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CSA Unit 10 - Exams

Network Analysis (Bangalore University)

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DIWAKAARTIFIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

Unit - 10

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Artificial Intelligence

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch with
different new technologies day by day.

Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial

Intelligence which is ready to create a new revolution in the world by making
intelligent machines.The Artificial Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently
working with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-
driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.

AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a
great scope in future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a
human.

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where

Artificial defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI
means "a man-made thinking power."

So, AI can be defined as:

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"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create

intelligent machines which can behave like a human, think like
humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as
learning, reasoning, and solving problems

With Artificial Intelligence we do not need to preprogram a machine to do some

work, despite that we can create a machine with programmed algorithms which
can work with own intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.

It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as per
Greek myth, there were Mechanical men in early days which can work and
behave like humans.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the
importance of AI and why should we learn it. Following are some main reasons to
learn about AI:

 With the help of AI, we can create such software or devices which can solve
real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues,
marketing, traffic issues, etc.

 With the help of AI, we can create our personal virtual Assistant, such as
Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.

 With the help of AI, we can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk.

 AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

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1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks

3. An intelligent connection of perception and action

4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human

intelligence such as:

 Proving a theorem
 Playing chess
 Plan some surgical operation
 Driving a car in traffic

5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new
things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Comprises to Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and
requires lots of other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first we
should know that how intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an
intangible part of our brain which is a combination of Reasoning,
learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding, etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence

requires the following discipline:

 Mathematics
 Biology
 Psychology
 Sociology
 Computer Science
 Neurons Study
 Statistics

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Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

 High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone

to less errors and high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-
experience or information.

 High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision

making, because of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the
Chess game.

 High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the
same action multiple times with high accuracy.

 Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such

as defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human
can be risky.

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o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to

the users such as AI technology is currently used by various E-
commerce websites to show the products as per customer
requirement.

o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such
as a self-driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free,
facial recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing
to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for Artificial
intelligence. Being so advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages
which we need to keep in our mind while creating an AI system. Following are the
disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly

as it requires lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.

o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with
AI, but still they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that
work for which they are trained, or programmed.

o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding

performer, but still it does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind
of emotional attachment with human, and may sometime be harmful for
users if the proper care is not taken.

o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of

technology, people are getting more dependent on devices and hence
they are losing their mental capabilities.

o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine

some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat this power of
human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

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5 Main Approaches to AI Learning

An algorithm is a kind of container. It provides a box for storing a method to solve

a particular kind of a problem. Algorithms process data through a series of well-
defined states. The states need not be deterministic, but the states are defined
nonetheless. The goal is to create an output that solves a problem. In some cases,
the algorithm receives inputs that help define the output, but the focus is always
on the output.

Algorithms must express the transitions between states using a well-defined and
formal language that the computer can understand. In processing the data and
solving the problem, the algorithm defines, refines, and executes a function. The
function is always specific to the kind of problem being addressed by the
algorithm.

Each of the five tribes has a different technique and strategy for solving problems
that result in unique algorithms. Combining these algorithms should lead
eventually to the master algorithm that will be able to solve any given problem.
The following discussion provides an overview of the five main algorithmic
techniques.

Symbolic reasoning

One of the earliest tribes, the symbolists, believed that knowledge could be
obtained by operating on symbols (signs that stand for a certain meaning or
event) and deriving rules from them. By putting together complex systems of
rules, we could attain a logic deduction of the result we wanted to know, thus the
symbolists shaped their algorithms to produce rules from data. In symbolic
reasoning, deduction expands the realm of human knowledge,
while induction raises the level of human knowledge. Induction commonly opens
new fields of exploration, while deduction explores those fields.

Connections modelled on the brain‟s neurons

The connectionists are perhaps the most famous of the five tribes. This tribe
strives to reproduce the brain‘s functions by using silicon instead of neurons.

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Essentially, each of the neurons (created as an algorithm that models the real-
world counterpart) solves a small piece of the problem, and using many neurons
in parallel solves the problem as a whole.

The use of backpropagation, or backward propagation of errors, seeks to

determine the conditions under which errors are removed from networks built to
resemble the human neurons by changing the weights (how much a particular
input figures into the result) and biases (which features are selected) of the
network. The goal is to continue changing the weights and biases until such time
as the actual output matches the target output. At this point, the artificial neuron
fires and passes its solution along to the next neuron in line. The solution created
by just one neuron is only part of the whole solution. Each neuron passes
information to the next neuron in line until the group of neurons creates a final
output. Such a method proved the most effective in human-like tasks such as
recognizing objects, understanding written and spoken language, and chatting
with humans.

Evolutionary algorithms that test variation

The evolutionaries rely on the principles of evolution to solve problems. In other

words, this strategy is based on the survival of the fittest (removing any solutions
that don‘t match the desired output). A fitness function determines the viability
of each function in solving a problem. Using a tree structure, the solution method
looks for the best solution based on function output. The winner of each level of
evolution gets to build the next-level functions. The idea is that the next level will
get closer to solving the problem but may not solve it completely, which means
that another level is needed. This particular tribe relies heavily on recursion and
languages that strongly support recursion to solve problems. An interesting
output of this strategy has been algorithms that evolve: One generation of
algorithms actually builds the next generation.

Bayesian inference
A group of scientists, called Bayesians, perceived that uncertainty was the key
aspect to keep an eye on and that learning wasn‘t assured but rather took place

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as a continuous updating of previous beliefs that grew more and more accurate.
This perception led the Bayesians to adopt statistical methods and, in particular,
derivations from Bayes‘ theorem, which helps us to calculate probabilities under
specific conditions (for instance, seeing a card of a certain seed, the starting value
for a pseudo-random sequence, drawn from a deck after three other cards of
same seed).

Systems that learn by analogy

The analogyzers use kernel machines to recognize patterns in data. By recognizing

the pattern of one set of inputs and comparing it to the pattern of a known
output, we can create a problem solution. The goal is to use similarity to
determine the best solution to a problem. It‘s the kind of reasoning that
determines that using a particular solution worked in a given circumstance at
some previous time; therefore, using that solution for a similar set of
circumstances should also work. One of the most recognizable outputs from this
tribe is recommender systems. For example, when we buy a product on Amazon,
the recommender system comes up with other, related products that we might
also want to buy.

The ultimate goal of machine learning is to combine the technologies and

strategies embraced by the five tribes to create a single algorithm (the master
algorithm) that can learn anything. Of course, achieving that goal is a long way off.
Even so, scientists such as Pedro Domingos are currently working toward
that goal.

Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Programming Without AI Programming

With AI

A computer program without AI can answer A computer program

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the specific questions it is meant to solve. with AI can answer

the generic
questions it is
meant to solve.
AI programs can
absorb new
modifications by
putting highly
independent pieces
of information
Modification in the program leads to change in its
together. Hence we
structure.
can modify even a
minute piece of
information of
program without
affecting its
structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It may lead to Quick and Easy
affecting the program adversely. program
modification.

AI Technique

In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties −

 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.

 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.

 It keeps changing constantly.

AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a

way that −

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 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.

 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.

AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is

equipped with.

Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

 Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker,

tic- tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of
possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.

 Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the

computer that understands natural language spoken by humans.

 Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate

machine, software, and special information to impart reasoning and
advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.

 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and

comprehend visual input on the computer. For example,

o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out

spatial information or map of the areas.

o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal
with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.

 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing

and comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their
meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang
words, noise in the background, change in human‘s noise due to cold,
etc.

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 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads

the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize
the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by

a human. They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world
such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure.
They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to
exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their
mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

History of AI

Here is the history of AI during 20th century −

Year Milestone / Innovation

Karel Čapek play named ―Rossum's Universal Robots‖ (RUR) opens in

1923
London, first use of the word "robot" in English.

1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.

1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and

1950 published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon
published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.

John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration

1956
of the first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

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1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can

1964 understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word
problems correctly.

Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that

1965
carries on a dialogue in English.

Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,

1969
equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the

1973 Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.

The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was

1979
built.

1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.

Major advances in all areas of AI −

 Significant demonstrations in machine learning

1990  Case-based reasoning

 Multi-agent planning

 Scheduling

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 Data mining, Web Crawler

 natural language understanding and translation

 Vision, Virtual Reality

 Games

The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion,
1997 Garry Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT

displays Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The
robot Nomad explores remote regions of Antarctica and locates
2000 meteorites.

Turing Test
A Turing Test is a method of inquiry in artificial intelligence (AI) for determining
whether or not a computer is capable of thinking like a human being. The test is
named after Alan Turing, the founder of the Turning Test and an English computer
scientist, cryptanalyst, mathematician and theoretical biologist.

Turing proposed that a computer can be said to possess artificial intelligence if it

can mimic human responses under specific conditions. The original Turing Test
requires three terminals, each of which is physically separated from the other
two. One terminal is operated by a computer, while the other two are operated
by humans.

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During the test, one of the humans functions as the questioner, while the second
human and the computer function as respondents. The questioner interrogates
the respondents within a specific subject area, using a specified format and
context. After a preset length of time or number of questions, the questioner is
then asked to decide which respondent was human and which was a computer.

The test is repeated many times. If the questioner makes the correct
determination in half of the test runs or less, the computer is considered to have
artificial intelligence because the questioner regards it as "just as human" as the
human respondent.

History of the Turing Test

The test is named after Alan Turing, who pioneered machine learning during the
1940s and 1950s. Turing introduced the test in his 1950 paper called ―Computing
Machinery and Intelligence‖ while at the University of Manchester.

In his paper, Turing proposed a twist on what is called ―The Imitation Game.‖ The
Imitation Game involves no use of AI, but rather three human participants in
three separate rooms. Each room is connected via a screen and keyboard, one
containing a male, the other a female, and the other containing a male or female
judge. The female tries to convince the judge that she is the male, and the judge
tries to disseminate which is which.

Turing changes the concept of this game to include an AI, a human and a human
questioner. The questioner‘s job is then to decide which is the AI and which is the
human. Science the formation of the test, many AI have been able to pass; one of
the first is a program created by Joseph Weizenbaum called ELIZA.

Limitations of the Turing Test

The Turing Test has been criticized over the years, in particular because
historically, the nature of the questioning had to be limited in order for a
computer to exhibit human-like intelligence. For many years, a computer might
only score high if the questioner formulated the queries, so they had "Yes" or
"No" answers or pertained to a narrow field of knowledge. When questions were

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open-ended and required conversational answers, it was less likely that the
computer program could successfully fool the questioner.

In addition, a program such as ELIZA could pass the Turing Test by manipulating
symbols it does not understand fully. John Searle argued that this does not
determine intelligence comparable to humans.

To many researchers, the question of whether or not a computer can pass a

Turing Test has become irrelevant. Instead of focusing on how to convince
someone they are conversing with a human and not a computer program, the real
focus should be on how to make a human-machine interaction more intuitive and
efficient. For example, by using a conversational interface.

Variations and alternatives to the Turing Test

There have been a number of variations to the Turing Test to make it more
relevant. Such examples include:

 Reverse Turing Test- Where a human tries to convince a computer that it is

not a computer. An example of this is a CAPTCHA.

 Total Turing Test- Where the questioner can also test perceptual abilities as
well as the ability to manipulate objects.

 Minimum Intelligent Signal Test- Where only true/false and yes/no

questions are given.

Alternatives to Turing Tests were later developed because many see the Turing
test to be flawed. These alternatives include tests such as:

 The Marcus Test- In which a program which can ‗watch‘ a television show is
tested by being asked meaningful questions about the show's content.

 The Lovelace Test 2.0- Which is a test made to detect AI through examining
its ability to create art.

 Winograd Schema Challenge- Which is a test that asks multiple-choice

questions in a specific format.

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Features required for a machine to pass the Turing test:

o Natural language processing: NLP is required to

communicate with Interrogator in general human language like
English.

o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information

during the test.

o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored

information for answering the questions.

o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect

generalized patterns.

o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator

actions and other objects during a test.

o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested.

Agents in Artificial Intelligence(Rational Agent)

Artificial intelligence is defined as a study of rational agents. A rational agent
could be anything which makes decisions, as a person, firm, machine, or software.
It carries out an action with the best outcome after considering past and current
percepts(agent‘s perceptual inputs at a given instance).
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents
act in their environment. The environment may contain other agents. An
agent is anything that can be viewed as :

 perceiving its environment through sensors and

 acting upon that environment through actuators

Note : Every agent can perceive its own actions (but not always the effects)

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To understand the structure of Intelligent Agents, we should be familiar

with Architecture and Agent Program. Architecture is the machinery that
the agent executes on. It is a device with sensors and actuators, for example : a
robotic car, a camera, a PC. Agent program is an implementation of an agent
function. An agent function is a map from the percept sequence(history of all
that an agent has perceived till date) to an action.

Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

Examples of Agent:-
A software agent has Keystrokes, file contents, received network packages
which act as sensors and displays on the screen, files, sent network packets
acting as actuators.
A Human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which act as sensors and hands,
legs, mouth, and other body parts acting as actuators.
A Robotic agent has Cameras and infrared range finders which act as sensors and
various motors acting as actuators.

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Types of Agents

Agents can be grouped into four classes based on their degree of perceived
intelligence and capability :

 Simple Reflex Agents

 Model-Based Reflex Agents

 Goal-Based Agents

 Utility-Based Agents

 Learning Agent

Simple reflex agents

Simple reflex agents ignore the rest of the percept history and act only on the
basis of the current percept. Percept history is the history of all that an agent
has perceived till date. The agent function is based on the condition-action
rule. A condition-action rule is a rule that maps a state i.e, condition to an
action. If the condition is true, then the action is taken, else not. This agent
function only succeeds when the environment is fully observable. For simple
reflex agents operating in partially observable environments, infinite loops
are often

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unavoidable. It may be possible to escape from infinite loops if the agent can
randomize its actions. Problems with Simple reflex agents are :

 Very limited intelligence.

 No knowledge of non-perceptual parts of state.

 Usually too big to generate and store.

 If there occurs any change in the environment, then the collection of rules
need to be updated.

Model-based reflex agents

It works by finding a rule whose condition matches the current situation. A

model-based agent can handle partially observable environments by
use of model about the world. The agent has to keep track of internal state
which is adjusted by each percept and that depends on the percept history.
The current
state is stored inside the agent which maintains some kind of structure describing

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the part of the world which cannot be seen. Updating the state requires
information about :

 how the world evolves in-dependently from the agent, and

 how the agent actions affects the world.

Goal-based agents
These kind of agents take decision based on how far they are currently from
their goal(description of desirable situations). Their every action is intended to
reduce its distance from the goal. This allows the agent a way to choose among
multiple possibilities, selecting the one which reaches a goal state. The knowledge
that supports its decisions is represented explicitly and can be modified, which
makes these agents more flexible. They usually require search and planning. The

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goal-based agent‘s behavior can easily be changed.

Utility-based agents

The agents which are developed having their end uses as building blocks are
called utility based agents. When there are multiple possible alternatives, then to
decide which one is best, utility-based agents are used.They choose actions based
on a preference (utility) for each state. Sometimes achieving the desired goal
is not enough. We may look for a quicker, safer, cheaper trip to reach a
destination.
Agent happiness should be taken into consideration. Utility describes
how “happy” the agent is. Because of the uncertainty in the world, a utility
agent chooses the action that maximizes the expected utility. A utility function
maps a

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state onto a real number which describes the associated degree of happiness.

Learning Agent

A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences or it has learning capabilities.
It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically
through learning.
A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

1. Learning element :It is responsible for making improvements by

learning from the environment

2. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes

how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance
standard.

3. Performance element: It is responsile for selecting external action

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4. Problem Generator: This component is responsible for suggesting

actions that will lead to new and informative experiences.

Heuristic Search

A Heuristic is a technique to solve a problem faster than classic methods, or to

find an approximate solution when classic methods cannot. This is a kind of a
shortcut as we often trade one of optimality, completeness, accuracy, or precision
for speed. A Heuristic (or a heuristic function) takes a look at search algorithms.
At each branching step, it evaluates the available information and makes a
decision on which branch to follow. It does so by ranking alternatives. The
Heuristic is any device that is often effective but will not guarantee work in every
case.

Heuristics refers to a non-optimal solution for experience-based techniques to

solve problems, learning, and discovery.

Heuristic Search Techniques

a. Direct Heuristic Search Techniques in AI

Other names for these are Blind Search, Uninformed Search, and Blind Control
Strategy. These aren‘t always possible since they demand much time or memory.
They search the entire state space for a solution and use an arbitrary ordering of
operations. Examples of these are Breadth First Search (BFS) and Depth First
Search (DFS).

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b. Weak Heuristic Search Techniques in AI

Other names for these are Informed Search, Heuristic Search, and Heuristic
Control Strategy. These are effective if applied correctly to the right types of tasks
and usually demand domain-specific information. We need this extra information
to compute preference among child nodes to explore and expand. Each node has
a heuristic function associated with it. Examples are Best First Search (BFS) and
A*.
Before moving on described certain techniques, first take a look at the ones we
generally observe. Below, a few name.

 Best-First Search

 A* Search

 Bidirectional Search

 Tabu Search

 Beam Search

 Simulated Annealing

 Hill Climbing

 Constraint Satisfaction Problems

Search Algorithms in Artificial Intelligence

Search algorithms are one of the most important areas of Artificial Intelligence.
This topic will explain all about the search algorithms in AI.

Problem-solving agents:

In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving

methods. Rational agents or Problem-solving agents in AI mostly used
these search strategies or algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide
the best result. Problem-solving agents are the goal-based agents and use
atomic

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representation. In this topic, we will learn various problem-solving search

algorithms.

Search Algorithm Terminologies:

o Search: Searchingis a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in

a given search space. A search problem can have three main factors:

a. Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions,

which a system may have.

b. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.

c. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and

returns whether the goal state is achieved or not.

Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree.

The root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial
state.

Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.

Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented

as a transition model.

Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.

Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the
goal node.

Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.

Properties of Search Algorithms:

Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to compare the
efficiency of these algorithms:

Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to

return a solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.

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Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best

solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for is
said to be an optimal solution.

Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an

algorithm to complete its task.

Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point

during the search, as the complexity of the problem.

Types of search algorithms

Based on the search problems we can classify the search

algorithms into uninformed (Blind search) search and
informed search (Heuristic search) algorithms.

Uninformed/Blind Search:

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The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as
closeness, the location of the goal. It operates in a brute-force way as it only
includes information about how to traverse the tree and how to identify leaf and
goal nodes. Uninformed search applies a way in which search tree is searched
without any information about the search space like initial state operators and
test for the goal, so it is also called blind search.It examines each node of the tree
until it achieves the goal node.

It can be divided into five main types:

o Breadth-first search

o Uniform cost search

o Depth-first search

o Iterative deepening depth-first search

o Bidirectional Search

Informed Search
Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed search,
problem information is available which can guide the search. Informed search
strategies can find a solution more efficiently than an uninformed search strategy.
Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.

A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions but
guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.

Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved in
another way.

An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.

1. Greedy Search

2. A* Search

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Heuristics of Software Testability

 Controllability - Software and hardware states can be controlled by

test engineers and the Software modules can be tested
independently

 Observability - Check for the object or System states and all other
factors affecting the output.

 Availability - Check if Source code is accessible as product evolves in stages.

 Simplicity - Check if the design is consistent. Check for functional

simplicity, structural simplicity and code simplicity.

 Stability - Check if the Changes to the software are infrequent and

changes are controlled and communicated.

Heuristics Interface for User Interface Design (UID)

 Visibility of system status

 Match between system and the real world

 Consistency and standards

 Error prevention

 Flexibility and efficiency of use

 Aesthetic and minimalist design

 Help and documentation

Game Playing
Game Playing is an important domain of artificial intelligence. Games don‘t
require much knowledge; the only knowledge we need to provide is the rules,
legal moves and the conditions of winning or losing the game.

Both players try to win the game. So, both of them try to make the best move
possible at each turn. Searching techniques like BFS(Breadth First Search) are not

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accurate for this as the branching factor is very high, so searching will take a lot of
time. So, we need another search procedures that improve –

 Generate procedure so that only good moves are generated.

 Test procedure so that the best move can be explored first.

The most common search technique in game playing is Minimax search

procedure. It is depth-first depth-limited search procedure. It is used for
games like chess and tic-tac-toe.

