the website name to IP addresses.
 Simple Network Time Protocol(SNTP): It provides the time of a day to the network devices.

Line Configuration
Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link. Line
configuration is also referred to as connection. A Link is the physical communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected
in same way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible line configurations.
 Point-to-Point.
 Multipoint.

Point-to-Point
A Point to Point Line Configuration Provide dedicated link between two devices use actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two end including microwave & satellite link. Infrared remote control &
tvs remote control.
The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most
point-to-point line configurations use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most conventional
network topologies. It is also the simplest to establish and understand. To visualize, one can consider
point to point network topology as two phones connected end to end for a two way communication

Multipoint Configuration
Multipoint Configuration also known as Multidrop line configuration: one or more than two
specific devices share a single link capacity of the channel is shared.
More than two devices share the Link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now. With
shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line Config:
◻ Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its called Spatially shared line
configuration
◻ Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then its called Temporally shared
or Time Shared Line Configuration.

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Topology
The term ―Topology refers to the way in which the end points or stations/computer systems,
attached to the networks, are interconnected. We have seen that a topology is essentially a stable
geometric arrangement of computers in a network. If we want to select a topology for doing
networking.
Depending on the requirement there are different Topologies to construct a network.
 Mesh topology.
 Star topology.
 Tree (Hierarchical)topology.
 Bus topology.
 Ring topology.

Ring and mesh topologies are felt convenient for peer to peer transmission. Star and tree are more
convenient for client server. Bus topology is equally convenient for either of them.
Mesh Topology

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in point-
to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to
few hosts only.

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Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links.
Mesh technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus
for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable network
structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect
to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide
reliability to some hosts out of all.
Advantages:
 They use dedicated links so each link can only carry its own data load. So traffic problem can be

avoided.
 It is robust. If any one link get damaged it cannot affect others
 It gives privacy and security
 Fault identification and fault isolation are easy.
Disadvantages:
 The amount of cabling and the number IO ports required are very large. Since every device is
connected to each other devices through dedicated links.
 The sheer bulk of wiring is larger then the available space
 Hardware required to connect each device is highly expensive.

Example:
A mesh network has 8 devices. Calculate total number of cable links and IO ports needed.
Solution:
Number of devices = 8 Number of links = n (n-1)/2
= 8(8-1)/2
= 28
Number of port/device = n-1
= 8-1 = 7

Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-
point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub.

Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends the message either
to all the computers. (In a broadcast network) or only the destination computer. (In a switched
network). Ethernet 10 base T is a popular network based on the star topology.

Here each device has a dedicated link to the central „hub‟. There is no direct traffic between devices.
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The transmission are occurred only through the central controller namely hub.

Advantages:
 Less expensive then mesh since each device is connected only to the hub.
 Installation and configuration are easy.

 Less cabling is need then mesh.

 Robustness.
 Easy to fault identification & isolation.
Disadvantages:
Even it requires less cabling then mesh when compared with other topologies it still large.
Tree (Hierarchical) topology
This is the most common form of network topology in use presently. This topology imitates as
extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology. Tree topology is also known as
Hierarchical Topology.

This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network
is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are
attached.

The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and
lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the
tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighbouring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the Bus topology, if
the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even. though it is not the single point of failure.
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Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable
segment.
Advantages:
 Can connect more than star.
 The distance can be increased.
 Can isolate and prioritize communication between different computers

Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus topology may
have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.

Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master
to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect
the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.

Advantages:
 Ease of installation.
 Less cabling.

Disadvantages:
 Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
 Difficult to add new devices.
 Signal reflection at top can degradation in quality
 If any fault in backbone can stops all transmission.

Ring topology

In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent
to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing
structure,the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

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Advantages:
 Easy to install.
 Easy to reconfigure.
 Fault identification is easy.
Disadvantages:
 Unidirectional traffic.
 Break in a single ring can break entire network.

Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid topology.
Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may contain
attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-
Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best
example of largest Hybrid topology

Transmission Mode
Transferring modes refer to the process of transferring data from one point to the other point or device
over a particular network. The Channel between the two devices can be buses or networks. The
communication channel between the two points includes an optical fiber cable, wireless communication,
and a copper wired channel. These data are transferred between the devices using Electro Magnetic
waves.The transmission is characterized by:
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 The direction of the exchanges
 The transmission mode: the number of bits sent simultaneously
 Synchronization between the transmitter and receiver

Types of Transmission mode

 Simplex
 Half Duplex
 Full Duplex

Simplex Mode:
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, Data is transmitted from one device to
another device. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Example

Mouse and Monitor Interaction: When using a computer, the mouse transmits data to the monitor,
displaying the cursor's movement. However, the monitor does not send any feedback or response back to
the mouse, illustrating a one-way communication flow.
Television Broadcasting: In Television broadcasting, the broadcasters send the data in the form of
signals but from the receiver end no signal is sent back.

Half Duplex Mode:

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

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Example:
 Walkie-Talkie is a Half-Duplex device. In this, the person in location A transfers their data in the
form of voice and the person receiver end waits for the data to reach. Then only the other person can
send or reply to the data we received from the sender again.
 USB 2.0 (Universal Serial Bus) supports half-duplex communication.

Full-Duplex Mode:

Duplex mode is the transmission of data between two devices simultaneously. It is a two-way
communication. The Sender can send and receive the data from the other end device simultaneously. In
this the carrier or the bus need not wait for the other device, it can send/receive the data simultaneously.

Example:
 In MODEM we send and receive the information at the same time.
 Telephone or mobile communication helps people on both ends to talk simultaneously.
Classification of Network
A Computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share
information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows
users to communicate more easily.
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A
network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media.
Types of Computer Networks

There are mainly five types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

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Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user. This may include
Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless
printers and TV remotes.

