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MACHINE DESIGN, Lecture Notes Revised Version 2003

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 MACHINE DESIGN
(LECTURE NOTES)

Dr. HESHAM A. HEGAZI

Assistant Professor of Machine Design
Mechanical Design and Production Department
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University

Revised Version
2003
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Spur Gears 3

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Types of Gears 4
1.3 Spur Gears Terminology 5
1.4 Fundamental Relations 8
1.5 Methods of Manufacturing 10
1.6 Failure of Gears 12
1.7 Design Steps of Spur Gears 13
1.8 Gear Shapes 24
1.9 Design Example 26

Chapter 2: Belts 30

2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Fundamental Relations 31
2.3 Calculation of Belt Length and Contact Angles 33
2.4 V-Belt Sizes 34
2.5 V-Belt Materials 34
2.6 V-Belt Design Steps 35
2.7 Numerical Example 43

Chapter 3: Shaft Design 47

3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Design Considerations 47
3.3 Standard Size of Shaftings 47
3.4 Shaft Materials 47
3.5 Loading Conditions 48
3.6 Design for Strength (combined loads) 49
3.7 Design for Rigidity 50
3.8 Shaft Design Procedure 51
3.9 Shaft Constructions 52
3.10 Numerical Example (1) 53
3.11 Numerical Example (2) 54
3.12 Numerical Example (3) 55

Chapter 4: Rolling Bearings 58

4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 Types of Ball Bearings 59
4.3 Types of Roller Bearings 60

1
 Table of Contents

4.4 Bearing Dimensions 60

4.5 Bearing Life and Load 61
4.6 Bearing Selection Process 63
4.7 Numerical Example 67

References 70

Appendix A: Material Selection 71

Appendix B: Beam Diagrams and Formulas 79
Appendix C: SKF Deep-Groove Ball Bearings 83
Appendix D: Some Constructional Drawings 92
Appendix E: Miscellaneous 97

2
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.1 Introduction:

A Shaft is rotating machine member, usually of circular cross

section (either solid or hollow), transmitting power. It is supported by
bearings and supports gears, sprockets, wheels, rotors, pulleys, etc. ...,
and is subjected to torsion and to transverse or axial loads, acting singly
or in combination.
An Axle is a stationary member loaded in bending with rotating
wheels, pulleys, etc. .... .
Short shafts and axles are often called Spindles.
Sometimes, to facilitate assembly and to position the fitted parts
axially shafts are made stepped.

3.2 Design Considerations:

In designing shafts, it is necessary to consider the following:

i) Type of loading (static, dynamic or shock).
ii) Weakening effects at points of stress concentration due to keyways
and shoulders.
iii) Combination of loading (torsion, bending, combined torsion and
bending, combined torsion, bending, and axial loads).

3.3 Standard Size of Shaftings:

The following are the common sizes (in mm) of the transmission
shafting:
25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110,
125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400,
420, 440, 460, 480, 500.
The maximum length of shaft usually does not exceed 7 meters,
due to transportation problems.

3.4 Shaft Materials:

Usually shafts are made of mild steel and carbon steel. When
higher strength and wear resistance are required, alloy steels containing
some percentage of nickel, or nickel-chromium, or chromium-vanadium
are used. In general use shafts are made from St 42, and St 50 according
to DIN standards. Material references of shafts are listed in Appendix .

47
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.5 Loading Conditions

Solid Shaft Hollow Shaft

d
di
do
Axial Load
Fa = Axial Force (tensile or compressive)

4 Fa 4 Fa
σ = σa =
πd 2 π(d 2o − d 2i )
a

Bending Load
Mb = Bending Momemt
32 M b 32 M b d o
σb = σb =
πd 3 π(d o4 − d i4 )

Torsional Load
Mt = Torsional Moment

16M t 16M t d o
τ= τ=
πd 3 π(d 4o − d 4i )

Where :
σa = Tensile or compressive stress (MPa)
σb = Bending stress (MPa)
τ = Torsional stress (MPa)

48
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.6 Design for Strength (combined loads):

The ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) code equation

for a Hollow Shaft combines torsion, bending, and axial loads by
applying the maximum shear equation modified by introducing shock,
fatigue, and column factor.

αFa d o (1 − k 2 ) 
2
16 
d o3 = k b M b +  + [k t M t ]
2

πτ all (1 − k 4 )  8 
Where :
k = di / do
kb = Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to bending
moment.
kt = Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to torsional
moment.
τall = Allowable shear strength of shaft material (MPa)
α = Column-action factor
in tension loading (α=1)
in compression loading
1
α= for L/K < 115
 L
1 − 0.0044 
 K
Sy  L  2
α= 2   for L/K > 115
π nE  K 
n = 1 for hinged ends
n = 2.25 for fixed ends
n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained
I
K = radius of gyration = (m)
A
I = rectangular moment of inertia, (m4)
A = cross section area of shaft, (m2)
Sy = Yield stength in compression, (MPa)
E = Yong’s modulus of shaft material, (MPa)
Note:
τall = τy/F.S F.S = Factor of Safety
τy = Sy/2