Minimax algorithm uses two functions –

MOVEGEN : It generates all the possible moves that can be generated from
the current position.
STATICEVALUATION : It returns a value depending upon the goodness
from the viewpoint otwo-player

This algorithm is a two player game, so we call the first player as PLAYER1 and
second player as PLAYER2. The value of each node is backed-up from its children.
For PLAYER1 the backed-up value is the maximum value of its children and for
PLAYER2 the backed-up value is the minimum value of its children. It provides
most promising move to PLAYER1, assuming that the PLAYER2 has make the best
move. It is a recursive algorithm, as same procedure occurs at each level.

Figure 1: Before backing-up of values

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Figure 2: After backing-up of values

We assume that PLAYER1 will start the game. 4 levels are generated. The value to
nodes H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O is provided by STATICEVALUATION function. Level 3 is
maximizing level, so all nodes of level 3 will take maximum values of their
children. Level 2 is minimizing level, so all its nodes will take minimum values of
their children. This process continues. The value of A is 23. That means A should
choose C move to win.

Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

o Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in

decision-making and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the
player assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.

o Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.

o Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess,
Checkers, tic-tac-toe, go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm
computes the minimax decision for the current state.

o In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is
called MIN.

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o Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit
while they get the maximum benefit.

o Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will
select the maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value.

o The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the

exploration of the complete game tree.

o The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of
the tree, then backtrack the tree as the recursion.

Pseudo-code for MinMax Algorithm:

if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then

return static evaluation of node

for Maximizer Player

maxEva= -infinity

for each child of node do

eva= minimax(child, depth-1, false)

els // for Minimizer player

e
minEva= +infinity

for each child of node

do

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//gives minimum of the values

Initial call:

Minimax(node, 3, true)
Working of Min-Max
Algorithm:

o The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an

example. Below we have taken an example of game-tree which is
representing the two-player game.

o In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is
called Minimizer.

o Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will
try to get the minimum possible score.

o This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way
through the leaves to reach the terminal nodes.

o At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare
those value and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs. Following
are the main steps involved in solving the two-player game tree:

Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply
the utility function to get the utility values for the terminal states. In the below
tree diagram, let's take A is the initial state of the tree. Suppose maximizer takes
first turn which has worst-case initial value =- infinity, and minimizer will take next
turn which has worst-case initial value = +infinity.

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Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -
∞, so we will compare each value in terminal state with initial value of Maximizer
and determines the higher nodes values. It will find the maximum among the all.

o For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6

o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3

o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

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Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value
with +∞, and will find the 3rd layer node values.

o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

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Step 3: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of
all nodes value and find the maximum value for the root node. In this game
tree, there are only 4 layers, hence we reach immediately to the root node, but
in real games, there will be more than 4 layers.

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a

solution (if exist), in the finite search tree.

o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are

playing optimally.

o Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the

time complexity of Min-Max algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching
factor of the game-tree, and m is the maximum depth of the tree.

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o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also

similar to DFS which is O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for
complex games such as Chess, go, etc. This type of games has a huge branching
factor, and the player has lots of choices to decide. This limitation of the minimax
algorithm can be improved from alpha-beta pruning which we have
discussed in the next topic.

Alpha-Beta Pruning
o Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an
optimization technique for the minimax algorithm.

o As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game
states it has to examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we
cannot eliminate the exponent, but we can cut it to half. Hence there is a
technique by which without checking each node of the game tree we can
compute the correct minimax decision, and this technique is called
pruning. This involves two threshold parameter Alpha and beta for future
expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning. It is also called as Alpha-
Beta Algorithm.
o Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it
not only prune the tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.

o The two-parameter can be defined as:

a. Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any

point along the path of Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.

b. Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any

point along the path of Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.

The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move
as the standard algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really

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affecting the final decision but making algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these
nodes, it makes the algorithm fast.

Note: To better understand this topic, kindly study the minimax algorithm.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

1. α>=β

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o The Max player will only update the value of alpha.

o The Min player will only update the value of beta.

o While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes
instead of values of alpha and beta.

o We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Pseudo-code for Alpha-beta Pruning:

function minimax(node, depth, alpha, beta, maximizingPlayer) is

if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then

return static evaluation of node

for Maximizer Player

maxEva= -infinity

for each child of node do

maxEva= max(maxEva, eva)

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if beta<=alpha

break

return maxEva

els // for Minimizer player

e
minEva= +infinity

for each child of node do

minEva= min(minEva, eva)

beta= min(beta, eva)

if beta<=alpha

break

return minEva

Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning:

Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of
Alpha-beta pruning

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A
where α= -∞ and β= +∞, these value of alpha and beta passed down to node
B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞, and Node B passes the same value to its
child D.

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Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The
value of α is compared with firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be
the value of α at node D and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change
as this is a turn of Min, Now β= +∞, will compare with the available
subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3) = 3, hence at node B now α= -∞,
and β= 3.

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In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E,
and the values of α= -∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change.
The current value of alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at
node E α= 5 and β= 3, where α>=β, so the right successor of E will be pruned,
and algorithm will not traverse it, and the value at node E will be 5.

Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A.
At node A, the value of alpha will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as
max (-∞, 3)= 3, and β= +∞, these two values now passes to right successor of A
which is Node C.

At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is
0, and max(3,0)= 3, and then compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)=
3 still α remains 3, but the node value of F will become 1.

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Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here
the value of beta will be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now
at C, α=3 and β= 1, and again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so the next child
of C which is G will be pruned, and the algorithm will not compute the entire
sub-tree G.

Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) =
3. Following is the final game tree which is the showing the nodes which are

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computed and nodes which has never computed. Hence the optimal value for the
maximizer is 3 for this example.

Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:

The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which

each node is examined. Move order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

It can be of two types:

o Worst ordering: In some cases, alpha-beta pruning algorithm does

not prune any of the leaves of the tree, and works exactly as minimax
algorithm. In this case, it also consumes more time because of alpha-beta
factors, such a move of pruning is called worst ordering. In this case, the
best move occurs on the right side of the tree. The time complexity for such
an order is O(bm).

o Ideal ordering: The ideal ordering for alpha-beta pruning occurs when
lots of pruning happens in the tree, and best moves occur at the left side
of the tree. We apply DFS hence it first search left of the tree and go deep
twice as minimax algorithm in the same amount of time. Complexity in
ideal ordering is O(bm/2).

Rules to find good ordering:

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Following are some rules to find good ordering in alpha-beta pruning:

o Occur the best move from the shallowest node.

o Order the nodes in the tree such that the best nodes are checked first.

o Use domain knowledge while finding the best move. Ex: for Chess, try
order: captures first, then threats, then forward moves, backward moves.

o We can bookkeep the states, as there is a possibility that states may repeat.

Knowledge Representation

 Artificial intelligence is a system that is concerned with the study

of understanding, designing and implementing the ways, associated
with knowledge representation to computers.

 In any intelligent system, representing the knowledge is supposed to be an

important technique to encode the knowledge.

 The main objective of AI system is to design the programs that provide

information to the computer, which can be helpful to interact with humans
and solve problems in various fields which require human intelligence.

What is Knowledge?
 Knowledge is an useful term to judge the understanding of an individual on
a given subject.

 In intelligent systems, domain is the main focused subject area. So, the
system specifically focuses on acquiring the domain knowledge.

Types of knowledge in AI

Depending on the type of functionality, the knowledge in AI is

categorized as:

1. Declarative knowledge

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 The knowledge which is based on concepts, facts and objects, is termed as

'Declarative Knowledge'.

 It provides all the necessary information about the problem in terms

of simple statements, either true or false.

2. Procedural knowledge

 Procedural knowledge derives the information on the basis of rules,

strategies, agendas and procedure.

 It describes how a problem can be solved.

 Procedural knowledge directs the steps on how to perform something.

For example: Computer program.

3. Heuristic knowledge

 Heuristic knowledge is based on thumb rule.

 It provides the information based on a thumb rule, which is useful in

guiding the reasoning process.

 In this type, the knowledge representation is based on the strategies to

solve the problems through the experience of past problems, compiled by
an expert. Hence, it is also known as Shallow knowledge.
4. Meta-knowledge

 This type gives an idea about the other types of knowledge that are suitable
for solving problem.

 Meta-knowledge is helpful in enhancing the efficiency of problem solving

through proper reasoning process.

5. Structural knowledge

 Structural knowledge is associated with the information based on rules,

sets, concepts and relationships.

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 It provides the information necessary for developing the knowledge

structures and overall mental model of the problem.

Issues in knowledge representation

The main objective of knowledge representation is to draw the conclusions from

the knowledge, but there are many issues associated with the use of knowledge
representation techniques.

Some of them are listed below:

Refer to the above diagram to refer to the following issues.

1. Important attributes
There are two attributes shown in the diagram, instance and isa. Since
these attributes support property of inheritance, they are of prime
importance.

2. Relationships among attributes

Basically, the attributes used to describe objects are nothing but the entities.

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However, the attributes of an object do not depend on the encoded specific

knowledge.

3. Choosing the granularity of representation

While deciding the granularity of representation, it is necessary to know the
following:

i. What are the primitives and at what level should the knowledge be
represented?

ii. What should be the number (small or large) of low-level primitives or high-level
facts?

High-level facts may be insufficient to draw the conclusion while Low-level

primitives may require a lot of storage.
For example: Suppose that we are interested in following
facts: John spotted Alex.

Now, this could be represented as "Spotted (agent(John), object (Alex))"

Such a representation can make it easy to answer questions such as: Who spotted
Alex?

Suppose we want to know : "Did John see Sue?"

Given only one fact, user cannot discover that answer.

Hence, the user can add other facts, such as "Spotted (x, y) → saw (x, y)"

4. Representing sets of objects.

There are some properties of objects which satisfy the condition of a set together
but not as individual;

Example: Consider the assertion made in the sentences:

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"There are more sheep than people in Australia", and "English speakers can be
found all over the world."
These facts can be described by including an assertion to the sets representing
people, sheep, and English.

5. Finding the right structure as needed

To describe a particular situation, it is always important to find the access of right
structure. This can be done by selecting an initial structure and then revising the
choice.

While selecting and reversing the right structure, it is necessary to solve following
problem statements. They include the process on how to:

 Select an initial appropriate structure.

 Fill the necessary details from the current situations.

 Determine a better structure if the initially selected structure is not

appropriate to fulfill other conditions.

 Find the solution if none of the available structures is appropriate.

 Create and remember a new structure for the given condition.

 There is no specific way to solve these problems, but some of the effective
knowledge representation techniques have the potential to solve them.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as
follows:

1. Logical Representation

2. Semantic Network Representation

3. Frame Representation

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4. Production Rules

1. Logical Representation

Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation
means drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. This representation lays
down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax
and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be
translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Facts are the general statements that may be either True or False. Thus, logic can
be used to represent such simple facts.

To build a Logic-based representation:

 User has to define a set of primitive symbols along with the required
semantics.

 The symbols are assigned together to define legal sentences in the

language for representing TRUE facts.

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New logical statements are formed from the existing ones. The statements which
can be either TRUE or false but not both , are called propositions. A declarative
sentence expresses a statement with a proposition as content;
Example: The declarative "Cotton is white" expresses that Cotton is white. So, the
sentence "Cotton is white" is a true statement.

Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are
made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either
true or false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical and
mathematical form.

Example:

1. a) It is Sunday.

2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)

3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)

4. d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and

we can use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q,
R, etc.

o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.

o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and

logical connectives.

o These connectives are also called logical operators.

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o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the

propositional logic.

o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two

sentences.

o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is

also called a valid sentence.

o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.

o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called

o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not

propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is
your name", are not propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the
knowledge representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple

propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the
sentences which must be either true or false.

Example:

1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed
by combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.

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Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:

Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing

a sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of
logical connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can

be either Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is
called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is
called disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication.
Implications are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔Q is a Biconditional
sentence, example If I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔Q.

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Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:

In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all

possible scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical
connectives, and the representation of these combinations in a tabular format is
called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical connectives:

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Truth table with three propositions:

We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth

table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

Precedence of connectives:

Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional

connectors or logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a
propositional problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

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Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of

the correct interpretations. Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be interpreted
as (¬R) ∨ Q.

Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions

are said to be logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are
identical to each other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as
A⇔B. In below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are
identical hence A is Equivalent to B

Properties of
Operators:
o Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o Associativity:
o (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),

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o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o Identity element:
o P ∧ True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
o Distributive:
o P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
o DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.

Limitations of Propositional logic:

o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional
logic. Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties
or logical relationships.

Syntax:

o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences
in the logic.

o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.

o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:

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o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.

o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a) Propositional Logics
b) Predicate logics

Note: We will discuss Prepositional Logics and Predicate logics in later chapters.

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.

2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work

with.

2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference

may not be so efficient.

Note: Do not be confused with logical representation and logical reasoning as

logical representation is a representation language and reasoning is a process of
thinking logically.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge

representation. In Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the
form of graphical networks. This network consists of nodes representing objects
and arcs which describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic
networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those
objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.

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A semantic network or net is a graph structure for representing knowledge in

patterns of interconnected nodes and arcs. Computer implementations of
semantic networks were first developed for artificial intelligence and machine
translation, but earlier versions have long been used in philosophy, psychology,
and linguistics. The Giant Global Graph of the Semantic Web is a large semantic
network.

What is common to all semantic networks is a declarative graphic representation

that can be used to represent knowledge and support automated systems for
reasoning about the knowledge. Some versions are highly informal, but others are
formally defined systems of logic. Following are six of the most common kinds of
semantic networks:

1. Definitional networks emphasize the subtype or is-a relation between a

concept type and a newly defined subtype. The resulting network, also
called a generalization or subsumption hierarchy, supports the rule
of inheritance for copying properties defined for a supertype to all of its
subtypes. Since definitions are true by definition, the information in these
networks is often assumed to be necessarily true.

2. Assertional networks are designed to assert propositions. Unlike

definitional networks, the information in an assertional network is assumed
to be contingently true, unless it is explicitly marked with a modal operator.
Some assertional networks have been proposed as models of
the conceptual structures underlying natural language semantics.

3. Implicational networks use implication as the primary relation for

connecting nodes. They may be used to represent patterns of beliefs,
causality, or inferences.

4. Executable networks include some mechanism, such as marker passing or

attached procedures, which can perform inferences, pass messages, or
search for patterns and associations.

5. Learning networks build or extend their representations by acquiring

knowledge from examples. The new knowledge may change the old

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network by adding and deleting nodes and arcs or by modifying numerical

values, called weights, associated with the nodes and arcs.

6. Hybrid networks combine two or more of the previous techniques, either in

a single network or in separate, but closely interacting networks.

Some networks were explicitly designed to implement hypotheses about human

cognitive mechanisms, while others have been designed primarily for computer
efficiency. Sometimes, computational issues may lead to the same conclusions as
psychological evidence.

Network notations and linear notations are capable of expressing equivalent

information. But certain kinds of information are easier to express or process in
one form or the other. Since the boundary lines are vague, it is impossible to state
necessary and sufficient conditions that include all semantic networks while
excluding other systems that are not usually called semantic networks.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the

form of nodes and arcs.

Statements:

a. Jerry is a cat.

b. Jerry is a mammal

c. Jerry is owned by Priya.

d. Jerry is brown colored.

e. All Mammals are animal.

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In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the
form of nodes and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some
relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to

traverse the complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be
possible in the worst case scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we
find that the solution does not exist in this network.

2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015

neurons and links) to store the information, but in practice, it is not
possible to build such a vast semantic network.

3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any

equivalent quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.

4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.

5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the
system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

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1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.

3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation

A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and

its values to describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure
which divides knowledge into substructures by representing stereotypes
situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of
any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features
of frames which enable us to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-
NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is needed. A frame may
consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and
facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter
knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-
day classes and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist
of a collection of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an
object or event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type
of technology which is widely used in various applications including Natural
language processing and machine visions.

Example: 1
an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

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Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:

suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and

his age is 25, he lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is
the frame representation for this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

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1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by

grouping the related data.

2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many

applications in AI.

3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.

4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.

5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame

representation.

3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules

Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If
condition then action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory

o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part
of the rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action
part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete process is
called a recognize-act cycle.

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The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-
solving and rule can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge
match and may fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be
fired together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select
a rule from these sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.

Example:

o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)

o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).

o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).

o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.

2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or
modify an individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does
not store the result of the problem for the future uses.

2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-
based production systems are inefficient.

Rules for Knowledge Representation

One way to represent knowledge is by using rules that express what must happen
or what does happen when certain conditions are met.

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Rules are usually expressed in the form of IF . . . THEN . . . statements, such as: IF
A THEN B This can be considered to have a similar logical meaning as the
following: A→B

A is called the antecedent and B is the consequent in this statement.

In expressing rules, the consequent usually takes the form of an action or a

conclusion.

In other words, the purpose of a rule is usually to tell a system (such as an expert
system) what to do in certain circumstances, or what conclusions to draw from a
set of inputs about the current situation.

In general, a rule can have more than one antecedent, usually combined either by
AND or by OR (logically the same as the operators ∧ and ∨ ).

Similarly, a rule may have more than one consequent, which usually suggests that
there are multiple actions to be taken.

In general, the antecedent of a rule compares an object with a possible value,

using an operator.

For example, suitable antecedents in a rule might be

IF x > 3

IF name is ―Bob‖

IF weather is cold

Here, the objects being considered are x, name, and weather; the operators are
―>‖ and ―is‖, and the values are 3, ―Bob,‖ and cold.

Note that an object is not necessarily an object in the real-world sense—the

weather is not a real world object, but rather a state or condition of the world.

An object in this sense is simply a variable that represents some physical object or
state in the real world.

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An example of a rule might be

IF name is ―Bob‖

AND weather is cold

THEN tell Bob ‗Wear a coat‘

This is an example of a recommendation rule, which takes a set of inputsand gives

advice as a result.

The conclusion of the rule is actually an action, and the action takes the form of a
recommendation to Bob that he should wear a coat.

In some cases, the rules provide more definite actions such as ―move left‖ or
―close door,‖ in which case the rules are being used to represent directives.

Rules can also be used to represent relations such as:

IF temperature is below 0

THEN weather is cold

Scripts

A script is a knowledge representation scheme similar to a frame, but instead of

describing an object, the script describes a sequence of events. Like the frame,
the script portrays a stereotyped situation. Unlike the frame, it is usually
presented in a particular context. To describe a sequence of events, the script
uses a series of slots containing information about the people, objects, and
actions that are involved in the events.

Some of the elements of a typical script include entry conditions, props, roles,
tracks, and scenes. The entry conditions describe situations that must be satisfied
before events in this script can occur or be valid. Props refer to objects that are
used in the sequence of events that occur. Roles refer to the people involved in
the script. The result is conditions that exist after the events in the script have

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occurred. Track refers to variations that might occur in a particular script. And
finally, scenes describe the actual sequence of events that occur.

A typical script is shown in Figure. It is a variation of the well-known restaurant

example that has been used in AI to show how knowledge is represented in script
format. Going to a restaurant is a stereotyped situation with predictable entry
conditions, props, roles, and scenes. As we can see, such a script accurately
describes what occurs in almost every fast-food restaurant situation. The scenes
are miniscripts within the main script that describes the various subdivisions of
the entire process. Note the optional scene that describes a take-out situation
rather than an eat-in situation. Another option may be a drive-through scene.
Finally, note the results.

A script is useful in predicting what will happen in a specific situation. Even though
certain events have not been observed, the script permits the computer to
predict what will happen to whom and when. If the computer triggers a script,
questions can be asked and accurate answers derived with little or no original
input knowledge. Like frames, scripts are a particularly useful form of knowledge
representation because there are so many stereotypical situations and events
that people use every day. Knowledge like this is generally taken for granted, but
in computer problem-solving situations, such knowledge must often be simulated
to solve a particular problem using artificial intelligence.

To use the script, we store knowledge in the computer in symbolic form. This is
best done using LISP or another symbolic language. We can then ask questions
about various persons and conditions. A search and pattern-matching process
examines the script for the answers. For example, what does the customer do
first? Well, he parks the car, then goes into the restaurant. Whom does he pay?
The server, of course. The whole thing is totally predictable.

Script representation is interrelated with case-based reasoning.

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Conceptual Dependency (CD)

This representation is used in natural language processing in order to represent

them earning of the sentences in such a way that inference we can be made from
the sentences. It is independent of the language in which the sentences were
originally stated. CD representations of a sentence is built out of primitives ,
which are not words belonging to the language but are conceptual , these

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primitives are combined to form the meaning s of the words. As an example

consider the event represented by the sentence.

Conceptual Dependency originally developed to represent knowledge acquired

from natural language input.

The goals of this theory are:

 To help in the drawing of inference from sentences.