For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may contain up to 8 devices
connected together in a master-slave fashion.
Local Area Network

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative system is
generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually,LAN covers an organization’ offices, schools,
colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much
as 16 million.

LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users.The resources such as printers,
file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains local servers
serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates on private IP addresses and
does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
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LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed LAN technology
and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen.

LAN can be wired,wireless, or in both forms at once.

Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as cable TV
network. It can be in the form of Ethernet,Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their
Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between Local Area
Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may span across provinces and even a whole
country. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks provide
connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use
very expensive network equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by multiple administration.

OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the
software application in another computer.
OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is
now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
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 Layers of OSI Model

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

The OSI model has seven layers and each layer has its own services and responsibilities. They are as
follows:

1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Data Link Layer
7. Physical Layer

Application Layer:
The application layer provides the user interface with which the user interacts with the
network and accesses the services or resources he wants to access.
 Remote access, email services, shared databases, NVT (Network Virtual Transmission),
DNS (Domain Name System) are services of the application layer.
 SSH, TELNET, HTTP/HTTPS, POP, IMAP, SMTP, FTP, etc. are the protocols used in the
application layer.

Presentation Layer:
Data translation, data encryption, and data compression are the responsibilities of the
presentation layer. It also takes care of the syntax and semantics of the data exchanged between the
two devices.
 Translation: Using translation, the message is translated from human-readable format to
computer-readable format. In short, the data is converted into a stream of bits because the computer
understands the only binary language.
 Encryption: Once the data translation is complete, the data will be encrypted to protect it
from unauthorized access.

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  Data Compression: After the data encryption is completed, the data compression
algorithm will be used to compress the data. Because compressed data is transmitted faster than the
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING
original data.

Session Layer:
The session layer provides two main responsibilities which are dialog control and
synchronization.
 Dialog Control: Basically, Dialog Control provides two ways for the system to
communicate. They are half-duplex and full-duplex.
o Half Duplex: When two devices communicate, only one device can send or receive
messages at a time.
o Full Duplex: It means bidirectional communication. Communication devices can
send or receive messages at the same time.
 Synchronization: The session layer adds checkpoints or synchronization points in data.

o For example, if a device is sending a 4000 pages file, it is good to have checkpoints
after every 200 pages. When 200 pages are received on the receiving side, an acknowledgment will be
given by the receiver to the sender.
o Now, let’s say the transmission crashed on page 1267, then instead of sending the
entire file from the beginning, the system would check checkpoint 1201 and retransmit from page
1201.

Transport Layer

Different processes are running on different machines, so the transport layer is responsible for
the process-to-process delivery of data between communication devices. Transport Layer provides
responsibilities as follow:

5. Service point addressing

6. Segmentation and Reassembling
7. Connection control
8. Flow control and Error control
 Service point addressing: The transport layer header includes the service-point address
(port address) that identifies the system’s processes.
For example, two devices are communicating over a network. Now, Host-1 sends data to Host-
2. But Host-2 often runs multiple processes at the same time, so Host-2 will use the port address to
identify the process that will access the data sent by Host-1.

 Segmentation and Reassembling: The message sent by the sender is divided into
segments including the sequence number in each segment. When the receiver receives the message, it will
reassemble the message using the sequence numbers correctly.
 Connection control: The transport layer uses two types of connections, the first is TCP
and the second is UDP.
o TCP is used for connection-oriented protocol and hence it guarantees to deliver the
message to the receiver. So, one can say that TCP is reliable.
o UDP is a connectionless protocol and hence it does not give any guarantee of
message delivery to the receiver. So, one can say that UDP is unreliable.
o Sending an email message is an example of TCP, and video streaming is an
example of UDP.
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  Flow control and Error control: Flow control (flow of data) and Error control (damage
or loss) are performed between processes in the transport layer.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the host-to-host delivery of packets. It converts the
segments received from the transport layer into packets. The responsibilities and services of the
network layer are as follows:

 Logical addressing: The network layer adds headers to the packet. The NL header
contains the logical address (IP address) of the sender and receiver, allowing for host-to-host delivery
success.
 Routing: How our data travels over the network depends on routing. The network layer
uses the router so that the layers below the network layer can also use the functionality of the router.

o Router use two rules which are as follow:

 The router always works based on the destination address.
 The router uses the store and forward mechanism to store the packet and forward it
to the nearest device.
Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for converting packets received from the network layer into
frames. It is also responsible for hop-to-hop delivery. The responsibilities of the data link layer are as
follows:

1. Framing
2. MAC address
3. Flow and Error control
4. Access control

 Framing: The data link layer converts packets into frames.

 MAC address: MAC address understands the framing of the data link layer.
 Flow and Error control: Flow control and Error control are performed between network
devices.
o Flow control: If the received data rate is less than the sent data rate, the data link
layer lowers the data rate on the sender side to control the flow of data.
o Error control: An error control mechanism is used to detect the damaged lost and
resend the lost frame.
 Access control: When more than two devices are connected to the network, the access
control mechanism specifies which device will get the link for communication.

Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical layer devices
are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
mode between the two devices on the network.
Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

Unit – I Questions
Two Marks
1. What is meant by Data Communication and explain its characteristics?
2. What are the components of Data communication?
3. Explain different Data flow directions.
4. Define Line Configuration?
5. Write about different types of connections.
6. Write the layers of OSI model?

Five Marks
1. Explain different types of topologies.
2. Explain different types of Networks.
3. Write about Protocol and Standards.

Ten Marks
1. Explain different layers in OSI Model.
2. Explain the layers of TCP/IP model.

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