49
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

For a Solid Shaft having no Axial loads ( Fa = 0 )

16
d3 = [ k b M b ] + [k t M t ]
2 2

πτ all
The recommended values for shock and fatigue factors are given in
the following table :

Nature of Loading kb kt
Stationary shafts
- Gradually applied load 1.0 1.0
- Suddenly applied load 1.5 - 2.0 1.5 - 2.0

Rotating shafts
- Gradually applied or steady load 1.5 1.0
- Suddenly applied loads, minor shocks 1.5 - 2.0 1.0 - 1.5
- Suddenly applied loads, heavy shocks 2.0 - 3.0 1.5 - 3.0

3.7 Design for Rigidity:

In some application, shaft rigidity can play an important factor in

the design process, so that, no only the diameter obtained from the design
for strength is sufficient, but also it may be required to increase the shaft
diameter for rigidity requirements. Shafts deflects under the force exerted
by pulleys, gears, etc. Deflections of a shaft and inclination of the
sections carrying gears cause uneven distribution of load over the length
of the teeth, which impairs the normal operation of the drive. The
inclination of shaft ends has a harmful effect on the operation of the
bearings. A large angle of twist of a shaft may violate the normal
operation of the mechanism.
The condition for rigidity is written as :
δmax <= δall
Where :
δmax = Maximum deflection
δall = Allowable deflection
Usually,
δall = (0.001 - 0.003) L
Where :
L is the span (distance between the bearings of an axle)

50
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

It is assumed that the angle of twist for transmission shafts should not
exceed 0.005-0.1 rad per one meter of the shaft length (≅ 0.25-0.5o per 1
m).
The angle of twist can be calculated as :
ML
θ= t (rad)
IpG
Where :
Mt = torque (N.m)
L = Shaft length (m)
Ip = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft cross-section
Ip = πd4/32
G = modulus of elasticity for shear ( ≅ 80 GPa for steel )

3.8 Shaft Design Procedure:

1. Determine the rotational speed of the shaft.

2. Determine the power or the torque to be transmitted by the shaft.
3. Determine the design of the power-transmitting components or other
devices that will be mounted on the shaft and specify the required
location of each device.
4. Specify the location of bearings to support the shaft.
5. Determine the magnitude of torque that the shaft sees at all points, and
draw the torque diagram.
6. Determine the forces that are exerted on the shaft, both radially and
axially.
7. Resolve the radial forces into components in perpendicular directions,
usually vertical and horizontally.
8. Solve for the reactions on all support bearings in each plane.
9. Produce the complete shearing force and bending moment diagrams to
determine the distribution of bending moments in the shaft.
10.Select the material from which the shaft will be made.
11.Determine an appropriate design stress, considering the manner of
loading (smooth, shock, or other).
12.Analyze each critical point of the shaft to determine the minimum
acceptable diameter of the shaft at that point in order to insure safety
under the loading at that point.

51
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.9 Shaft Constructions:

The figure bellow shows the working drawing of a transmission

shaft used in the revolving mechanism of a 10 ton gantry crane; the form
of the shaft is determined taking into account the acting stresses and the
duties of the fitted parts, the nature of the fits, etc. Abrupt change in shaft
cross section can cause stress concentration which are most unwelcome
with the nature of load typical for shafts and many designs of axle, the
load producing varying stress.

52
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.10 Numerical Example (1)

A shaft of 2 m long between bearings carries a belt pulley at its midpoint

as shown in figure. The pulley is keyed to the shaft and receives 30 kW
at 150 RPM. The belt drive is horizontal and the sum of the belt tensions
is 8000 N. Assume Kt = Kb = 1.5 . Calculate the necessary shaft diameter.
1000 1000
F1

8000 N F2
Horizontal Moment Diagram

R1=4000N R2=4000N

Mb = (PL/4)=8000*2000/4*1000 = 4000N.m

Mb,max = 4000 N.m

or H = T.ω ω = 2πn/60 = 2π(150)/60 = 15.7 rad/s
T = H/ω = 30∗1000/15.7 = 1909.86 Ν.m
Mt,max = 1909.86 N.m
Using St 50 with Sy = 250 MPa
τy = 125 MPa

take a factor of safety = 2 ; τall= 125/2 = 62.5 MPa

(K M b ) + (K t M t ) = (1.5 * 4000) + (1.5 * 1909.86)

16 16
d3 =
2 2 2 2

πτ all π62.5 * 10 6
b

d = 0.08152 m
d = 81.5 mm
take d = 82 mm

53
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.11 Numerical Example (2)

A 600 mm diameter pulley driven by a horizontal belt transmits

power through a solid shaft to a 262 mm diameter pinion which drives a
mating gear.
Determine the necessary shaft diameter ( Assume Kb = 2; Kt = 1.5).
Pulley 1500 N
Pinion

1 A B 2 3000 N

225
8000 N
375 250
5000 N
R1y R2y
R1y + R2y = 8000
8000 N 8000(225) = R2y(850)
Vertical Plane R2y = 2117.6 N
R1y = 5882.4 N
8000 N
529.4 Nm