 To be independent of the words used in the original input.

 That is to say: For any 2 (or more) sentences that are identical in meaning
there should be only one representation of that meaning.

In the above representation the symbols have the following meaning:

Arrows indicate direction of dependency

Double arrow indicates two may link between actor and the action

P indicates past tense

ATRANS is one of the primitive acts used by the theory . it indicates transfer of
possession

0 indicates the object case relation

R indicates the recipient case relation

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Conceptual dependency provides a structure in which knowledge can be

represented and also a set of building blocks from which representations can be
built. A typical set of primitive actions are

ATRANS - Transfer of an abstract relationship(Eg: give)

PTRANS - Transfer of the physical location of an object(Eg: go)

PROPEL - Application of physical force to an object (Eg: push)

MOVE - Movement of a body part by its owner (eg : kick)

GRASP - Grasping of an object by an actor(Eg: throw)

INGEST - Ingesting of an object by an animal (Eg: eat)

EXPEL - Expulsion of something from the body of an animal (cry)

MTRANS - Transfer of mental information(Eg: tell)

MBUILD - Building new information out of old(Eg: decide)

SPEAK - Production of sounds(Eg: say)

ATTEND - Focusing of sense organ toward a stimulus (Eg: listen)

A second set of building block is the set of allowable dependencies among the
conceptualization describe in a sentence.

Conceptual Ontologies

ontology is the study of what exists. In AI, an ontology is a specification of

the meanings of the symbols in an information system. That is, it is a specification
of a conceptualization. It is a specification of what individuals and relationships
are assumed to exist and what terminology is used for them. Typically, it
specifies what types of individuals will be modeled, specifies what properties
will be used, and gives some axioms that restrict the use of that vocabulary.

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Figure 13.4: Mapping from a conceptualization to a symbol

Example 13.13: An ontology of individuals that could appear on a map

could specify that the symbol "ApartmentBuilding" will represent apartment
buildings. The ontology will not define an apartment building, but it will
describe it well enough so that others can understand the definition. We want
other people, who may be inclined to use different symbols, to be able to use
the ontology to find the appropriate symbol to use. Multiple people are able
to use the symbol consistently. An ontology should also enable a person to
verify what a symbol means. That is, given a concept, they want to be able to
find the symbol, and, given the symbol, they want to be able to determine
what it means.

An ontology may give axioms to restrict the use of some symbol. For example, it
may specify that apartment buildings are buildings, which are human-constructed
artifacts. It may give some restriction on the size of buildings so that shoeboxes
cannot be buildings or that cities cannot be buildings. It may state that a building
cannot be at two geographically dispersed locations at the same time (so if you

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take off some part of the building and move it to a different location, it is no
longer a single building). Because apartment buildings are buildings, these
restrictions also apply to apartment buildings.

Ontologies are usually written independently of a particular application and often

involve a community to agree on the meanings of symbols. An ontology consists
of

 a vocabulary of the categories of the things (both classes and properties)

that a knowledge base may want to represent;

 an organization of the categories, for example into an inheritance hierarchy

using subClassOf or subPropertyOf, or using Aristotelian definitions; and

 a set of axioms restricting the meanings of some of the symbols to better

reflect their meaning - for example, that some property is transitive, or that
the domain and range are restricted, or that there are some restriction on
the number of values a property can take for each individual. Sometimes
relationships are defined in terms of more primitive relationships but,
ultimately, the relationships are grounded out
into primitive relationships that are not actually defined.

Aristotelian Definitions

Categorizing objects, the basis for modern ontologies, has a long

history. Aristotle(350 B.C.) suggested the definition of a class C in terms of

 Genus: a superclass of C. The plural of genus is genera.

 Differentia: the properties that make members of the class C different

from other members of the superclass of C.

He anticipated many of the issues that arise in definitions:

If genera are different and co-ordinate, their differentiae are themselves different
in kind. Take as an instance the genus "animal" and the genus "knowledge". "With
feet", "two-footed", "winged", "aquatic", are differentiae of "animal"; the species

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of knowledge are not distinguished by the same differentiae. One species of

knowledge does not differ from another in being "two-footed".

Note that "co-ordinate" here means neither is subordinate to the other.

In the style of modern ontologies, we would say that "animal" is a class, and
"knowledge" is a class. The property "two-footed" has domain "animal". If
something is an instance of knowledge, it does not have a value for the property
"two-footed".

To build an ontology based on Aristotelian definitions:

 For each class you may want to define, determine a relevant superclass,
and then select those attributes that distinguish the class from other
subclasses. Each attribute gives a property and a value.

 For each property, define the most general class for which it makes sense,
and define the domain of the property to be this class. Make the range
another class that makes sense (perhaps requiring this range class to be
defined, either by enumerating its values or by defining it using an
Aristotelian definition).

This can get quite complicated. For example, defining "luxury furniture", perhaps
the superclass you want is "furniture" and the distinguishing characteristics are
cost is high and luxury furniture is soft. The softness of furniture is different than
the softness of rocks. we also probably want to distinguish the squishiness from
the texture (both of which may be regarded as soft).

This methodology does not, in general, give a tree hierarchy of classes. Objects
can be in many classes. Each class does not have a single most-specific superclass.
However, it is still straightforward to check whether one class is a subclass of
another, to check the meaning of a class, and to determine the class that
corresponds to a concept in your head.

In rare cases, this results in a tree structure, most famously in the

Linnaean taxonomy of living things. It seems that the reason this is a tree
is because of

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evolution. Trying to force a tree structure in other domains has been much less
successful.

An ontology does not specify the individuals not known at design time. For
example, an ontology of buildings would typically not include actual buildings. An
ontology would specify those individuals that are fixed and should be shared, such
as the days of the week, or colors.

Example 13.14: Consider a trading agent that is designed to find

accommodations. Users could use such an agent to describe what
accommodation they want. The trading agent could search multiple knowledge
bases to find suitable accommodations or to notify users when some appropriate
accommodation becomes available. An ontology is required to specify the
meaning of the symbols for the user and to allow the knowledge bases to
interoperate. It provides the semantic glue to tie together the users' needs with
the knowledge bases.

In such a domain, houses and apartment buildings may both be residential

buildings. Although it may be sensible to suggest renting a house or an apartment
in an apartment building, it may not be sensible to suggest renting an apartment
building to someone who does not actually specify that they want to rent the
whole building. A "living unit" could be defined to be the collection of rooms that
some people, who are living together, live in. A living unit may be what a rental
agency offers to rent. At some stage, the designer may have to decide whether a
room for rent in a house is a living unit, or even whether part of a shared room
that is rented separately is a living unit. Often the boundary cases - cases that may
not be initially anticipated - are not clearly delineated but become better defined
as the ontology evolves.

The ontology would not contain descriptions of actual houses or apartments

because the actual available accommodation would change over time and would
not change the meaning of the vocabulary.

The primary purpose of an ontology is to document what the symbols mean - the
mapping between symbols (in a computer) and concepts (in someone's head).

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Given a symbol, a person is able to use the ontology to determine what it means.
When someone has a concept to be represented, the ontology is used to find the
appropriate symbol or to determine that the concept does not exist in the
ontology. The secondary purpose, achieved by the use of axioms, is to allow
inference or to determine that some combination of values is inconsistent. The
main challenge in building an ontology is the organization of the concepts to allow
a human to map concepts into symbols in the computer, and for the computer to
infer useful new knowledge from stated facts.

Expert System

An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex

problems and to provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It performs
this by extracting knowledge from its knowledge base using the reasoning and
inference rules according to the user queries.

The expert system is a part of AI, and the first ES was developed in the year 1970,
which was the first successful approach of artificial intelligence. It solves the most
complex issue as an expert by extracting the knowledge stored in its knowledge
base. The system helps in decision making for compsex problems using both
facts and heuristics like a human expert. It is called so because it contains
the expert knowledge of a specific domain and can solve any complex
problem of that particular domain. These systems are designed for a specific
domain, such
as medicine, science, etc.

The performance of an expert system is based on the expert's knowledge stored

in its knowledge base. The more knowledge stored in the KB, the more that
system improves its performance. One of the common examples of an ES is a
suggestion of spelling errors while typing in the Google search box.

Below is the block diagram that represents the working of an expert system:

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Note: It is important to remember that an expert system is not used to replace

the human experts; instead, it is used to assist the human in making a complex
decision. These systems do not have human capabilities of thinking and work on
the basis of the knowledge base of the particular domain.

Below are some popular examples of the Expert System:

o DENDRAL: It was an artificial intelligence project that was made as

a chemical analysis expert system. It was used in organic chemistry to
detect unknown organic molecules with the help of their mass
spectra and knowledge base of chemistry.

o MYCIN: It was one of the earliest backward chaining expert systems

that was designed to find the bacteria causing infections like bacteraemia
and meningitis. It was also used for the recommendation of antibiotics
and the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases.

o PXDES: It is an expert system that is used to determine the type and level
of lung cancer. To determine the disease, it takes a picture from the
upper body, which looks like the shadow. This shadow identifies the type
and degree of harm.

o CaDeT: The CaDet expert system is a diagnostic support system that

can detect cancer at early stages.

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Characteristics of Expert System

o High Performance: The expert system provides high performance

for solving any type of complex problem of a specific domain with
high efficiency and accuracy.

o Understandable: It responds in a way that can be easily understandable

by the user. It can take input in human language and provides the output
in the same way.

o Reliable: It is much reliable for generating an efficient and accurate output.

o Highly responsive: ES provides the result for any complex query

within a very short period of time.

Components of Expert System

An expert system mainly consists of three components:

o User Interface

o Inference Engine

o Knowledge Base

1. User Interface

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With the help of a user interface, the expert system interacts with the user, takes
queries as an input in a readable format, and passes it to the inference engine.
After getting the response from the inference engine, it displays the output to the
user. In other words, it is an interface that helps a non-expert user to
communicate with the expert system to find a solution.

2. Inference Engine(Rules of Engine)

o The inference engine is known as the brain of the expert system as it is the
main processing unit of the system. It applies inference rules to the
knowledge base to derive a conclusion or deduce new information. It helps
in deriving an error-free solution of queries asked by the user.

o With the help of an inference engine, the system extracts the knowledge
from the knowledge base.

o There are two types of inference engine:

o Deterministic Inference engine: The conclusions drawn from this

type of inference engine are assumed to be true. It is based on facts
and rules.

o Probabilistic Inference engine: This type of inference engine

contains uncertainty in conclusions, and based on the probability.

Inference engine uses the below modes to derive the solutions:

o Forward Chaining: It starts from the known facts and rules, and applies
the inference rules to add their conclusion to the known facts.

o Backward Chaining: It is a backward reasoning method that starts from

the goal and works backward to prove the known facts.

3. Knowledge Base

o The knowledgebase is a type of storage that stores knowledge acquired

from the different experts of the particular domain. It is considered as big
storage of knowledge. The more the knowledge base, the more precise will
be the Expert System.

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o It is similar to a database that contains information and rules of a particular

domain or subject.

o One can also view the knowledge base as collections of objects and their
attributes. Such as a Lion is an object and its attributes are it is a mammal,
it is not a domestic animal, etc.

Components of Knowledge Base

o Factual Knowledge: The knowledge which is based on facts and

accepted by knowledge engineers comes under factual knowledge.

o Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is based on practice, the

ability to guess, evaluation, and experiences.

Knowledge Representation: It is used to formalize the knowledge stored

in the knowledge base using the If-else rules.

Knowledge Acquisitions: It is the process of extracting, organizing, and

structuring the domain knowledge, specifying the rules to acquire the knowledge
from various experts, and store that knowledge into the knowledge base.

Development of Expert System

Here, we will explain the working of an expert system by taking an example of

MYCIN ES. Below are some steps to build an MYCIN:

o Firstly, ES should be fed with expert knowledge. In the case of MYCIN,

human experts specialized in the medical field of bacterial infection,
provide information about the causes, symptoms, and other knowledge in
that domain.

o The KB of the MYCIN is updated successfully. In order to test it, the doctor
provides a new problem to it. The problem is to identify the presence of the
bacteria by inputting the details of a patient, including the symptoms,
current condition, and medical history.

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o The ES will need a questionnaire to be filled by the patient to know the

general information about the patient, such as gender, age, etc.

o Now the system has collected all the information, so it will find the solution
for the problem by applying if-then rules using the inference engine and
using the facts stored within the KB.

o In the end, it will provide a response to the patient by using the user
interface.

Participants in the development of Expert System

There are three primary participants in the building of Expert System:

1. Expert: The success of an ES much depends on the knowledge provided

by human experts. These experts are those persons who are specialized in
that specific domain.

2. Knowledge Engineer: Knowledge engineer is the person who gathers

the knowledge from the domain experts and then codifies that
knowledge to the system according to the formalism.

3. End-User: This is a particular person or a group of people who may not

be experts, and working on the expert system needs the solution or advice
for his queries, which are complex.

Why Expert System?

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Before using any technology, we must have an idea about why to use that
technology and hence the same for the ES. Although we have human experts in
every field, then what is the need to develop a computer-based system. So below
are the points that are describing the need of the ES:

1. No memory Limitations: It can store as much data as required and

can memorize it at the time of its application. But for human experts,
there are some limitations to memorize all things at every time.

2. High Efficiency: If the knowledge base is updated with the

correct knowledge, then it provides a highly efficient output, which
may not be possible for a human.

3. Expertise in a domain: There are lots of human experts in each

domain, and they all have different skills, different experiences, and
different skills, so it is not easy to get a final output for the query. But
if we put the knowledge gained from human experts into the expert
system, then it provides an efficient output by mixing all the facts and
knowledge

4. Not affected by emotions: These systems are not affected by

human emotions such as fatigue, anger, depression, anxiety, etc..
Hence the performance remains constant.

5. High security: These systems provide high security to resolve any query.

6. Considers all the facts: To respond to any query, it checks and

considers all the available facts and provides the result accordingly. But it
is possible that a human expert may not consider some facts due to any
reason.

7. Regular updates improve the performance: If there is an issue in the

result provided by the expert systems, we can improve the performance
of the system by updating the knowledge base.

Capabilities of the Expert System

Below are some capabilities of an Expert System:

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o Advising: It is capable of advising the human being for the query of

any domain from the particular ES.

o Provide decision-making capabilities: It provides the capability of

decision making in any domain, such as for making any financial decision,
decisions in medical science, etc.

o Demonstrate a device: It is capable of demonstrating any new

products such as its features, specifications, how to use that
product, etc.

o Problem-solving: It has problem-solving capabilities.

o Explaining a problem: It is also capable of providing a detailed

description of an input problem.

o Interpreting the input: It is capable of interpreting the input given by

the user.

o Predicting results: It can be used for the prediction of a result.

o Diagnosis: An ES designed for the medical field is capable of

diagnosing a disease without using multiple components as it already
contains various inbuilt medical tools.

Advantages of Expert System

o These systems are highly reproducible.

o They can be used for risky places where the human presence is not safe.

o Error possibilities are less if the KB contains correct knowledge.

o The performance of these systems remains steady as it is not affected by

emotions, tension, or fatigue.

o They provide a very high speed to respond to a particular query.

Limitations of Expert System

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o The response of the expert system may get wrong if the knowledge base
contains the wrong information.

o Like a human being, it cannot produce a creative output for different

scenarios.

o Its maintenance and development costs are very high.

o Knowledge acquisition for designing is much difficult.

o For each domain, we require a specific ES, which is one of the big
limitations.

o It cannot learn from itself and hence requires manual updates.

Applications of Expert System

o In designing and manufacturing domain

It can be broadly used for designing and manufacturing physical devices
such as camera lenses and automobiles.

o In the knowledge domain

These systems are primarily used for publishing the relevant knowledge to
the users. The two popular ES used for this domain is an advisor and a tax
advisor.

o In the finance domain

In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of possible fraud,
suspicious activity, and advise bankers that if they should provide loans for
business or not.

o In the diagnosis and troubleshooting of devices

In medical diagnosis, the ES system is used, and it was the first area where
these systems were used.

o Planning and Scheduling

The expert systems can also be used for planning and scheduling some
particular tasks for achieving the goal of that task.

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Causes of uncertainty:

Following are some leading causes of uncertainty to occur in the real world.

1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

2. Experimental Errors

3. Equipment fault

4. Temperature variation

5. Climate change.

Probabilistic reasoning:

Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge representation where we apply the

concept of probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge. In probabilistic
reasoning, we combine probability theory with logic to handle the uncertainty.

We use probability in probabilistic reasoning because it provides a way to handle

the uncertainty that is the result of someone's laziness and ignorance.

In the real world, there are lots of scenarios, where the certainty of something is
not confirmed, such as "It will rain today," "behavior of someone for some
situations," "A match between two teams or two players." These are probable
sentences for which we can assume that it will happen but not sure about it, so
here we use probabilistic reasoning.

Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

o When there are unpredictable outcomes.

o When specifications or possibilities of predicates becomes too large to

handle.

o When an unknown error occurs during an experiment.

In probabilistic reasoning, there are two ways to solve problems with uncertain
knowledge:

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o Bayes' rule

o Bayesian Statistics

Note: We will learn the above two rules in later chapters.

As probabilistic reasoning uses probability and related terms, so before

understanding probabilistic reasoning, let's understand some common terms:

Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event

will occur. It is the numerical measure of the likelihood that an event will occur.
The value of probability always remains between 0 and 1 that represent
ideal uncertainties.

1. 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, where P(A) is the probability of an event A.

1. P(A) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event A.

1. P(A) =1, indicates total certainty in an event A.

We can find the probability of an uncertain event by using the below formula.

o P(¬A) = probability of a not happening event.

o P(¬A) + P(A) = 1.

Event: Each possible outcome of a variable is called an event.

Sample space: The collection of all possible events is called sample space.

Random variables: Random variables are used to represent the events and
objects in the real world.

Prior probability: The prior probability of an event is probability computed

before observing new information.

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Posterior Probability: The probability that is calculated after all evidence

or information has taken into account. It is a combination of prior probability
and new information.

Conditional probability:

Conditional probability is a probability of occurring an event when another event

has already happened.

Let's suppose, we want to calculate the event A when event B has already
occurred, "the probability of A under the conditions of B", it can be written as:

Where P(A⋀B)= Joint probability of a

and B P(B)= Marginal probability of B.
If the probability of A is given and we need to find the probability of B, then it will
be given as:

It can be explained by using the below Venn diagram, where B is occurred event,
so sample space will be reduced to set B, and now we can only calculate event A
when event B is already occurred by dividing the probability of P(A⋀B) by P(
B ).

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Example:
In a class, there are 70% of the students who like English and 40% of the students
who likes English and mathematics, and then what is the percent of students
those who like English also like mathematics?

Solution:

Let, A is an event that a student likes Mathematics

B is an event that a student likes English.

Hence, 57% are the students who like English also like Mathematics.

planning in AI?

 The planning in Artificial Intelligence is about the decision making tasks

performed by the robots or computer programs to achieve a specific goal.

 The execution of planning is about choosing a sequence of actions with a

high likelihood to complete the specific task.

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Blocks-World planning problem

 The blocks-world problem is known as Sussman Anomaly.

 Noninterleaved planners of the early 1970s were unable to solve this

problem, hence it is considered as anomalous.

 When two subgoals G1 and G2 are given, a noninterleaved planner

produces either a plan for G1 concatenated with a plan for G2, or vice-
versa.

 In blocks-world problem, three blocks labeled as 'A', 'B', 'C' are allowed to
rest on the flat surface. The given condition is that only one block can be
moved at a time to achieve the goal.

 The start state and goal state are shown in the following diagram.

Components of Planning System

The planning consists of following important steps:

 Choose the best rule for applying the next rule based on the best available
heuristics.

 Apply the chosen rule for computing the new problem state.

 Detect when a solution has been found.

 Detect dead ends so that they can be abandoned and the system‘s effort is
directed in more fruitful directions.

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 Detect when an almost correct solution has been found.

Goal stack planning

This is one of the most important planning algorithms, which is specifically used
by STRIPS.

 The stack is used in an algorithm to hold the action and satisfy the goal. A
knowledge base is used to hold the current state, actions.

 Goal stack is similar to a node in a search tree, where the branches are
created if there is a choice of an action.

The important steps of the algorithm are as stated below:

i. Start by pushing the original goal on the stack. Repeat this until the stack
becomes empty. If stack top is a compound goal, then push its unsatisfied
subgoals on the stack.
ii. If stack top is a single unsatisfied goal then, replace it by an action and push the
action‘s precondition on the stack to satisfy the condition.
iii. If stack top is an action, pop it from the stack, execute it and change the
knowledge base by the effects of the action.
iv. If stack top is a satisfied goal, pop it from the stack.

Non-linear planning

This planning is used to set a goal stack and is included in the search space of all
possible subgoal orderings. It handles the goal interactions by interleaving
method.

Advantage of non-Linear planning

Non-linear planning may be an optimal solution with respect to plan length
(depending on search strategy used).

Disadvantages of Nonlinear planning

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 It takes larger search space, since all possible goal orderings are taken into
consideration.

 Complex algorithm to understand.

Algorithm
1. Choose a goal 'g' from the goalset
2. If 'g' does not match the state, then

 Choose an operator 'o' whose add-list matches goal g

 Push 'o' on the opstack

 Add the preconditions of 'o' to the goalset

3. While all preconditions of operator on top of opstack are met in state

 Pop operator o from top of opstack

 state = apply(o, state)

 plan = [plan; o]

Hierarchical Task Network Planning

Hierarchies are the most common structure used to understand the world better.
In galaxies, for instance, multiple-star systems are organised in a hierarchical
system. Then, governmental and company organisations are structured using a
hierarchy, while the Internet, which is used on a daily basis, has a space of domain
names arranged hierarchically. Since Artificial Intelligence (AI) planning portrays
information about the world and reasons to solve some of world's problems,
Hierarchical Task Network (HTN) planning has been introduced almost 40 years
ago to represent and deal with hierarchies. Its requirement for rich domain
knowledge to characterise the world enables HTN planning to be very useful, but
also to perform well. However, the history of almost 40 years obfuscates the
current understanding of HTN planning in terms of accomplishments, planning
models, similarities and differences among hierarchical planners, and its current
and objective image. On top of these issues, attention attracts the ability of

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hierarchical planning to truly cope with the requirements of applications from the
real world. We propose a framework-based approach to remedy this situation.
First, we provide a basis for defining different formal models of hierarchical
planning, and define two models that comprise a large portion of HTN planners.
Second, we provide a set of concepts that helps to interpret HTN planners from
the aspect of their search space. Then, we analyse and compare the planners
based on a variety of properties organised in five segments, namely domain
authoring, expressiveness, competence, performance and applicability.
Furthermore, we select Web service composition as a real-world and current
application, and classify and compare the approaches that employ HTN planning
to solve the problem of service composition. Finally, we conclude with our
findings and present directions for future work.

Hierarchical Task Network (HTN) planning is an Artificial Intelligence (AI) planning

technique that breaks with the tradition of classical planning. The basic idea
behind this technique includes an initial state description, a task network as an
objective to be achieved, and domain knowledge consisting of networks of
primitive and compound tasks. A task network represents a hierarchy of tasks
each of which can be executed, if the task is primitive, or decomposed into
refined subtasks. The planning process starts by decomposing the initial task
network and continues until all compound tasks are decomposed, that is, a
solution is found. The solution is a plan which equates to a set of primitive tasks
applicable to the initial world state.

Beside being a tradition breaker, HTN planning appears to be controversial as

well. The controversy lies in its requirement for well-conceived and well-
structured domain knowledge. Such knowledge is likely to contain rich
information and guidance on how to solve a planning problem, thus encoding
more of the solution than was envisioned for classical planning techniques. This
structured and rich knowledge gives a primary advantage to HTN planners in
terms of speed and scalability when applied to real-world problems and
compared to their counterparts in classical world.

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The biggest contribution towards this kind of ―popular‖ image of HTN planning
has emerged after the proposal of the Simple Hierarchical Ordered Planner
(SHOP) and its successors. SHOP is an HTN-based planner that shows efficient
performance even on complex problems, but at the expense of providing well-
written and possibly algorithmic-like domain knowledge. Several situations may
confirm our observation, but the most well-known is the disqualification of SHOP
from the International Planning Competition (IPC) in 2000 with the reason that
the domain knowledge was not well-written so that the planner produced plans
that were not solutions to the competition problems. Furthermore, the
disqualification was followed by a dispute on whether providing such knowledge
to a planner should be considered as ―cheating‖ in the world of AI planning.

SHOP's style of HTN planning was introduced by the end of 1990s, but HTN
planning existed long before that. The initial idea of hierarchical planning was
presented by the Nets of Action Hierarchies (NOAH) planner in 1975. It was
followed by a series of studies on practical implementations and theoretical
contributions on HTN planning up until today. We believe that the fruitful ideas
and scientific contribution of nearly 40 years must not be easily reduced to
controversy and antagonism towards HTN planning. On the other hand, we are
faced with a situation full of fuzziness in terms of difficulty to understand what
kind of planning style other HTN planners perform, how it is achieved and
implemented, what are the similarities and differences among these planners,
and finally, what is their actual contribution to the creation of the overall and
possibly objective image of HTN planning. The situation cannot be effortlessly
clarified because the current literature on HTN planning, despite being very rich,
reports little or nothing at all on any of these issues, especially in a consolidated
form.

In addition to these issues, we observe the applicability of AI planning techniques

as an ultimate goal of their development. We are especially interested in novel
and real-world domains which may require reconsidering established techniques.
The growing trend on other than classical and synthetic domains leads to the
need for algorithms and systems that reflect planning better and more closely to
the real world. This perspective gives another view to the abilities of HTN

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planners (and HTN planning in general) to cope with various properties of an

application in the real world.

We aim to consolidate and synthesise a number of existing studies on HTN

planning in a manner that will clarify, categorise and analyse HTN planners, and
allow us to make statements that are not merely based on contributions of a
single HTN planner. We also hope to rectify the perception of HTN planning as
being controversial and antagonistic in the AI planning community. Finally, we
choose a non-traditional, dynamic and uncertain application domain to ascertain
HTN planning with respect to various domain characteristics.

Partial-Order Planning

The forward and regression planners enforce a total ordering on actions at all
stages of the planning process. The CSP planner commits to the particular time
that the action will be carried out. This means that those planners have to commit
to an ordering of actions that cannot occur concurrently when adding them to a
partial plan, even if there is no particular reason to put one action before another.

The idea of a partial-order planner is to have a partial ordering between

actions and only commit to an ordering between actions when forced. This is
sometimes also called a non-linear planner, which is a misnomer because
such planners often produce a linear plan.

A partial ordering is a less-than relation that is transitive and asymmetric.

A partial-order plan is a set of actions together with a partial ordering,
representing a "before" relation on actions, such that any total ordering of the
actions, consistent with the partial ordering, will solve the goal from the initial
state. Write act0 < act1 if action act0 is before action act1 in the partial order. This
means that action act0 must occur before action act1.

For uniformity, treat start as an action that achieves the relations that are true in
the initial state, and treat finish as an action whose precondition is the goal to be
solved. The pseudoaction start is before every other action, and finish is after
every other action. The use of these as actions means that the algorithm does not

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require special cases for the initial situation and for the goals. When the
preconditions of finish hold, the goal is solved. An action, other than start or
finish, will be in a partial-order plan to achieve a precondition of an action in the
plan. Each precondition of an action in the plan is either true in the initial state, and
so achieved by start, or there will be an action in the plan that achieves it.

We must ensure that the actions achieve the conditions they were assigned to
achieve. Each precondition P of an action act1 in a plan will have an
action act0 associated with it such that act0 achieves precondition P for act1. The
triple ⟨ act0,P,act1⟩ is a causal link. The partial order specifies that
action act0 occurs before action act1, which is written as act0 < act1. Any other
action A that makes P false must either be before act0 or after act1.

Informally, a partial-order planner works as follows: Begin with the

actions start and finish and the partial order start < finish. The planner maintains
an agenda that is a set of ⟨ P,A⟩ pairs, where A is an action in the plan and P is
an atom that is a precondition of A that must be achieved. Initially the agenda
contains pairs ⟨ G,finish⟩ , where G is an atom that must be true in the goal
state.

At each stage in the planning process, a pair ⟨ G,act1⟩ is selected from the
agenda, where P is a precondition for action act1. Then an action, act0, is
chosen to achieve P. That action is either already in the plan - it could be the
start action, for example - or it is a new action that is added to the plan. Action
act0 must happen before act1 in the partial order. It adds a causal link that
records
that act0 achieves P for action act1. Any action in the plan that deletes P must
happen either before act0 or after act1. If act0 is a new action, its preconditions
are added to the agenda, and the process continues until the agenda is empty.

This is a non-deterministic procedure. The "choose" and the "either ...or ..." form
choices that must be searched over. There are two choices that require search:

 which action is selected to achieve G and

 whether an action that deletes G happens before act0 or after act1.

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non-deterministic procedure
PartialOrderPlanner(Gs) 2: Inputs
3: Gs: set of atomic propositions to achieve
4: Output
5: linear plan to achieve Gs
6: Local
7: Agenda: set of ⟨ P,A⟩ pairs where P is atom and A an
action 8: Actions: set of actions in the current plan
9: Constraints: set of temporal constraints on actions
10: CausalLinks: set of ⟨ act0,P,act1⟩ triples
11: Agenda ←{⟨ G,finish⟩ :G
∈ Gs} 12: Actions ←{start,finish}
13: Constraints ←{start<finish}
14: CausalLinks ←{}
15: repeat
16: select and remove ⟨ G,act1⟩ from Agenda
17: either
18: choose act0 ∈ Actions such that act0 achieves G
19: or
20: choose act0 ∉ Actions such that act0 achieves G
21: Actions ←Actions ∪{act0}
22: Constraints ←add_const(start<act0,Constraints)
23: for each CL∈ CausalLinks do
24: Constraints ←protect(CL,act0,Constraints)
25:
26: Agenda ←Agenda ∪ {⟨ P,act0⟩ : P is a precondition of
act0 } 27:
28 : Constraints ←add_const(act0<act1,Constraints)
29: CausalLinks ∪ {⟨ acto,G,act1⟩ }
30: for each A∈ Actions do
31: Constraints ←protect(⟨ acto,G,act1⟩ ,A,Constraints)

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until Agenda={}

The algorithm PartialOrderPlanner is given

The function add_const(act0<act1,Constraints) returns the constraints formed by

adding the constraint act0<act1 to Constraints, and it fails if act0<act1 is
incompatible with Constraints. There are many ways this function can be
implemented.

The function protect(⟨ acto,G,act1⟩ ,A,Constraints) checks

whether A≠act0 and A≠act1 and A deletes G. If so, it returns either { A<act0 } ∪
Constraints or { act1<A } ∪ Constraints. This is a non-deterministic choice that is
searched over. Otherwise it returns Constraints.

The preceding algorithm has glossed over one important detail. It is sometimes
necessary to perform some action more than once in a plan. The preceding
algorithm will not work in this case, because it will try to find a partial ordering
with both instances of the action occurring at the same time. To fix this problem,
the ordering should be between action instances, and not actions themselves. To
implement this, assign an index to each instance of an action in the plan, and the
ordering is on the action instance indexes and not the actions themselves. This is
left as an exercise.

Natural Language Processing (NLP)

Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an

intelligent systems using a natural language such as English.

Processing of Natural Language is required when we want an intelligent system

like robot to perform as per our instructions, when we want to hear decision from
a dialogue based clinical expert system, etc.

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The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the
natural languages humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −

 Speech
 Written Text

Components of NLP

There are two components of NLP as given –

Natural Language Understanding

(NLU) Understanding involves the following

tasks −

 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.

 Analyzing different aspects of the language.

Natural Language Generation (NLG)

It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of
natural language from some internal representation.

It involves −

 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from

knowledge base.

 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words,

forming meaningful phrases, setting tone of the sentence.

 Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence

structure. The NLU is harder than NLG.

Difficulties in NLU

NL has an extremely rich form and structure.

It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −

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 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.

 For example, treating the word ―board‖ as noun or verb?

 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.

 For example, ―He lifted the beetle with red cap.‖ − Did he use cap to lift the
beetle or he lifted a beetle that had red cap?

 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For

example, Rima went to Gauri. She said, ―I am tired.‖ − Exactly who is tired?

 One input can mean different meanings.

 Many inputs can mean the same thing.

NLP Terminology

 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from

primitive meaningful units.

 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.

 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also

involves determining the structural role of words in the sentence and in
phrases.

 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how

to combine words into meaningful phrases and sentences.

 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in

different situations and how the interpretation of the sentence is
affected.

 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence

can affect the interpretation of the next sentence.

 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

Steps in NLP

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There are general five steps −

 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the

structure of words. Lexicon of a language means the collection of words
and phrases in a language. Lexical analysis is dividing the whole
chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and words.

 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the

sentence for grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the
relationship among the words. The sentence such as ―The school goes
to boy‖ is rejected by English syntactic analyzer.

 Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary

meaning from the text. The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done
by mapping syntactic structures and objects in the task domain. The
semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as ―hot ice-cream‖.

 Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon

the meaning of the sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings
about the meaning of immediately succeeding sentence.

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 Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on

what it actually meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language which
require real world knowledge.

Implementation Aspects of Syntactic Analysis

There are a number of algorithms researchers have developed for syntactic

analysis, but we consider only the following simple methods −

 Context-Free Grammar

 Top-Down Parser

Context-Free Grammar
It is the grammar that consists rules with a single symbol on the left-hand side of
the rewrite rules. Let us create grammar to parse a sentence −

―The bird pecks the grains‖

Articles (DET) − a | an | the

Nouns − bird | birds | grain | grains

Noun Phrase (NP) − Article + Noun | Article + Adjective + Noun

= DET N | DET ADJ N

Verbs − pecks | pecking | pecked

Verb Phrase (VP) − NP V | V NP

Adjectives (ADJ) − beautiful | small | chirping

The parse tree breaks down the sentence into structured parts so that the
computer can easily understand and process it. In order for the parsing algorithm
to construct this parse tree, a set of rewrite rules, which describe what tree
structures are legal, need to be constructed.

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These rules say that a certain symbol may be expanded in the tree by a sequence
of other symbols. According to first order logic rule, if there are two strings Noun
Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP), then the string combined by NP followed by VP
is a sentence. The rewrite rules for the sentence are as follows −

S → NP VP

NP → DET N | DET

ADJ N VP → V NP

Lexocon −

DET → a | the

ADJ → beautiful | perching

N → bird | birds | grain | grains

V → peck | pecks | pecking

The parse tree can be created as shown −

Now consider the above rewrite rules. Since V can be replaced by both, "peck" or
"pecks", sentences such as "The bird peck the grains" can be wrongly permitted. i.
e. the subject-verb agreement error is approved as correct.

Merit − The simplest style of grammar, therefore widely used one.

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Demerits −

 They are not highly precise. For example, ―The grains peck the bird‖, is a
syntactically correct according to parser, but even if it makes no sense,
parser takes it as a correct sentence.

 To bring out high precision, multiple sets of grammar need to be prepared.

It may require a completely different sets of rules for parsing singular and
plural variations, passive sentences, etc., which can lead to creation of huge
set of rules that are unmanageable.

Top-Down Parser

Here, the parser starts with the S symbol and attempts to rewrite it into a
sequence of terminal symbols that matches the classes of the words in the input
sentence until it consists entirely of terminal symbols.

These are then checked with the input sentence to see if it matched. If not, the
process is started over again with a different set of rules. This is repeated until a
specific rule is found which describes the structure of the sentence.

Merit − It is simple to implement.

Demerits −

 It is inefficient, as the search process has to be repeated if an error occurs.

 Slow speed of working.

Grammars and Languages

The types of grammars that exist are Noam Chomsky invented a hierarchy of
grammars.

The hierarchy consists of four main types of grammars.

The simplest grammars are used to define regular languages.

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A regular language is one that can be described or understood by a finite state

automaton. Such languages are very simplistic and allow sentences such as
―aaaaabbbbbb.‖ Recall that a finite state automaton consists of a finite number of
states, and rules that define how the automaton can transition from one state to
another.

A finite state automaton could be designed that defined the language that
consisted of a string of one or more occurrences of the letter a. Hence, the
following strings would be valid strings in this language:

aaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

Regular languages are of interest to computer scientists, but are not of great
interest to the field of natural language processing because they are not powerful
enough to represent even simple formal languages, let alone the more complex
natural languages.

Sentences defined by a regular grammar are often known as regular expressions.

The grammar that we defined above using rewrite rules is a context-free
grammar.

It is context free because it defines the grammar simply in terms of which word
types can go together—it does not specify the way that words should agree with
each.

A stale dog climbs Mount Rushmore.

It also, allows the following sentence, which is not grammatically correct:

Chickens eats.

A context-free grammar can have only at most one terminal symbol on the right-
hand side of its rewrite rules.

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Rewrite rules for a context-sensitive grammar, in contrast, can have more than
one terminal symbol on the right-hand side. This enables the grammar to specify
number, case, tense, and gender agreement.

Each context-sensitive rewrite rule must have at least as many symbols on the
right-hand side as it does on the left-hand side.

Rewrite rules for context-sensitive grammars have the following form:

A X B→A Y B

which means that in the context of A and B, X can be rewritten as Y.

Each of A, B, X, and Y can be either a terminal or a nonterminal symbol.

Context-sensitive grammars are most usually used for natural language

processing because they are powerful enough to define the kinds of grammars
that natural languages use. Unfortunately, they tend to involve a much larger
number of rules and are a much less natural way to describe language, making
them harder for human developers to design than context free grammars.

The final class of grammars in Chomsky‘s hierarchy consists of recursively

enumerable grammars (also known as unrestricted grammars).

A recursively enumerable grammar can define any language and has no

restrictions on the structure of its rewrite rules. Such grammars are of interest to
computer scientists but are not of great use in the study of natural language
processing.

Parsing: Syntactic Analysis

As we have seen, morphologic analysis can be used to determine to which part of

speech each word in a sentence belongs. We will now examine how this
information is used to determine the syntactic structure of a sentence.

This process, in which we convert a sentence into a tree that represents the
sentence‘s syntactic structure, is known as parsing.

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Parsing a sentence tells us whether it is a valid sentence, as defined by our

grammar

If a sentence is not a valid sentence, then it cannot be parsed. Parsing a sentence

involves producing a tree, such as that shown in Fig 10.1, which shows the parse
tree for the following sentence:

The black cat crossed the road.

This tree shows how the sentence is made up of a noun phrase and a verb phrase.

The noun phrase consists of an article, an adjective, and a noun. The verb phrase
consists of a verb and a further noun phrase, which in turn consists of an article
and a noun.

Parse trees can be built in a bottom-up fashion or in a top-down fashion.

Building a parse tree from the top down involves starting from a sentence and
determining which of the possible rewrites for Sentence can be applied to the
sentence that is being parsed. Hence, in this case, Sentence would be rewritten
using the following rule:

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Sentence→NounPhrase VerbPhrase

Then the verb phrase and noun phrase would be broken down recursively in the
same way, until only terminal symbols were left.

When a parse tree is built from the top down, it is known as a derivation tree.

To build a parse tree from the bottom up, the terminal symbols of the sentence
are first replaced by their corresponding nonterminals (e.g., cat is replaced by
noun), and then these nonterminals are combined to match the right-hand sides
of rewrite rules.

Parsing Techniques

Transition Networks

A transition network is a finite state automaton that is used to represent a part of

a grammar.

A transition network parser uses a number of these transition networks to

represent its entire grammar.

Each network represents one nonterminal symbol in the grammar. Hence, in the
grammar for the English language, we would have one transition network for
Sentence, one for Noun Phrase, one for Verb Phrase, one for Verb, and so on.

Fig shows the transition network equivalents for three production rules.

In each transition network, S1 is the start state, and the accepting state, or final
state, is denoted by a heavy border. When a phrase is applied to a transition
network, the first word is compared against one of the arcs leading from the first
state.

If this word matches one of those arcs, the network moves into the state to which
that arc points. Hence, the first network shown in Fig 10.2, when presented with a
Noun Phrase, will move from state S1 to state S2.

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If a phrase is presented to a transition network and no match is found from the

current state, then that network cannot be used and another network must be
tried. Hence, when starting with the phrase the cat sat on the mat, none of the
networks shown in Fig 10.2 will be used because they all have only nonterminal
symbols, whereas all the symbols in the cat sat on the mat are terminal.Hence, we
need further networks, such as the ones shown in Figure 10.2, which deal with
terminal symbols.

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Transition networks can be used to determine whether a sentence is

grammatically correct, at least according to the rules of the grammar the
networks represent.

Parsing using transition networks involves exploring a search space of possible

parses in a depth-first fashion.

the parse of the following simple sentence:

A cat sat.

We begin in state S1 in the Sentence transition network. To proceed, we must

follow the arc that is labeled NounPhrase. We thus move out of the Sentence
network and into the NounPhrase network.