R1x R2x

Horizontal Plane
R1x + R2x = 9500
3000 N 6500 N 3000(225) + 6500(600) = R2x(850)
R2x = 5382.35 N
1345.6 Nm R1x = 4117.65 N
926.47 Nm

Bending :
M bA = (1323.54) + (926.47) = 1615.58 Nm
2 2

M bB = (529.4) + (1345.6) = 1445.99 Nm

2 2

Mb,max = 1615.58 Nm
Torsion :
Mt,max = (F1 - F2) Dpulley/2 = (5000-1500)600/2000 = 1050 Nm

Using St 50.11 with τall = 62.5 MPa (As Example 1)

(k M b ) + (k t M t ) = (2x1615.58) + (1.5 x1050)

16 16
d3 =
2 2 2 2

πτ all π 62.5 x10 6

b

d = 0.0664 m d = 66.4 mm take

d = 68 mm
54
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

3.12 Numerical Example (3)

The Figure bellow shows an isometric view of a shaft carrying two

pulleys. The smaller pulley of 250 mm diameter, and weighting 120 N.
The larger pulley of 500 mm diameter, and weighting 600 N. The tension
on the loose side on pulley A is 20 % of the tension on the right side. The
shaft is supported by two bearings located at O and B. The shaft is
fabricated to be hollow with a diameters ratio k = di /do = 0.6 .
Determine the shaft inner and outer diameters.

Input Data :
• n = 720 RPM
• WA = 600 N
• WC = 120 N

55
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

• F2 = 0.2 F1

ω = 2πn / 60 = 2π(720) / 60 = 75.4 rad/s

• Power transmitted by the shaft :
H = (0.72 - 0.1) * (Dc / 2) * ω
= (0.72 - 0.1) * (0.25 / 2) *75.4
= 5.84 kW
• Determination of large pulley forces F1, F2 :
(F1 - F2) * (DA / 2)* ω = H
F1 - F2 = 5.84 * 103 *2 / (0.5 * 75.4)
F1 - F2 = 309 N
or F2 = 0.2 F1

F1 = 386 N
F2 = 77 N
F = F1 + F2 = 463 N

• Maximum Torque Mt,max :

Mt,max = H / ω = 5.84*103 / 75.4 = 77.45 Nm

• Maximum Bending Mb,max :

At point A :
M b ,A = (133.72) 2
+ ( 201.6) = 241.91
2
Nm

M b ,B = (246) 2
+ ( 36) = 248.62
2
Nm
Mb,max = 248.62 (at point B) Nm
• In case of Hollow shaft the ASME code :

αFa d o (1 − k 2 ) 
2
16 
d o3 = k b M b +  + [k t M t ]
2

πτ all (1 − k 4 )
 8 
of Fa = 0 ; the equation will be reduced to :

16
d o3 = [k M b ] + [k t M t ]
2 2

πτ all (1 − k 4 )
b

Where :
k = 0.6

Using St 50 with Sy = 250 MPa

τy = 125 MPa

56
 Chapter 3:Shaft Design

take a factor of safety = 2 ; τall= 125/2 = 62.5 MPa

For a rotating shaft and with the assumption that the load is suddenly
applied with minor shocks :
Kt = 1.5 Kb = 2.0

Then
16
d 3o = [2.0 * 248.62] + [15. * 77.45]
2 2

π62.5 * 10 6 (1 − 0.64 )
do = 0.03629 m
do = 36.29 mm
Take

do = 40 mm
di = 24 mm

57
 Chapter 4: Rolling Bearings

4.3 Type of Roller Bearings:

When shock and impact loads arc present, or when a large bearing
is needed, cylindrical and tapered roller bearings are usually used. A
roller bearing in general consists of the same four elements as a ball
bearing: the two rings, the cage, and the rollers. Some typical examples of
roller bearings are shown in (Figure 3).

Figure 3 (Types of Roller Bearings)

In the cylindrical roller bearing, the flanges are on the rings serve
to guide the rollers in the proper direction. When the flanges are omitted
from one of the rings, the rings can then be displaced axially with respect
to each other, and no thrust component can be carried. In addition to the
radial load, the tapered roller bearing can carry a large axial component
whose magnitude depends on the angularity of the rollers. The radial load
will also produce a thrust component. The outer ring is separable from the
remainder of the bearing. In this type of bearing, it is possible to make
adjustment for the radial clearance.

Roller bearings in general can be applied only where the angular

misalignment caused by shaft deflection is very slight. This deficiency is
not present in the spherical roller bearing. It has excellent load capacity
and can carry a thrust component in either direction.

4.4 Bearing Dimensions:

The ISO dimensions plan for radial bearings contains a progressive

series of standardized outside diameters for every standard bore size
arranged in diameter series 7, 8, 9, 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 (in order of ascending
size. Within each diameter series, different width series have also been
established (width series 8, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in order of increasing
width). The width series for radial bearings correspond to the height

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