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The first arc of the NounPhrase network is labeled Noun. We thus move into the
Noun network. We now follow each of the arcs in the Noun network and discover
that our first word, A, does not match any of them. Hence, we backtrack to the
next arc in the NounPhrase network.

This arc is labeled Article, so we move on to the Article transition network. Here,
on examining the second label, we find that the first word is matched by the
terminal symbol on this arc.

We therefore consume the word, A, and move on to state S2 in the Article

network. Because this is a success node, we are able to return to the NounPhrase
network and move on to state S2 in this network. We now have an arc labeled
Noun.

As before, we move into the Noun network and find that our next word, cat,
matches. We thus move to state S4 in the NounPhrase network. This is a success
node, and so we move back to the Sentence network and repeat the process for
the VerbPhrase arc.

It is possible for a system to use transition networks to generate a derivation tree

for a sentence, so that as well as determining whether the sentence is
grammatically valid, it parses it fully to obtain further information by semantic
analysis from the sentence.

This can be done by simply having the system build up the tree by noting which
arcs it successfully followed. When, for example, it successfully follows the
NounPhrase arc in the Sentence network, the system generates a root node
labeled Sentence and an arc leading from that node to a new node labeled
NounPhrase.When the system follows the NounPhrase network and

identifies an article and a noun, these are similarly added to the tree.

In this way, the full parse tree for the sentence can be generated using transition
networks. Parsing using transition networks is simple to understand, but is not
necessarily as efficient or as effective as we might hope for. In particular, it does

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not pay any attention to potential ambiguities or the need for words to agree
with each other in case, gender, or number.

Parsing

Parsing can be defined as top-down or bottom-up based on how the parse-tree is

constructed.

Top-Down Parsing

We have learnt in the last chapter that the top-down parsing technique parses
the input, and starts constructing a parse tree from the root node gradually
moving down to the leaf nodes. The types of top-down parsing are depicted
below:

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Recursive Descent Parsing

Recursive descent is a top-down parsing technique that constructs the parse tree
from the top and the input is read from left to right. It uses procedures for every
terminal and non-terminal entity. This parsing technique recursively parses the
input to make a parse tree, which may or may not require back-tracking. But the
grammar associated with it (if not left factored) cannot avoid back-tracking. A
form of recursive-descent parsing that does not require any back-tracking is
known as predictive parsing.

This parsing technique is regarded recursive as it uses context-free grammar

which is recursive in nature.

Back-tracking

Top- down parsers start from the root node (start symbol) and match the input
string against the production rules to replace them (if matched). To understand
this, take the following example of CFG:

S → rXd | rZd

X → oa | ea

Z → ai

For an input string: read, a top-down parser, will behave like this:

It will start with S from the production rules and will match its yield to the left-
most letter of the input, i.e. ‗r‘. The very production of S (S → rXd) matches with
it. So the top-down parser advances to the next input letter (i.e. ‗e‘). The parser
tries to expand non-terminal ‗X‘ and checks its production from the left (X → oa).
It does not match with the next input symbol. So the top-down parser backtracks
to obtain the next production rule of X, (X → ea).

Now the parser matches all the input letters in an ordered manner. The string is
accepted.

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Predictive Parser

Predictive parser is a recursive descent parser, which has the capability to predict
which production is to be used to replace the input string. The predictive parser
does not suffer from backtracking.

To accomplish its tasks, the predictive parser uses a look-ahead pointer, which
points to the next input symbols. To make the parser back-tracking free, the
predictive parser puts some constraints on the grammar and accepts only a class
of grammar known as LL(k) grammar.

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Predictive parsing uses a stack and a parsing table to parse the input and generate
a parse tree. Both the stack and the input contains an end symbol $ to denote
that the stack is empty and the input is consumed. The parser refers to the
parsing table to take any decision on the input and stack element combination.

In recursive descent parsing, the parser may have more than one production to
choose from for a single instance of input, whereas in predictive parser, each step
has at most one production to choose. There might be instances where there is
no production matching the input string, making the parsing procedure to fail.

LL Parser

An LL Parser accepts LL grammar. LL grammar is a subset of context-free grammar

but with some restrictions to get the simplified version, in order to achieve easy
implementation. LL grammar can be implemented by means of both algorithms
namely, recursive-descent or table-driven.

LL parser is denoted as LL(k). The first L in LL(k) is parsing the input from left to
right, the second L in LL(k) stands for left-most derivation and k itself represents
the number of look aheads. Generally k = 1, so LL(k) may also be written as LL(1).

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LL Parsing Algorithm

We may stick to deterministic LL(1) for parser explanation, as the size of table
grows exponentially with the value of k. Secondly, if a given grammar is not LL(1),
then usually, it is not LL(k), for any given k.

Given below is an algorithm for LL(1) Parsing:

Input:

string ω

parsing table M for grammar G

Output:

If ω is in L(G) then left-most derivation of ω,

error otherwise.

Initial State : $S on stack (with S being start symbol)

ω$ in the input buffer

SET ip to point the first symbol of ω$.

repeat

let X be the top stack symbol and a the symbol pointed by ip.

if X∈ Vt or $

if X = a

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POP X and advance ip.

else

error()

endif

else /* X is non-terminal */

if M[X,a] = X → Y1, Y2,... Yk

POP X

PUSH Yk, Yk-1,... Y1 /* Y1 on top */

Output the production X → Y1, Y2,... Yk

else

error()

endif

endif

until X = $ /* empty stack */

A grammar G is LL(1) if A → α | β are two distinct productions of G:

 for no terminal, both α and β derive strings beginning with a.

 at most one of α and β can derive empty string.

 if β → t, then α does not derive any string beginning with a terminal in

FOLLOW(A).

Bottom-up Parsing

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Bottom-up parsing starts from the leaf nodes of a tree and works in upward
direction till it reaches the root node. Here, we start from a sentence and then
apply production rules in reverse manner in order to reach the start symbol. The
image given below depicts the bottom-up parsers available.

Shift-Reduce Parsing

Shift-reduce parsing uses two unique steps for bottom-up parsing. These steps
are known as shift-step and reduce-step.

 Shift step: The shift step refers to the advancement of the input pointer
to the next input symbol, which is called the shifted symbol. This symbol
is pushed onto the stack. The shifted symbol is treated as a single node of
the parse tree.

 Reduce step : When the parser finds a complete grammar rule (RHS)
and replaces it to (LHS), it is known as reduce-step. This occurs when the
top of the stack contains a handle. To reduce, a POP function is performed
on the stack which pops off the handle and replaces it with LHS non-
terminal symbol.

LR Parser

The LR parser is a non-recursive, shift-reduce, bottom-up parser. It uses a wide

class of context-free grammar which makes it the most efficient syntax analysis

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technique. LR parsers are also known as LR(k) parsers, where L stands for left-to-
right scanning of the input stream; R stands for the construction of right-most
derivation in reverse, and k denotes the number of lookahead symbols to make
decisions.

There are three widely used algorithms available for constructing an LR parser:

 SLR(1) – Simple LR Parser:

o Works on smallest class of grammar

o Few number of states, hence very small table

o Simple and fast construction

 LR(1) – LR Parser:

o Works on complete set of LR(1) Grammar

o Generates large table and large number of states

o Slow construction

 LALR(1) – Look-Ahead LR Parser:

o Works on intermediate size of grammar

o Number of states are same as in SLR(1)

LR Parsing Algorithm

Here we describe a skeleton algorithm of an LR parser:

token = next_token()

repeat forever

s = top of stack

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if action[s, token] = ―shift si‖ then

PUSH token

PUSH si

token = next_token()

else if action[s, tpken] = ―reduce A::= β― then

POP 2 * |β| symbols

s = top of stack

PUSH A

PUSH goto[s,A]

else if action[s, token] = ―accept‖ then

return

else

error()

LL vs. LR

LL LR

Does a leftmost derivation. Does a rightmost derivation in reverse.

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Starts with the root nonterminal on Ends with the root nonterminal on the
the stack. stack.

Ends when the stack is empty. Starts with an empty stack.

Uses the stack for designating what is Uses the stack for designating what is
still to be expected. already seen.

Builds the parse tree top-down. Builds the parse tree bottom-up.

Continuously pops a nonterminal off Tries to recognize a right hand side on

the stack, and pushes the the stack, pops it, and pushes the
corresponding right hand side. corresponding nonterminal.

Expands the non-terminals. Reduces the non-terminals.

Reads the terminals when it pops one Reads the terminals while it pushes
off the stack. them on the stack.

Pre-order traversal of the parse tree. Post-order traversal of the parse tree.

Semantic Analysis

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The purpose of semantic analysis is to draw exact meaning, or you can say
dictionary meaning from the text. The work of semantic analyzer is to check the
text for meaningfulness.

Semantic analysis is concerned with the meaning representation. It mainly

focuses on the literal meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

We already know that lexical analysis also deals with the meaning of the words,
then how is semantic analysis different from lexical analysis? Lexical analysis is
based on smaller token but on the other side semantic analysis focuses on larger
chunks. That is why semantic analysis can be divided into the following two parts
−

Studying meaning of individual word

It is the first part of the semantic analysis in which the study of the meaning of
individual words is performed. This part is called lexical semantics.

Studying the combination of individual words

In the second part, the individual words will be combined to provide meaning in
sentences.

The most important task of semantic analysis is to get the proper meaning of the
sentence. For example, analyze the sentence “Ram is great.” In this sentence, the
speaker is talking either about Lord Ram or about a person whose name is Ram.
That is why the job, to get the proper meaning of the sentence, of semantic
analyzer is important.

Elements of Semantic Analysis

Followings are some important elements of semantic analysis −

Hyponymy
It may be defined as the relationship between a generic term and instances of
that generic term. Here the generic term is called hypernym and its instances are

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called hyponyms. For example, the word color is hypernym and the color blue,
yellow etc. are hyponyms.

Homonymy

It may be defined as the words having same spelling or same form but having
different and unrelated meaning. For example, the word ―Bat‖ is a homonymy
word because bat can be an implement to hit a ball or bat is a nocturnal flying
mammal also.

Polysemy

Polysemy is a Greek word, which means ―many signs‖. It is a word or phrase with
different but related sense. In other words, we can say that polysemy has the
same spelling but different and related meaning. For example, the word ―bank‖ is
a polysemy word having the following meanings −

 A financial institution.
 The building in which such an institution is located.
 A synonym for ―to rely on‖.

Difference between Polysemy and Homonymy

Both polysemy and homonymy words have the same syntax or spelling. The main
difference between them is that in polysemy, the meanings of the words are
related but in homonymy, the meanings of the words are not related. For
example, if we talk about the same word ―Bank‖, we can write the meaning ‗a
financial institution‘ or ‗a river bank‘. In that case it would be the example of
homonym because the meanings are unrelated to each other.

Synonymy

It is the relation between two lexical items having different forms but expressing
the same or a close meaning. Examples are ‗author/writer‘, ‗fate/destiny‘.

Antonymy

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It is the relation between two lexical items having symmetry between their
semantic components relative to an axis. The scope of antonymy is as follows −

 Application of property or not − Example is

‗life/death‘, ‗certitude/incertitude‘

 Application of scalable property − Example is ‗rich/poor‘, ‗hot/cold‘

 Application of a usage − Example is ‗father/son‘, ‗moon/sun‘.

Meaning Representation

Semantic analysis creates a representation of the meaning of a sentence. But

before getting into the concept and approaches related to meaning
representation, we need to understand the building blocks of semantic system.

Building Blocks of Semantic System

In word representation or representation of the meaning of the words, the

following building blocks play an important role −

 Entities − It represents the individual such as a particular person,

location etc. For example, Haryana. India, Ram all are entities.

 Concepts − It represents the general category of the individuals such as

a person, city, etc.

 Relations − It represents the relationship between entities and concept.

For example, Ram is a person.

 Predicates − It represents the verb structures. For example, semantic

roles and case grammar are the examples of predicates.

Now, we can understand that meaning representation shows how to put together
the building blocks of semantic systems. In other words, it shows how to put
together entities, concepts, relation and predicates to describe a situation. It also
enables the reasoning about the semantic world.

Approaches to Meaning Representations

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Semantic analysis uses the following approaches for the representation of

meaning −

 First order predicate logic (FOPL)

 Semantic Nets

 Frames

 Conceptual dependency (CD)

 Rule-based architecture

 Case Grammar

 Conceptual Graphs

Need of Meaning Representations

A question that arises here is why do we need meaning representation?

Followings are the reasons for the same −

Linking of linguistic elements to non-linguistic elements

The very first reason is that with the help of meaning representation the linking of
linguistic elements to the non-linguistic elements can be done.

Representing variety at lexical level

With the help of meaning representation, unambiguous, canonical forms can be
represented at the lexical level.

Can be used for reasoning

Meaning representation can be used to reason for verifying what is true in the
world as well as to infer the knowledge from the semantic representation.

Lexical Semantics
The first part of semantic analysis, studying the meaning of individual words is
called lexical semantics. It includes words, sub-words, affixes (sub-units),

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compound words and phrases also. All the words, sub-words, etc. are collectively
called lexical items. In other words, we can say that lexical semantics is the
relationship between lexical items, meaning of sentences and syntax of sentence.

Following are the steps involved in lexical semantics −

 Classification of lexical items like words, sub-words, affixes, etc. is
performed in lexical semantics.

 Decomposition of lexical items like words, sub-words, affixes, etc. is

performed in lexical semantics.

 Differences as well as similarities between various lexical semantic

structures is also analyzed.

Pragmatic Analysis
It is the fourth phase of NLP. Pragmatic analysis simply fits the actual
objects/events, which exist in a given context with object references obtained
during the last phase (semantic analysis). For example, the sentence ―Put the
banana in the basket on the shelf‖ can have two semantic interpretations and
pragmatic analyzer will choose between these two possibilities.
The pragmatic analysis means handling the situation in a much more practical or
realistic manner than using a theoretical approach. As we know that a sentence
can have different meanings in various situations. For example, The average is 18.

The average is 18. (average may be of sequence)

The average is 18. (average may be of a vehicle)
The average is 18. (average may be of a mathematical term)

We can see that for the same input there can be different perceptions. To
interpret the meaning of the sentence we need to understand the situation. To
tackle such problems we use pragmatic analysis. The pragmatic analysis tends to
make the understanding of the language much more clear and easy to interpret.

Implementation:
Language processing are required to follow an order. Each phase takes its input

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from the previous phase‘s output and sends it along to the next phase for
processing. While this process input can get rejected half-way if it does not follow
the rules defining it for the next phase.

Agents in Artificial Intelligence

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and act on their
environment through actuators. An AI agent can have mental properties such as
knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

Agent
An agent can be anything that perceiveits environment through sensors and act
upon that environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle
of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:

o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which
work for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.

o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range

finder, NLP for sensors and various motors for actuators.

o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents

as sensory input and act on those inputs and display output on the
screen.

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Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone,

camera, and even we are also agents.

Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and
actuators.

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and
sends the information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its
environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy

into motion. The actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a
system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors
can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Intelligent Agents:

An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment

using sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn
from the environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an example of an
intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

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o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.

o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.

o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:

A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and
acts in a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.

A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational
agents to use for game theory and decision theory for various real-world
scenarios.

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement

learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward
and for each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.

Note: Rational agents in AI are very similar to intelligent agents.

Rationality:

The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality

can be judged on the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.

o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.

o The sequence of percepts.

Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows

the actual outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in
reality.

Structure of an AI Agent

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The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent

function. The structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and
agent program. It can be viewed as:

1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

1. f:P* → A

Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An

agent program executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI

agent or rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS
representation model. It is made up of four words:

o P: Performance measure

o E: Environment

o A: Actuators

o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

PEAS for self-driving cars:

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suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs,

pedestrian Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake,

signal, horn

Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Types of AI Agents

Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived
intelligence and capability. All these agents can improve their performance and
generate better action over the time. These are given below:

 Simple Reflex Agent

 Model-based reflex agent
 Goal-based agents
 Utility-based agent
 Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

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o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take
decisions on the basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the
percept history.

o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.

o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history
during their decision and action process.

o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it

maps the current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works
only if there is dirt in the room.

o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:

o They have very limited intelligence

o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current

state

o Mostly too big to generate and to store.

o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

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2. Model-based reflex agent

o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment,

and track the situation.

o A model-based agent has two important factors:

o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so

it is called a Model-based agent.

o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based

on percept history.

o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based
on the model they perform actions.

o Updating the agent state requires information about:

a. How the world evolves

b. How the agent's action affects the world.

3. Goal-based agents

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o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to

decide for an agent to what to do.

o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.

o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by

having the "goal" information.

o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.

o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions

before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of
different scenario are called searching and planning, which makes an agent
proactive.

4. Utility-based agents

o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra
component of utility measurement which makes them different by
providing a measure of success at a given state.

o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to
achieve the goal.

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o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible

alternatives, and an agent has to choose in order to perform the best
action.

o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how
efficiently each action achieves the goals.

5. Learning Agents

o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past
experiences, or it has learning capabilities.

o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt
automatically through learning.

o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by

learning from environment

b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes

that how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance
standard.

c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action

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d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting

actions that will lead to new and informative experiences.

Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new
ways to improve the performance.

Semantic Web

Current World Wide Web (WWW) is a huge library of interlinked documents that
are transferred by computers and presented to people. It has grown from
hypertext systems, but the difference is that anyone can contribute to it. This also
means that the quality of information or even the persistence of documents
cannot be generally guaranteed. Current WWW contains a lot of information and
knowledge, but machines usually serve only to deliver and present the content of
documents describing the knowledge. People have to connect all the sources of
relevant information and interpret them themselves.

Semantic Web Architecture

Semantic web is an effort to enhance current web so that computers can process
the information presented on WWW, interpret and connect it, to help humans to

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find required knowledge. In the same way as WWW is a huge distributed

hypertext system, semantic web is intended to form a huge distributed
knowledge based system. The focus of semantic web is to share data instead of
documents. In other words, it is a project that should provide a common
framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application,
enterprise, and community boundaries. It is a collaborative effort led by World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

The architecture of semantic web is illustrated in the figure below. The first layer,
URI and Unicode, follows the important features of the existing WWW. Unicode is
a standard of encoding international character sets and it allows that all human
languages can be used (written and read) on the web using one standardized
form. Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is a string of a standardized form that
allows to uniquely identify resources (e.g., documents). A subset of URI is Uniform
Resource Locator (URL), which contains access mechanism and a (network)
location of a document - such as http://www.example.org/. Another subset of URI
is URN that allows to identify a resource without implying its location and means
of dereferencing it - an example is urn:isbn:0-123-45678-9. The usage of URI is
important for a distributed internet system as it provides understandable
identification of all resources. An international variant to URI is Internationalized
Resource Identifier (IRI) that allows usage of Unicode characters in identifier and
for which a mapping to URI is defined. In the rest of this text, whenever URI is
used, IRI can be used as well as a more general concept.

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Semantic web architecture in layers

Extensible Markup Language (XML) layer with XML namespace and XML
schema definitions makes sure that there is a common syntax used in the
semantic web. XML is a general purpose markup language for documents
containing structured information. A XML document contains elements that can
be nested and that may have attributes and content. XML namespaces allow to
specify different markup vocabularies in one XML document. XML schema serves
for expressing schema of a particular set of XML documents.

A core data representation format for semantic web is Resource Description

Framework (RDF). RDF is a framework for representing information about
resources in a graph form. It was primarily intended for representing metadata
about WWW resources, such as the title, author, and modification date of a Web
page, but it can be used for storing any other data. It is based on triples subject-
predicate-object that form graph of data. All data in the semantic web use RDF as

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the primary representation language. The normative syntax for serializing RDF is
XML in the RDF/XML form. Formal semantics of RDF is defined as well.

RDF itself serves as a description of a graph formed by triples. Anyone can define
vocabulary of terms used for more detailed description. To allow standardized
description of taxonomies and other ontological constructs, a RDF Schema
(RDFS) was created together with its formal semantics within RDF. RDFS can be
used to describe taxonomies of classes and properties and use them to create
lightweight ontologies.

More detailed ontologies can be created with Web Ontology Language OWL. The
OWL is a language derived from description logics, and offers more constructs
over RDFS. It is syntactically embedded into RDF, so like RDFS, it provides
additional standardized vocabulary. OWL comes in three species - OWL Lite for
taxonomies and simple constrains, OWL DL for full description logic support, and
OWL Full for maximum expressiveness and syntactic freedom of RDF. Since OWL
is based on description logic, it is not surprising that a formal semantics is defined
for this language.

RDFS and OWL have semantics defined and this semantics can be used for
reasoning within ontologies and knowledge bases described using these
languages. To provide rules beyond the constructs available from these
languages, rule languages are being standardized for the semantic web as well.
Two standards are emerging - RIF and SWRL.

For querying RDF data as well as RDFS and OWL ontologies with knowledge bases,
a Simple Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL) is available. SPARQL is SQL-
like language, but uses RDF triples and resources for both matching part of the
query and for returning results of the query. Since both RDFS and OWL are built
on RDF, SPARQL can be used for querying ontologies and knowledge bases
directly as well. Note that SPARQL is not only query language, it is also a protocol
for accessing RDF data.

It is expected that all the semantics and rules will be executed at the layers below
Proof and the result will be used to prove deductions. Formal proof together with

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trusted inputs for the proof will mean that the results can be trusted, which is
shown in the top layer of the figure. For reliable inputs, cryptography means are
to be used, such as digital signatures for verification of the origin of the sources.
On top of these layers, application with user interface can be built.

Agent communication

Agent communication is based on message passing, where agents

communicate by formulating and sending individual messages to each other. The
FIPA ACL specifies a standard message language by setting out the encoding,
semantics and pragmatics of the messages.

Components of communicating

agents Speaker
1. Intention:
Before speaking anything, we know the intention of what we want to
convey to the other person. The same thing is implemented in the
communicating systems. This makes communication valid and relevant
from the side of the communicating system.

2. Generation:
After knowing the intention of what is to be conveyed, the system must
gather words so that the information can be reached to the user in his very
own communicating language. So, the generation of relevant words is done
by the system after the intention process.

3. Synthesis:
Once the agent has all the relevant words, yet they have to be uttered in a
way that they have some meaning. So, after the generation of words, the
formation of meaningful sentences takes places and finally, the agent
speaks them out to the user.

Hearer

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1. Perception:
In the perception phase, the communicating system perceives what the
user has spoken to it. This is a sort of an audio input signal which the agent
receives from the user and then this signal is sent for the further processing
by the system.

2. Analysis:
After getting the audio input from the user which is a sequence of
sentences and phrases, the system tries to analyze them by extracting the
meaningful terms out of the sentences by removing the articles, connectors
and other words which are there only for the sake of sentence formation.

3. Disambiguation:
This is the most important thing that a communicating system carries out.
After the analyzing process, the agent must understand the meaning of the
sentences that the user have spoken. So, this understanding phase in which
the system tries to derive the meaning of the sentences by removing
various ambiguities and errors is known as disambiguation. This is done by
understanding the Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics of the sentences.

4. Incorporation:
In incorporation, the system figures out whether the understanding that it
has derived out of the audio signal is correct or not. Whether it is
meaningful, whether the system should consider it or ask the user for
further input for resolving any sort of ambiguity.

Fuzzy sets

Fuzzy sets can be considered as an extension and gross oversimplification of

classical sets. It can be best understood in the context of set membership.
Basically it allows partial membership which means that it contain elements that
have varying degrees of membership in the set. From this, we can understand the
difference between classical set and fuzzy set. Classical set contains elements that
satisfy precise properties of membership while fuzzy set contains elements that
satisfy imprecise properties of membership.

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Mathematical Concept

A fuzzy set A˜A~ in the universe of information UU can be defined as a set of

ordered pairs and it can be represented mathematically as −

A˜={(y,μA˜(y))|y∈ U}

Here μA˜(y) = degree of membership of yy in \widetilde{A}, assumes values in the

range from 0 to 1, i.e., μA˜(y)∈ [0,1].

Representation of fuzzy set

Let us now consider two cases of universe of information and understand how a
fuzzy set can be represented.

Case 1

When universe of information UU is discrete and finite −

Case 2

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When universe of information UU is continuous and infinite −

In the above representation, the summation symbol represents the collection of

each element.

Operations on Fuzzy Sets

Having two fuzzy sets A˜A~ and B˜B~, the universe of information UU and an
element ฀ of the universe, the following relations express the union, intersection
and complement operation on fuzzy sets.

Union/Fuzzy „OR‟

Let us consider the following representation to understand how the

Union/Fuzzy „OR‟ relation works −

μA˜∪ B˜(y)=μA˜∨ μB˜∀ y∈ U

Here ∨ represents the ‗max‘ operation.

Intersection/Fuzzy „AND‟

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Let us consider the following representation to understand how

the Intersection/Fuzzy „AND‟ relation works −

μA˜∩B˜(y)=μA˜∧ μB˜∀ y∈ U

Here ∧ represents the ‗min‘ operation.

Complement/Fuzzy „NOT‟

Let us consider the following representation to understand how

the Complement/Fuzzy „NOT‟ relation works −

μA˜=1−μA˜(y)y∈ U

Properties of Fuzzy Sets

the different properties of fuzzy sets.

Commutative Property

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Having two fuzzy sets A˜A~ and B˜B~, this property states −

A˜∪ B˜=B˜∪ A˜

A˜∩B˜=B˜∩A˜

Associative Property

Having three fuzzy sets A˜A~, B˜B~ and C˜C~, this property states −

(\widetilde{A}\cup \left \widetilde{B}) \cup \widetilde{C} \right = \left \widetilde{

A} \cup (\widetilde{B}\right )\cup \widetilde{C})

(\widetilde{A}\cap \left \widetilde{B}) \cap \widetilde{C} \right = \left \widetilde{

A} \cup (\widetilde{B}\right \cap \widetilde{C})

Distributive Property
Having three fuzzy sets A~, B~ and C~, this property states −

A˜∪(B˜∩C˜)=(A˜∪B˜)∩(A˜∪C˜)

A˜∩(B˜∪C˜)=(A˜∩B˜)∪(A˜∩C˜)

Idempotency Property

For any fuzzy set A˜A~, this property states −

A˜∪A˜=A˜A~∪A~=A~

A˜∩A˜=A˜A~∩A~=A~

Identity Property

For fuzzy set A˜A~ and universal set UU, this property states −

A˜∪φ=A˜

A˜∩U=A˜

A˜∩φ=φ

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A˜∪U=U

Transitive Property

Having three fuzzy sets A~, B~ and C~, this property states −

Involution Property

For any fuzzy set A~, this property states –

De Morgan‟s Law
This law plays a crucial role in proving tautologies and contradiction. This law
states −

Membership Function

We already know that fuzzy logic is not logic that is fuzzy but logic that is used to
describe fuzziness. This fuzziness is best characterized by its membership
function. In other words, we can say that membership function represents the
degree of truth in fuzzy logic.

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Following are a few important points relating to the membership

function −

 Membership functions were first introduced in 1965 by Lofti A. Zadeh in his

first research paper ―fuzzy sets‖.

 Membership functions characterize fuzziness (i.e., all the information in

fuzzy set), whether the elements in fuzzy sets are discrete or continuous.

 Membership functions can be defined as a technique to solve practical

problems by experience rather than knowledge.

 Membership functions are represented by graphical forms.

 Rules for defining fuzziness are fuzzy too.

Mathematical Notation

We have already studied that a fuzzy set à in the universe of information U can be
defined as a set of ordered pairs and it can be represented mathematically as −

A˜={(y,μA˜(y))|y∈ U}

Here μA˜(∙) = membership function of A~; this assumes values in the range from 0
to 1, i.e., μA˜(∙)∈ [0,1]. The membership function μA˜(∙) maps UU to the
membership spaceMM.

The dot (∙) in the membership function described above, represents the element
in a fuzzy set; whether it is discrete or continuous.

Features of Membership Functions

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We will now discuss the different features of Membership Functions.

Core

For any fuzzy set A~, the core of a membership function is that region of universe
that is characterize by full membership in the set. Hence, core consists of all those
elements yy of the universe of information such that,

μA˜(y)=1μA~(y)=1

Support

For any fuzzy set A˜A~, the support of a membership function is the region of
universe that is characterize by a nonzero membership in the set. Hence core
consists of all those elements yy of the universe of information such that,

μA˜(y)>0

Boundary
For any fuzzy set A˜A~, the boundary of a membership function is the region of
universe that is characterized by a nonzero but incomplete membership in the
set. Hence, core consists of all those elements yy of the universe of information
such that,

1>μA˜(y)>0

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Fuzzification

It may be defined as the process of transforming a crisp set to a fuzzy set or a

fuzzy set to fuzzier set. Basically, this operation translates accurate crisp input
values into linguistic variables.

Following are the two important methods of fuzzification −

Support Fuzzification(s-fuzzification) Method

In this method, the fuzzified set can be expressed with the help of the following
relation −

A˜=μ1Q(x1)+μ2Q(x2)+...+μnQ(xn)

Here the fuzzy set Q(xi)Q(xi) is called as kernel of fuzzification. This method is
implemented by keeping μiμi constant and xi being transformed to a fuzzy
set Q(xi).

Grade Fuzzification (g-fuzzification) Method

It is quite similar to the above method but the main difference is that it
kept xixi constant and μiμi is expressed as a fuzzy set.

Defuzzification

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It may be defined as the process of reducing a fuzzy set into a crisp set or to
convert a fuzzy member into a crisp member.

We have already studied that the fuzzification process involves conversion from
crisp quantities to fuzzy quantities. In a number of engineering applications, it is
necessary to defuzzify the result or rather ―fuzzy result‖ so that it must be
converted to crisp result. Mathematically, the process of Defuzzification is also
called ―rounding it off‖.

The different methods of Defuzzification are described below −

Max-Membership Method

This method is limited to peak output functions and also known as height
method. Mathematically it can be represented as follows −

μA˜(x∗ )>μA˜(x)forallx∈ XμA~(x∗ )>μA~(x)forallx∈ X

Here, x∗ is the defuzzified output.

Centroid Method

This method is also known as the center of area or the center of gravity method.
Mathematically, the defuzzified output x∗ x∗ will be represented as −

Weighted Average Method

In this method, each membership function is weighted by its maximum

membership value. Mathematically, the defuzzified output x∗ x∗ will be
represented as −

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Mean-Max Membership

This method is also known as the middle of the maxima. Mathematically, the
defuzzified output x∗ x∗ will be represented as −

Traditional Fuzzy Refresher

Logic, which was originally just the study of what distinguishes sound argument
from unsound argument, has now developed into a powerful and rigorous system
whereby true statements can be discovered, given other statements that are
already known to be true.

Predicate Logic

This logic deals with predicates, which are propositions containing variables.

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific

domain. A predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either assigning
a value to the variable or by quantifying the variable.

Following are a few examples of predicates −

 Let E(x, y) denote "x = y"

 Let X(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"

 Let M(x, y) denote "x is married to y"

Propositional Logic

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A proposition is a collection of declarative statements that have either a truth

value "true‖ or a truth value "false". A propositional consists of propositional
variables and connectives. The propositional variables are dented by capital
letters (A, B, etc). The connectives connect the propositional variables.

A few examples of Propositions are given below −

 "Man is Mortal", it returns truth value ―TRUE‖

 "12 + 9 = 3 – 2", it returns truth value ―FALSE‖

The following is not a Proposition −

 "A is less than 2" − It is because unless we give a specific value of A,

we cannot say whether the statement is true or false.

Connectives

In propositional logic, we use the following five connectives −

 OR (∨ ∨ )

 AND (∧ ∧ )

 Negation/ NOT (¬¬)

 Implication / if-then (→→)

 If and only if (⇔⇔)

OR (∨ ∨ )

The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∨ BA∨ B) is true if at

least any of the propositional variable A or B is true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A∨ B

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True True True

True False True

False True True

False False False

AND (∧ ∧ )

The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∧ BA∧ B) is true if

both the propositional variable A and B is true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A∧ B

True True True

True False False

False True False

False False False

Negation (¬¬)
The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A¬A) is false when A is true and is
true when A is false.

The truth table is as follows −

A ¬A

True False

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False True

Implication / if-then (→→)

An implication A→BA→B is the proposition ―if A, then B‖. It is false if A is true and
B is false. The rest cases are true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A→B

True True True

True False False

False True True

False False True

If and only if (⇔⇔)

A⇔BA⇔B is a bi-conditional logical connective which is true when p and q are

same, i.e., both are false or both are true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A⇔B

True True True

True False False

False True False

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False False True

Well Formed Formula

Well Formed Formula (wff) is a predicate holding one of the following −

 All propositional constants and propositional variables are wffs.

 If x is a variable and Y is a wff, ∀ xY and ∃ xY are also wff.

 Truth value and false values are wffs.

 Each atomic formula is a wff.

 All connectives connecting wffs are wffs.

Quantifiers

The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of

quantifier in predicate logic −

 Universal Quantifier

 Existential Quantifier

Universal Quantifier
Universal quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for every
value of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∀ .

∀ xP(x) is read as for every value of x, P(x) is true.

Example − "Man is mortal" can be transformed into the propositional form

∀ xP(x). Here, P(x) is the predicate which denotes that x is mortal and the universe
of discourse is all men.

Existential Quantifier

Existential quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for some
values of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∃ .

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∃ xP(x) for some values of x is read as, P(x) is true.

Example − "Some people are dishonest" can be transformed into the

propositional form ∃ x P(x) where P(x) is the predicate which denotes x is
dishonest and the universe of discourse is some people.

Nested Quantifiers

If we use a quantifier that appears within the scope of another quantifier, it is

called a nested quantifier.

Example

 ∀ a∃ bP(x,y) where P(a,b) denotes a+b = 0

 ∀ a∀ b∀ cP(a,b,c) where P(a,b) denotes a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c

Note − ∀ a∃ bP(x,y) ≠ ∃ a∀ bP(x,y)

Approximate Reasoning
Following are the different modes of approximate reasoning −

Categorical Reasoning
In this mode of approximate reasoning, the antecedents, containing no fuzzy
quantifiers and fuzzy probabilities, are assumed to be in canonical form.

Qualitative Reasoning
In this mode of approximate reasoning, the antecedents and consequents have
fuzzy linguistic variables; the input-output relationship of a system is expressed as
a collection of fuzzy IF-THEN rules. This reasoning is mainly used in control system
analysis.

Syllogistic Reasoning

In this mode of approximation reasoning, antecedents with fuzzy quantifiers are

related to inference rules. This is expressed as −

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x = S1A′s are B′s

y = S2C′s are D′s

z = S3E′s are F′s

Here A,B,C,D,E,F are fuzzy predicates.

 S1 and S2 are given fuzzy quantifiers.

 S3 is the fuzzy quantifier which has to be decided.

Dispositional Reasoning

In this mode of approximation reasoning, the antecedents are dispositions that

may contain the fuzzy quantifier ―usually‖. The quantifier Usually links
together the dispositional and syllogistic reasoning; hence it pays an
important role.

For example, the projection rule of inference in dispositional reasoning can be

given as follows −

usually( (L,M) is R ) ⇒ usually (L is [R ↓ L])

Here [R ↓ L] is the projection of fuzzy relation R on

L Fuzzy Logic Rule Base
It is a known fact that a human being is always comfortable making conversations
in natural language. The representation of human knowledge can be done with
the help of following natural language expression −

IF antecedent THEN consequent

The expression as stated above is referred to as the Fuzzy IF-THEN rule base.

Canonical Form

Following is the canonical form of Fuzzy Logic Rule Base −

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Rule 1 − If condition C1, then restriction R1

Rule 2 − If condition C1, then restriction R2

Rule n − If condition C1, then restriction

Rn Interpretations of Fuzzy IF-THEN

Rules

Fuzzy IF-THEN Rules can be interpreted in the following four forms −

Assignment Statements
These kinds of statements use ―=‖ (equal to sign) for the purpose of assignment.
They are of the following form −

a = hello

climate = summer

Conditional Statements

These kinds of statements use the ―IF-THEN‖ rule base form for the purpose of
condition. They are of the following form −

IF temperature is high THEN Climate is hot

IF food is fresh THEN eat.

Unconditional Statements

They are of the following form −

GOTO 10

turn the Fan off

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Linguistic Variable

We have studied that fuzzy logic uses linguistic variables which are the words or
sentences in a natural language. For example, if we say temperature, it is a
linguistic variable; the values of which are very hot or cold, slightly hot or cold,
very warm, slightly warm, etc. The words very, slightly are the linguistic hedges.

Characterization of Linguistic Variable

Following four terms characterize the linguistic variable −

 Name of the variable, generally represented by x.

 Term set of the variable, generally represented by t(x).

 Syntactic rules for generating the values of the variable x.

 Semantic rules for linking every value of x and its significance.

Propositions in Fuzzy Logic

As we know that propositions are sentences expressed in any language which are
generally expressed in the following canonical form −

s as P

Here, s is the Subject and P is Predicate.

For example, ―Delhi is the capital of India‖, this is a proposition where ―Delhi‖ is
the subject and ―is the capital of India‖ is the predicate which shows the property
of subject.

We know that logic is the basis of reasoning and fuzzy logic extends the capability
of reasoning by using fuzzy predicates, fuzzy-predicate modifiers, fuzzy quantifiers
and fuzzy qualifiers in fuzzy propositions which creates the difference from
classical logic.

Propositions in fuzzy logic include the following −

Fuzzy Predicate

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Almost every predicate in natural language is fuzzy in nature hence, fuzzy logic
has the predicates like tall, short, warm, hot, fast, etc.

Fuzzy-predicate Modifiers

We discussed linguistic hedges above; we also have many fuzzy-predicate

modifiers which act as hedges. They are very essential for producing the values of
a linguistic variable. For example, the words very, slightly are modifiers and the
propositions can be like ―water is slightly hot.‖

Fuzzy Quantifiers
It can be defined as a fuzzy number which gives a vague classification of the
cardinality of one or more fuzzy or non-fuzzy sets. It can be used to influence
probability within fuzzy logic. For example, the words many, most, frequently are
used as fuzzy quantifiers and the propositions can be like ―most people are
allergic to it.‖

Fuzzy Qualifiers

Let us now understand Fuzzy Qualifiers. A Fuzzy Qualifier is also a proposition of

Fuzzy Logic. Fuzzy qualification has the following forms −

Fuzzy Qualification Based on Truth

It claims the degree of truth of a fuzzy proposition.

Expression − It is expressed as x is t. Here, t is a fuzzy truth value.

Example − (Car is black) is NOT VERY True.

Fuzzy Qualification Based on Probability

It claims the probability, either numerical or an interval, of fuzzy proposition.

Expression − It is expressed as x is λ. Here, λ is a fuzzy probability.

Example − (Car is black) is Likely.

Fuzzy Qualification Based on Possibility

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It claims the possibility of fuzzy proposition.

Expression − It is expressed as x is π. Here, π is a fuzzy possibility.

Example − (Car is black) is Almost Impossible.

Inference System

Fuzzy Inference System is the key unit of a fuzzy logic system having decision
making as its primary work. It uses the ―IF…THEN‖ rules along with connectors
―OR‖ or ―AND‖ for drawing essential decision rules.

Characteristics of Fuzzy Inference System

Following are some characteristics of FIS −

 The output from FIS is always a fuzzy set irrespective of its input which can
be fuzzy or crisp.

 It is necessary to have fuzzy output when it is used as a controller.

 A defuzzification unit would be there with FIS to convert fuzzy variables into
crisp variables.

Functional Blocks of FIS

The following five functional blocks will help you understand the construction of
FIS −

 Rule Base − It contains fuzzy IF-THEN rules.

 Database − It defines the membership functions of fuzzy sets used in

fuzzy rules.

 Decision-making Unit − It performs operation on rules.

 Fuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the crisp quantities into

fuzzy quantities.

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 Defuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the fuzzy quantities into

crisp quantities. Following is a block diagram of fuzzy interference
system.

Working of FIS

The working of the FIS consists of the following steps −

 A fuzzification unit supports the application of numerous fuzzification

methods, and converts the crisp input into fuzzy input.

 A knowledge base - collection of rule base and database is formed upon the
conversion of crisp input into fuzzy input.

 The defuzzification unit fuzzy input is finally converted into crisp output.

Methods of FIS

Let us now discuss the different methods of FIS. Following are the two important
methods of FIS, having different consequent of fuzzy rules −

 Mamdani Fuzzy Inference System

 Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method)

Mamdani Fuzzy Inference System

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This system was proposed in 1975 by Ebhasim Mamdani. Basically, it was

anticipated to control a steam engine and boiler combination by synthesizing a
set of fuzzy rules obtained from people working on the system.

Steps for Computing the Output

Following steps need to be followed to compute the output from this FIS −

 Step 1 − Set of fuzzy rules need to be determined in this step.

 Step 2 − In this step, by using input membership function, the input

would be made fuzzy.

 Step 3 − Now establish the rule strength by combining the fuzzified

inputs according to fuzzy rules.

 Step 4 − In this step, determine the consequent of rule by combining

the rule strength and the output membership function.

 Step 5 − For getting output distribution combine all the consequents.

 Step 6 − Finally, a defuzzified output distribution is

obtained. Following is a block diagram of Mamdani Fuzzy

Interface System.

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Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method)

This model was proposed by Takagi, Sugeno and Kang in 1985. Format of this rule
is given as −

IF x is A and y is B THEN Z = f(x,y)

Here, AB are fuzzy sets in antecedents and z = f(x,y) is a crisp function in the
consequent.

Fuzzy Inference Process

The fuzzy inference process under Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method) works
in the following way −

 Step 1: Fuzzifying the inputs − Here, the inputs of the system are
made fuzzy.

 Step 2: Applying the fuzzy operator − In this step, the fuzzy operators
must be applied to get the output.

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Rule Format of the Sugeno Form

The rule format of Sugeno form is given by −

if 7 = x and 9 = y then output is z = ax+by+c

Comparison between the two methods

Let us now understand the comparison between the Mamdani System and the
Sugeno Model.

 Output Membership Function − The main difference between them

is on the basis of output membership function. The Sugeno output
membership functions are either linear or constant.

 Aggregation and Defuzzification Procedure − The difference

between them also lies in the consequence of fuzzy rules and due to
the same their aggregation and defuzzification procedure also differs.

 Mathematical Rules − More mathematical rules exist for the Sugeno

rule than the Mamdani rule.

 Adjustable Parameters − The Sugeno controller has more

adjustable parameters than the Mamdani controller.

Control System

Fuzzy logic is applied with great success in various control application. Almost all
the consumer products have fuzzy control. Some of the examples include
controlling your room temperature with the help of air-conditioner, anti-braking
system used in vehicles, control on traffic lights, washing machines, large
economic systems, etc.

Why Use Fuzzy Logic in Control Systems

A control system is an arrangement of physical components designed to alter

another physical system so that this system exhibits certain desired

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characteristics. Following are some reasons of using Fuzzy Logic in Control

Systems −

 While applying traditional control, one needs to know about the model and
the objective function formulated in precise terms. This makes it very
difficult to apply in many cases.

 By applying fuzzy logic for control we can utilize the human expertise and
experience for designing a controller.

 The fuzzy control rules, basically the IF-THEN rules, can be best utilized in
designing a controller.

Assumptions in Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) Design

While designing fuzzy control system, the following six basic assumptions should
be made −

 The plant is observable and controllable − It must be assumed

that the input, output as well as state variables are available for
observation and controlling purpose.

 Existence of a knowledge body − It must be assumed that there

exist a knowledge body having linguistic rules and a set of input-output
data set from which rules can be extracted.

 Existence of solution − It must be assumed that there exists a solution.

 „Good enough‟ solution is enough − The control engineering must

look for ‗good enough‘ solution rather than an optimum one.

 Range of precision − Fuzzy logic controller must be designed

within an acceptable range of precision.

 Issues regarding stability and optimality − The issues of

stability and optimality must be open in designing Fuzzy logic
controller rather than addressed explicitly.

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Architecture of Fuzzy Logic Control

The following diagram shows the architecture of Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC).

Major Components of FLC

Followings are the major components of the FLC as shown in the above figure −

 Fuzzifier − The role of fuzzifier is to convert the crisp input values into
fuzzy values.

 Fuzzy Knowledge Base − It stores the knowledge about all the input-
output fuzzy relationships. It also has the membership function which
defines the input variables to the fuzzy rule base and the output variables
to the plant under control.

 Fuzzy Rule Base − It stores the knowledge about the operation of

the process of domain.

 Inference Engine − It acts as a kernel of any FLC. Basically it

simulates human decisions by performing approximate
reasoning.

 Defuzzifier − The role of defuzzifier is to convert the fuzzy values into

crisp values getting from fuzzy inference engine.

Steps in Designing FLC

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Following are the steps involved in designing FLC −

 Identification of variables − Here, the input, output and state

variables must be identified of the plant which is under
consideration.

 Fuzzy subset configuration − The universe of information is

divided into number of fuzzy subsets and each subset is assigned a
linguistic label. Always make sure that these fuzzy subsets include all
the elements of universe.

 Obtaining membership function − Now obtain the membership

function for each fuzzy subset that we get in the above step.

 Fuzzy rule base configuration − Now formulate the fuzzy rule

base by assigning relationship between fuzzy input and output.

 Fuzzification − The fuzzification process is initiated in this step.

 Combining fuzzy outputs − By applying fuzzy approximate reasoning,

locate the fuzzy output and merge them.

 Defuzzification − Finally, initiate defuzzification process to form a

crisp output.

Advantages of Fuzzy Logic Control

the advantages of Fuzzy Logic Control.

 Cheaper − Developing a FLC is comparatively cheaper than

developing model based or other controller in terms of
performance.

 Robust − FLCs are more robust than PID controllers because of

their capability to cover a huge range of operating conditions.

 Customizable − FLCs are customizable.

 Emulate human deductive thinking − Basically FLC is designed to

emulate human deductive thinking, the process people use to infer
conclusion from what they know.

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 Reliability − FLC is more reliable than conventional control system.

 Efficiency − Fuzzy logic provides more efficiency when applied in

control system.

Disadvantages of Fuzzy Logic Control

We will now discuss what are the disadvantages of Fuzzy Logic Control.

 Requires lots of data − FLC needs lots of data to be applied.

 Useful in case of moderate historical data − FLC is not useful for

programs much smaller or larger than historical data.

 Needs high human expertise − This is one drawback as the accuracy

of the system depends on the knowledge and expertise of human
beings.

 Needs regular updating of rules − The rules must be updated with time.

Fuzziness in Neural Networks

Artificial neural network (ANN) is a network of efficient computing systems the

central theme of which is borrowed from the analogy of biological neural
networks. ANNs are also named as ―artificial neural systems,‖ parallel distributed
processing systems,‖ ―connectionist systems.‖ ANN acquires large collection of
units that are interconnected in some pattern to allow communications between
units. These units, also referred to as nodes or neurons, are simple processors
which operate in parallel.

Every neuron is connected with other neuron through a connection link. Each
connection link is associated with a weight having the information about the input
signal. This is the most useful information for neurons to solve a particular
problem because the weight usually inhibits the signal that is being
communicated. Each neuron is having its internal state which is called the
activation signal. Output signals, which are produced after combining the input
signals and the activation rule, may be sent to other units. It also consists of a bias
‗b‘ whose weight is always 1.

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Why to use Fuzzy Logic in Neural Network

As we have discussed above that every neuron in ANN is connected with other
neuron through a connection link and that link is associated with a weight having
the information about the input signal. Hence we can say that weights have the
useful information about input to solve the problems.

Following are some reasons to use fuzzy logic in neural networks −

 Fuzzy logic is largely used to define the weights, from fuzzy sets, in neural
networks.

 When crisp values are not possible to apply, then fuzzy values are used.

 We have already studied that training and learning help neural networks
perform better in unexpected situations. At that time fuzzy values would be
more applicable than crisp values.

 When we use fuzzy logic in neural networks then the values must not be
crisp and the processing can be done in parallel.

Fuzzy Cognitive Map

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It is a form of fuzziness in neural networks. Basically FCM is like a dynamic state

machine with fuzzy states (not just 1 or 0).

Difficulty in using Fuzzy Logic in Neural Networks

Despite having numerous advantages, there is also some difficulty while using
fuzzy logic in neural networks. The difficulty is related with membership rules, the
need to build fuzzy system, because it is sometimes complicated to deduce it with
the given set of complex data.

Neural-Trained Fuzzy Logic

The reverse relationship between neural network and fuzzy logic, i.e., neural
network used to train fuzzy logic is also a good area of study. Following are two
major reasons to build neuraltrained fuzzy logic −

 New patterns of data can be learned easily with the help of neural
networks hence, it can be used to preprocess data in fuzzy systems.

 Neural network, because of its capability to learn new relationship with

new input data, can be used to refine fuzzy rules to create fuzzy adaptive
system.

Examples of Neural-Trained Fuzzy system

Neural-Trained Fuzzy systems are being used in many commercial applications.

Let us now see a few examples where Neural-Trained Fuzzy system is applied −

 The Laboratory for International Fuzzy Engineering Research (LIFE) in

Yokohama, Japan has a back-propagation neural network that derives fuzzy
rules. This system has been successfully applied to foreign-exchange trade
system with approximately 5000 fuzzy rules.

 Ford Motor Company has developed trainable fuzzy systems for automobile
idle-speed control.

 NeuFuz, software product of National Semiconductor Corporation, supports

the generation of fuzzy rules with a neural network for control applications.

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 AEG Corporation of Germany uses neural-trained fuzzy control system for

its water – and energy conserving machine. It is having total of 157 fuzzy
rules.

Genetic Algorithm
Genetic algorithm (GAs) are a class of search algorithms designed on the natural
evolution process. Genetic Algorithms are based on the principles of survival
of the fittest.

A Genetic Algorithm method inspired in the world of Biology, particularly, the

Evolution Theory by Charles Darwin, is taken as the basis of its working.
John Holland introduced the Genetic Algorithm in 1975. Genetic Algorithms are
utilized to tackle optimization problems by copying the evolutionary behavior of
species. From an initial random population of solutions, this population is
advanced through selection, mutation, and crossover operators, inspired in
natural evolution. By implementing the given set of operations, the
population goes through an iterative procedure in which it reaches various
states, and each one is called generation. As a result of this procedure, the
population is expected to reach a generation in which it contains a decent
solution to the problem. In the Genetic Algorithm, the solution of the problem is
coded as a string of bits or real numbers.

They have been shown in practice to be very efficient at functional optimization.

It is used in searching for huge and sophisticated spaces. Genetic algorithms (GAs)
are algorithms that are used for optimization and machine learning based on
various features of biological evolution.

They need the given components:

o A process of coding solutions to solve the problem of chromosomes.

o An evaluation function that recovers a rating for each chromosome given to

it.

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o Operators that may be implemented to parents when they reproduce to

alter their genetic composition. The standard operators are mutation and
crossover.

o Operators that may be implemented to parents when they reproduce to

modify their genetic composition. The standard operators are mutation and
crossover.

Development of ANNs with Evolutionary Computation:

The advancement of ANNs is a subject that has been broadly dealt with extremely
different techniques. The world of evolutionary algorithms is no exemption, and
evidence of that is the incredible amount of works that have been published
about the various techniques in this area, even with genetic algorithms or GP. As
a general rule, the field of ANNs generation using evolutionary algorithms is
separated into three principal fields: Evolution of weight, Architectures,
Learning rules.

Initially, the weight evolution begins from an ANN with a previously determined
topology. The issue to be solved is the training of the association weights,
attempting to limit the network error. With the utilization of an evolutionary
algorithm, the weights can be represented either as the connection of binary or
real values.

Second, the evolution of architecture incorporates the generation of the

topological structure. In order to utilize evolutionary algorithms to create ANN
architectures, it is required to select how to encrypt the genotype of a given
network for it to be used by the genetic operators.

At the first option, direct encoding, there is a balanced analogy between all of the
genes and their resulting phenotypes. The most typical encoding technique
comprises a matrix that represents an architecture where each component
reveals the presence or absence of association between two nodes.

In the encoding schemes, GP has been utilized to create both architecture and
association weights at the same time, either for feed-forward or recurrent ANNs,

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with no limitations in their architecture. This new codification scheme also

permits the acquiring of basic networks with a minimum number of neurons and
associations, and the outcomes published are auspicious. Apart from direct
encoding, there are some indirect encoding techniques. In these techniques, just
a few characteristics of the architecture are encoded in the chromosome. These
techniques have various types of representation. First, the parametric
representations portray the network as a group of parameters. For example,
numbers of nodes for each layer, the number of associations between two layers,
the number of hidden layers, etc. Another no direct representation type depends
on grammatical rules. In this system, the network is represented by a group of
regulations, build as production rules that make a matrix that represents the
network. With respect to the evolution of the learning rule, there are various
approaches, however, most of them are just based on how learning can alter or
manage the evolution and also on the relationship between the architecture and
the association weights.

ANNs working principle:

The working principle of a standard Genetic Algorithm is illustrated in the given

figure. The significant steps involved are the generation of a population of the
solution, identifying the objective function and fitness function, and the
application of genetic operators. These aspects are described with the assistance
of a fundamental genetic algorithm as below.

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Start:

It generates a random population of n chromosomes.

Fitness:

It calculates the fitness f(x) of each chromosome x in the population.

New Population:

It generates a new population by repeating the following steps until the New
population is finished.

Selection:

It chooses two parent chromosomes from a population as per their fitness. The
better fitness, the higher the probability of getting selected.

Crossover:

In crossover probability, cross over the parents to form new offspring (children). If
no crossover was performed, the offspring is the exact copy of the parents.

Mutation:

In mutation probability, mutate new offspring at each locus.

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Accepting:

It places new offspring in the new population.

Replace:
It uses the newly generated population for a further run of the algorithm.

Test:
If the end condition is satisfied, then it stops and returns the best solution in the
current population.

Loop:
In this step, we need to go to the second step for fitness evaluation.

The basic principle behind the genetic algorithms is that they generate and
maintain a population of individuals represented by chromosomes. Chromosomes
are a character string practically equivalent to the chromosomes appearing in
DNA. These chromosomes are usually encoded solutions to a problem. It
undergoes a process of evolution as per rules of selection, reproduction, and
mutation. Each individual in the environment (represented by chromosome) gets
a measure of its fitness in the environment. Reproduction chooses individuals
with high fitness values in the population. Through crossover and mutation of
such individuals, a new population is determined in which individuals might be an
even better fit for their environment. The process of crossover includes two
chromosomes swapping chunks of data and is analogous to the process of
reproduction. Mutation introduces slight changes into a little extant of the
population, and it is representative of an evolutionary step.

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Difference between traditional and genetic approach:

An algorithm is a progression of steps for solving a problem. A genetic algorithm is

a problem-solving technique that uses genetics as its model of problem-solving. It
is a search method to find approximate solutions to optimization and search
issues. One can easily distinguish between a traditional and a genetic algorithm.

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Traditional Algorithm Genetic Algorithm

It selects the next point in the series It selects the next population by
by a deterministic computation. computation, which utilizes random
number generators.

It creates an individual point at each It creates a population of points at every

iteration. The sequence of points iteration. The best point in the
approaches an optimal solution. population approaches an optimal
solution.

Advancement in each iteration is Concurrence in each iteration is a

problem specific. problem independent.

Advantages of Genetic Algorithm:

 The genetic algorithm concept is easy to understand.

 The genetic algorithm supports multi-objective optimization.
 A genetic algorithm is suitable for noisy environments.
 The genetic algorithm is robust with respect to local minima/maxima.
 The genetic algorithm utilizes probabilistic transition rules.
 The genetic algorithm utilizes payoff (objective function) information, not
derivatives.
 The genetic algorithm works well on mixed discrete functions.

Limitations of Genetic Algorithm:

Although Genetic algorithms have demonstrated to be a quick and powerful
problem-solving approach, some limitations are found embedded in it. Some of
these limitations are given below:

The first, and most significant, consideration in making a genetic algorithm is

characterizing representation of the problem. The language used to determine

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candidate solutions must be robust. It must be able to endure random changes

such that fatal errors don't mistake.

One significant obstacle of genetic algorithms is the coding of the fitness

(evaluation) function so that a higher fitness can be achieved, and better solutions
for the problem are produced. A wrong decision of the fitness function may lead
to significant consequences. For example, it is unable to find the solution for a
problem and returning the wrong solution to the problem.

Along with making a decent choice of the fitness function, different parameters of
a Genetic Algorithm like population size, mutation, and crossover rate must be
chosen effectively. Small population size will not give enough solution to the
genetic algorithm to produce precise results. A frequency of genetic change or
poor selection scheme will result in disrupting the beneficial schema.

It is not recommended to utilize Genetic algorithms for analytical problems.

Though Genetic algorithms can find exact solutions to these sorts of problems,
traditional analytic techniques can find the same solutions in a short time with
few computational data.

Applications of Genetic Algorithm:

Genetic Algorithm in Robotics:
Robotics is one of the most discussed fields in the computer industry today. It is
used in various industries in order to increase profitability efficiency and accuracy.
As the environment in which robots work with the time change, it becomes very
tough for developers to figure out each possible behavior of the robot in order to
cope with the changes. This is the place where the Genetic Algorithm places a
vital role. Hence a suitable method is required, which will lead the robot to its
objective and will make it adaptive to new situations as it encounters them.
Genetic Algorithms are adaptive search techniques that are used to learn high-
performance knowledge structures.

Genetic Algorithm in Financial Planning:

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Models for tactical asset distribution and international equity

methodologies have been enhanced with the use of Gas. Genetic algorithms
are extremely efficient for financial modeling applications as they are driven by
adjustments that can be used to improve the efficiency of predictions and return
over the benchmark set. In addition, these methods are robust, permitting a
greater range of extensions and constraints, which may not be accommodated in
traditional techniques.

Encoding Methods in Genetic

Algorithm Biological Background :

Chromosome : All living organisms consists of cells. In each cell there is a same
set of Chromosomes. Chromosomes are strings of DNA and consists of genes,
blocks of DNA. Each gene encodes a trait, for example color of eyes.
Reproduction : During reproduction, combination (or crossover) occurs first.
Genes from parents combine to form a whole new chromosome. The newly
created offspring can then be mutated. The changes are mainly caused by errors
in copying genes from parents. The fitness of an organism is measured by the
success of the organism in its life.

Operation of Genetic Algorithms :

Two important elements required for any problem before a genetic algorithm can
be used for a solution are

 Method for representing a solution ex: a string of bits, numbers, character

ex: determination total weight.
 Method for measuring the quality of any proposed solution, using fitness
function.

Basic principles :

 An individual is characterized by a set of parameters : Genes

 The genes are joined into a string : Chromosome
 The chromosome forms the genotype

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 The genotype contains all information to construct an organism

: Phenotype
 Reproduction is a ―dumb‖ process on the chromosome of the
genotype
 Fitness is measured in the real world (‗Struggle for life‘) of
the phenotype.

Algorithmic Phases :

Simple_Genetic_Algorithm()

Initialize the population;

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Calculate Fitness Function;

Selection; //Natural Selection, survival of fittest

Mutation;

Calculate Fitness Funtion;

Encoding using string :

Encoding of chromosomes is the first step in solving the problem and it depends
entirely on the problem heavily. The process of representing the solution in the
form of a string of bits that conveys the necessary information. just as in a
chromosome, each gene controls a particular characteristics of the individual,
similarly, each bit in the string represents a characteristics of the solution.

Encoding Methods :
 Binary Encoding : Most common methods of encoding. Chromosomes
are string of 1s and 0s and each position in the chromosome represents
a particular characteristics of the problem.

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 Permutation Encoding : Useful in ordering such as the Travelling

Salesman Problem (TSP). In TSP, every chromosome is a string of
numbers, each of which represents a city to be visited.





 Value Encoding : Used in problems where complicated values, such as
real numbers, are used and where binary encoding would not suffice.
Good for some problems, nut often necessary to develop some specific
crossover and mutation techniques for these chromosomes.

Fitness Function and Objective Function

In order to assess which of our genomes should go on into the next generation
through reproduction or another means, we need a function to calculate their
value in a way that allows us to compare values of two different genomes. This
function is called a fitness function and we can denote it as f(x). Although it's not
quite our f(x) from the clifftop picture, it's meant to approximate it.

It's usually always positive, and the larger the number the better the genome.
When we use such a fitness function, we're performing maximization on the
search space - looking for maximum value of fitness.

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The objective function is quite similar to fitness function, and in a lot of cases
they're the same, but sometimes the distinction is important. The objective
function is used to calculate the fitness of the best genome in each generation
(the one with the maximum fitness function value) in order to check whether it
satisfies a predetermined conditions.

Why use two different functions? Well, because the fitness function is performed
on every genome in every generation, it's very important for it to be fast. It
doesn't have to be very precise, as long as it more or less sorts the genomes by
quality reasonably well.

On the other hand, the objective function is called only once per generation, so
we can afford to use a more costly and more precise function, so we'd know for
sure how good our result is. The objective function would be our f(x) on the
clifftop picture, while the fitness function would be its close approximation.

The fitness function simply defined is a function which takes a candidate

solution to the problem as input and produces as output how ―fit‖ our
how ―good‖ the solution is with respect to the problem in consideration.

Calculation of fitness value is done repeatedly in a GA and therefore it should be

sufficiently fast. A slow computation of the fitness value can adversely affect a GA
and make it exceptionally slow.

In most cases the fitness function and the objective function are the same as the
objective is to either maximize or minimize the given objective function. However,
for more complex problems with multiple objectives and constraints,
an Algorithm Designer might choose to have a different fitness

function. A fitness function should possess the following

characteristics −

 The fitness function should be sufficiently fast to compute.

 It must quantitatively measure how fit a given solution is or how fit

individuals can be produced from the given solution.

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In some cases, calculating the fitness function directly might not be possible due
to the inherent complexities of the problem at hand. In such cases, we do fitness
approximation to suit our needs.

The following image shows the fitness calculation for a solution of the 0/1
Knapsack. It is a simple fitness function which just sums the profit values of the
items being picked (which have a 1), scanning the elements from left to right till
the knapsack is full.

Crossover
The crossover operator is analogous to reproduction and biological crossover. In
this more than one parent is selected and one or more off-springs are produced
using the genetic material of the parents. Crossover is usually applied in a GA with
a high probability – pc .

Crossover Operators

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In this section we will discuss some of the most popularly used crossover
operators. It is to be noted that these crossover operators are very generic and
the GA Designer might choose to implement a problem-specific crossover
operator as well.

One Point Crossover

In this one-point crossover, a random crossover point is selected and the tails of
its two parents are swapped to get new off-springs.

Multi Point Crossover

Multi point crossover is a generalization of the one-point crossover wherein
alternating segments are swapped to get new off-springs.

Uniform Crossover

In a uniform crossover, we don‘t divide the chromosome into segments, rather

we treat each gene separately. In this, we essentially flip a coin for each
chromosome to decide whether or not it‘ll be included in the off-spring. We can
also bias the coin to one parent, to have more genetic material in the child from
that parent.

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Whole Arithmetic Recombination

This is commonly used for integer representations and works by taking the
weighted average of the two parents by using the following formulae −

 Child1 = α.x + (1-α).y

 Child2 = α.x + (1-α).y

Obviously, if α = 0.5, then both the children will be identical as shown in the
following image.

Davis‟ Order Crossover (OX1)

OX1 is used for permutation based crossovers with the intention of transmitting
information about relative ordering to the off-springs. It works as follows −

 Create two random crossover points in the parent and copy the segment
between them from the first parent to the first offspring.

 Now, starting from the second crossover point in the second parent, copy
the remaining unused numbers from the second parent to the first child,
wrapping around the list.

 Repeat for the second child with the parent‘s role reversed.

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There exist a lot of other crossovers like Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX), Order
based crossover (OX2), Shuffle Crossover, Ring Crossover, etc.

Mutation

In simple terms, mutation may be defined as a small random tweak in the

chromosome, to get a new solution. It is used to maintain and introduce diversity
in the genetic population and is usually applied with a low probability – pm. If the
probability is very high, the GA gets reduced to a random search.

Mutation is the part of the GA which is related to the ―exploration‖ of the search
space. It has been observed that mutation is essential to the convergence of the
GA while crossover is not.

Mutation Operators
In this section, we describe some of the most commonly used mutation
operators. Like the crossover operators, this is not an exhaustive list and the GA
designer might find a combination of these approaches or a problem-specific
mutation operator more useful.

Bit Flip Mutation

In this bit flip mutation, we select one or more random bits and flip them. This is
used for binary encoded GAs.

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Random Resetting

Random Resetting is an extension of the bit flip for the integer representation. In
this, a random value from the set of permissible values is assigned to a randomly
chosen gene.

Swap Mutation

In swap mutation, we select two positions on the chromosome at random, and

interchange the values. This is common in permutation based encodings.

Scramble Mutation
Scramble mutation is also popular with permutation representations. In this, from
the entire chromosome, a subset of genes is chosen and their values are
scrambled or shuffled randomly.

Inversion Mutation
In inversion mutation, we select a subset of genes like in scramble mutation, but
instead of shuffling the subset, we merely invert the entire string in the subset.

Problem Solving using GA

Application Areas

Genetic Algorithms are primarily used in optimization problems of various kinds,

but they are frequently used in other application areas as well.

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In this section, we list some of the areas in which Genetic Algorithms are
frequently used. These are −

 Optimization − Genetic Algorithms are most commonly used in

optimization problems wherein we have to maximize or minimize a given
objective function value under a given set of constraints. The approach to
solve Optimization problems has been highlighted throughout the tutorial.

 Economics − GAs are also used to characterize various economic

models like the cobweb model, game theory equilibrium resolution, asset
pricing, etc.

 Neural Networks − GAs are also used to train neural networks,

particularly recurrent neural networks.

 Parallelization − GAs also have very good parallel capabilities, and prove
to be very effective means in solving certain problems, and also provide
a good area for research.

 Image Processing − GAs are used for various digital image processing
(DIP) tasks as well like dense pixel matching.

 Vehicle routing problems − With multiple soft time windows,

multiple depots and a heterogeneous fleet.

 Scheduling applications − GAs are used to solve various

scheduling problems as well, particularly the time tabling
problem.

 Machine Learning − as already discussed, genetics based machine

learning (GBML) is a niche area in machine learning.

 Robot Trajectory Generation − GAs have been used to plan the path
which a robot arm takes by moving from one point to another.

 Parametric Design of Aircraft − GAs have been used to design

aircrafts by varying the parameters and evolving better solutions.

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 DNA Analysis − GAs have been used to determine the structure of

DNA using spectrometric data about the sample.

 Multimodal Optimization − GAs are obviously very good approaches

for multimodal optimization in which we have to find multiple
optimum solutions.

 Traveling salesman problem and its applications − GAs have been

used to solve the TSP, which is a well-known combinatorial problem
using novel crossover and packing strategies.

Artificial Neural Network

The term "Artificial Neural Network" is derived from Biological neural

networks that develop the structure of a human brain. Similar to the human
brain that has neurons interconnected to one another, artificial neural
networks also have neurons that are interconnected to one another in various
layers of the networks. These neurons are known as nodes.

The given figure illustrates the typical diagram of Biological Neural

Network. The typical Artificial Neural Network looks something like
the given figure.

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Dendrites from Biological Neural Network represent inputs in Artificial Neural

Networks, cell nucleus represents Nodes, synapse represents Weights, and Axon
represents Output.

Relationship between Biological neural network and artificial neural

network:

Biological Neural Network Artificial Neural Network

Dendrites Inputs

Cell nucleus Nodes

Synapse Weights

Axon Output

An Artificial Neural Network in the field of Artificial intelligence where

it attempts to mimic the network of neurons makes up a human brain so that
computers will have an option to understand things and make decisions in a

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human-like manner. The artificial neural network is designed by programming

computers to behave simply like interconnected brain cells.

There are around 1000 billion neurons in the human brain. Each neuron has an
association point somewhere in the range of 1,000 and 100,000. In the human
brain, data is stored in such a manner as to be distributed, and we can extract
more than one piece of this data when necessary from our memory parallelly. We
can say that the human brain is made up of incredibly amazing parallel
processors.

We can understand the artificial neural network with an example, consider an

example of a digital logic gate that takes an input and gives an output. "OR" gate,
which takes two inputs. If one or both the inputs are "On," then we get "On" in
output. If both the inputs are "Off," then we get "Off" in output. Here the output
depends upon input. Our brain does not perform the same task. The outputs to
inputs relationship keep changing because of the neurons in our brain, which are
"learning."

The architecture of an artificial neural network:

To understand the concept of the architecture of an artificial neural network, we
have to understand what a neural network consists of. In order to define a neural
network that consists of a large number of artificial neurons, which are termed
units arranged in a sequence of layers. Lets us look at various types of layers
available in an artificial neural network.

Artificial Neural Network primarily consists of three layers:

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Input Layer:

As the name suggests, it accepts inputs in several different formats provided by

the programmer.

Hidden Layer:

The hidden layer presents in-between input and output layers. It performs all the
calculations to find hidden features and patterns.

Output Layer:
The input goes through a series of transformations using the hidden layer, which
finally results in output that is conveyed using this layer.

The artificial neural network takes input and computes the weighted sum of the
inputs and includes a bias. This computation is represented in the form of a
transfer function.

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It determines weighted total is passed as an input to an activation function to

produce the output. Activation functions choose whether a node should fire or
not. Only those who are fired make it to the output layer. There are distinctive
activation functions available that can be applied upon the sort of task we are
performing.

Advantages of Artificial Neural Network

(ANN) Parallel processing capability:

Artificial neural networks have a numerical value that can perform more than one
task simultaneously.

Storing data on the entire network:

Data that is used in traditional programming is stored on the whole network, not
on a database. The disappearance of a couple of pieces of data in one place
doesn't prevent the network from working.

Capability to work with incomplete knowledge:

After ANN training, the information may produce output even with inadequate
data. The loss of performance here relies upon the significance of missing data.

Having a memory distribution:

For ANN is to be able to adapt, it is important to determine the examples and to

encourage the network according to the desired output by demonstrating these
examples to the network. The succession of the network is directly proportional
to the chosen instances, and if the event can't appear to the network in all its
aspects, it can produce false output.

Having fault tolerance:

Extortion of one or more cells of ANN does not prohibit it from generating output,
and this feature makes the network fault-tolerance.

Disadvantages of Artificial Neural Network:

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Assurance of proper network structure:

There is no particular guideline for determining the structure of artificial neural

networks. The appropriate network structure is accomplished through
experience, trial, and error.

Unrecognized behavior of the network:

It is the most significant issue of ANN. When ANN produces a testing solution, it
does not provide insight concerning why and how. It decreases trust in the
network.

Hardware dependence:

Artificial neural networks need processors with parallel processing power, as per
their structure. Therefore, the realization of the equipment is dependent.

Difficulty of showing the issue to the network:

ANNs can work with numerical data. Problems must be converted into numerical
values before being introduced to ANN. The presentation mechanism to be
resolved here will directly impact the performance of the network. It relies on the
user's abilities.

The duration of the network is unknown:

The network is reduced to a specific value of the error, and this value does not
give us optimum results.

Science artificial neural networks that have steeped into the world in the mid-
20th century are exponentially developing. In the present time, we have

the course of their utilization. It should not be overlooked that the cons of ANN

their pros are increasing day by day. It means that artificial neural networks will
turn into an irreplaceable part of our lives progressively important.

How do artificial neural networks work?

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Artificial Neural Network can be best represented as a weighted directed graph,

where the artificial neurons form the nodes. The association between the
neurons outputs and neuron inputs can be viewed as the directed edges with
weights. The Artificial Neural Network receives the input signal from the external
source in the form of a pattern and image in the form of a vector. These inputs
are then mathematically assigned by the notations x(n) for every n number of
inputs.

Afterward, each of the input is multiplied by its corresponding weights ( these

weights are the details utilized by the artificial neural networks to solve a specific
problem ). In general terms, these weights normally represent the strength of the
interconnection between neurons inside the artificial neural network. All the
weighted inputs are summarized inside the computing unit.

If the weighted sum is equal to zero, then bias is added to make the output non-
zero or something else to scale up to the system's response. Bias has the same
input, and weight equals to 1. Here the total of weighted inputs can be in the
range of 0 to positive infinity. Here, to keep the response in the limits of the

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desired value, a certain maximum value is benchmarked, and the total of

weighted inputs is passed through the activation function.

The activation function refers to the set of transfer functions used to achieve the
desired output. There is a different kind of the activation function, but primarily
either linear or non-linear sets of functions. Some of the commonly used sets of
activation functions are the Binary, linear, and Tan hyperbolic sigmoidal activation
functions. Let us take a look at each of them in details:

Binary:

In binary activation function, the output is either a one or a 0. Here, to accomplish

this, there is a threshold value set up. If the net weighted input of neurons is
more than 1, then the final output of the activation function is returned as one or
else the output is returned as 0.

Sigmoidal Hyperbolic:

The Sigmoidal Hyperbola function is generally seen as an "S" shaped curve. Here
the tan hyperbolic function is used to approximate output from the actual net
input. The function is defined as:

F(x) = (1/1 + exp(-

????x))
Where ???? is considered the Steepness parameter.

Types of Artificial Neural Network:

There are various types of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) depending upon the
human brain neuron and network functions, an artificial neural network similarly
performs tasks. The majority of the artificial neural networks will have some
similarities with a more complex biological partner and are very effective at their
expected tasks. For example, segmentation or classification.

Feedback ANN:

In this type of ANN, the output returns into the network to accomplish the best-
evolved results internally. As per the University of Massachusetts, Lowell Centre

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for Atmospheric Research. The feedback networks feed information back into
itself and are well suited to solve optimization issues. The Internal system error
corrections utilize feedback ANNs.

Feed-Forward ANN:

A feed-forward network is a basic neural network comprising of an input layer, an

output layer, and at least one layer of a neuron. Through assessment of its output
by reviewing its input, the intensity of the network can be noticed based on group
behavior of the associated neurons, and the output is decided. The primary
advantage of this network is that it figures out how to evaluate and recognize
input patterns.

Supervised learning

Supervised learning as the name indicates the presence of a supervisor as a

teacher. Basically supervised learning is a learning in which we teach or train the
machine using data which is well labeled that means some data is already tagged
with the correct answer. After that, the machine is provided with a new set of
examples(data) so that supervised learning algorithm analyses the training
data(set of training examples) and produces a correct outcome from labeled data.

Supervised learning is the types of machine learning in which machines are

trained using well "labelled" training data, and on basis of that data, machines
predict the output. The labelled data means some input data is already tagged
with the correct output.

In supervised learning, the training data provided to the machines work as the
supervisor that teaches the machines to predict the output correctly. It applies
the same concept as a student learns in the supervision of the teacher.

Supervised learning is a process of providing input data as well as correct output

data to the machine learning model. The aim of a supervised learning algorithm is
to find a mapping function to map the input variable(x) with the
output variable(y).

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In the real-world, supervised learning can be used for Risk Assessment,

Image classification, Fraud Detection, spam filtering, etc.

How Supervised Learning Works?

In supervised learning, models are trained using labelled dataset, where the
model learns about each type of data. Once the training process is completed, the
model is tested on the basis of test data (a subset of the training set), and then it
predicts the output.

The working of Supervised learning can be easily understood by the below

example and diagram:

Suppose we have a dataset of different types of shapes which includes square,

rectangle, triangle, and Polygon. Now the first step is that we need to train the
model for each shape.

o If the given shape has four sides, and all the sides are equal, then it will be
labelled as a Square.

o If the given shape has three sides, then it will be labelled as a triangle.

o If the given shape has six equal sides then it will be labelled as hexagon.

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Now, after training, we test our model using the test set, and the task of the
model is to identify the shape.

The machine is already trained on all types of shapes, and when it finds a new
shape, it classifies the shape on the bases of a number of sides, and predicts the
output.

Steps Involved in Supervised Learning:

o First Determine the type of training dataset

o Collect/Gather the labelled training data.

o Split the training dataset into training dataset, test dataset, and
validation dataset.

o Determine the input features of the training dataset, which should have
enough knowledge so that the model can accurately predict the output.

o Determine the suitable algorithm for the model, such as support vector
machine, decision tree, etc.

o Execute the algorithm on the training dataset. Sometimes we need

validation sets as the control parameters, which are the subset of training
datasets.

o Evaluate the accuracy of the model by providing the test set. If the model
predicts the correct output, which means our model is accurate.

Types of supervised Machine learning Algorithms:

Supervised learning can be further divided into two types of problems:

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1. Regression

Regression algorithms are used if there is a relationship between the input

variable and the output variable. It is used for the prediction of continuous
variables, such as Weather forecasting, Market Trends, etc. Below are some
popular Regression algorithms which come under supervised learning:

o Linear Regression

o Regression Trees

o Non-Linear Regression

o Bayesian Linear Regression

o Polynomial Regression

2. Classification

Classification algorithms are used when the output variable is categorical, which
means there are two classes such as Yes-No, Male-Female, True-false, etc.

Spam Filtering,

o Random Forest

o Decision Trees

o Logistic Regression

o Support vector Machines

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Advantages of Supervised learning:

o With the help of supervised learning, the model can predict the output on
the basis of prior experiences.

o In supervised learning, we can have an exact idea about the classes of

objects.

o Supervised learning model helps us to solve various real-world problems

such as fraud detection, spam filtering, etc.

Disadvantages of supervised learning:

o Supervised learning models are not suitable for handling the complex tasks.

o Supervised learning cannot predict the correct output if the test data is
different from the training dataset.

o Training required lots of computation times.

o In supervised learning, we need enough knowledge about the classes of

object.

Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning is the training of machine using information that is neither
classified nor labeled and allowing the algorithm to act on that information
without guidance. Here the task of machine is to group unsorted information
according to similarities, patterns and differences without any prior training of
data.

Unlike supervised learning, no teacher is provided that means no training will be

given to the machine. Therefore machine is restricted to find the hidden structure
in unlabeled data by our-self.
For instance, suppose it is given an image having both dogs and cats which have

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not seen ever.

Thus the machine has no idea about the features of dogs and cat so we can‘t
categorize it in dogs and cats. But it can categorize them according to their
similarities, patterns, and differences i.e., we can easily categorize the above
picture into two parts. First first may contain all pics having dogs in it and
second part may contain all pics having cats in it. Here we didn‘t learn
anything before, means no training data or examples.

Unsupervised learning classified into two categories of algorithms:

 Clustering: A clustering problem is where you want to discover the
inherent groupings in the data, such as grouping customers by purchasing
behavior.

 Association: An association rule learning problem is where you want to

discover rules that describe large portions of your data, such as people that
buy X also tend to buy Y.

Unsupervised Learning

As the name suggests, unsupervised learning is a machine learning technique in

which models are not supervised using training dataset. Instead, models itself find
the hidden patterns and insights from the given data. It can be compared to
learning which takes place in the human brain while learning new things. It can be
defined as:

Unsupervised learning is a type of machine learning in which models are trained

using unlabeled dataset and are allowed to act on that data without any
supervision.

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Unsupervised learning cannot be directly applied to a regression or classification

problem because unlike supervised learning, we have the input data but no
corresponding output data. The goal of unsupervised learning is to find the
underlying structure of dataset, group that data according to similarities,
and represent that dataset in a compressed format.

Example: Suppose the unsupervised learning algorithm is given an input dataset

containing images of different types of cats and dogs. The algorithm is never
trained upon the given dataset, which means it does not have any idea about the
features of the dataset. The task of the unsupervised learning algorithm is to
identify the image features on their own. Unsupervised learning algorithm will
perform this task by clustering the image dataset into the groups according to
similarities between images.

Why use Unsupervised Learning?

Below are some main reasons which describe the importance of Unsupervised
Learning:

o Unsupervised learning is helpful for finding useful insights from the data.

o Unsupervised learning is much similar as a human learns to think by their

own experiences, which makes it closer to the real AI.

o Unsupervised learning works on unlabeled and uncategorized data which

make unsupervised learning more important.

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o In real-world, we do not always have input data with the corresponding

output so to solve such cases, we need unsupervised learning.

Working of Unsupervised Learning

Working of unsupervised learning can be understood by the below diagram:

Here, we have taken an unlabeled input data, which means it is not categorized
and corresponding outputs are also not given. Now, this unlabeled input data is
fed to the machine learning model in order to train it. Firstly, it will interpret the
raw data to find the hidden patterns from the data and then will apply suitable
algorithms such as k-means clustering, Decision tree, etc.

Once it applies the suitable algorithm, the algorithm divides the data objects into
groups according to the similarities and difference between the objects.

Types of Unsupervised Learning Algorithm:

The unsupervised learning algorithm can be further categorized into two types of
problems:

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o Clustering: Clustering is a method of grouping the objects into clusters

such that objects with most similarities remains into a group and has less
or no similarities with the objects of another group. Cluster analysis finds
the commonalities between the data objects and categorizes them as per
the presence and absence of those commonalities.

o Association: An association rule is an unsupervised learning method

which is used for finding the relationships between variables in the
large database. It determines the set of items that occurs together in the
dataset. Association rule makes marketing strategy more effective. Such as
people who buy X item (suppose a bread) are also tend to purchase Y
(Butter/Jam) item. A typical example of Association rule is Market Basket
Analysis.

Unsupervised Learning algorithms:

Below is the list of some popular unsupervised learning algorithms:

o K-means clustering

o KNN (k-nearest neighbors)

o Hierarchal clustering

o Anomaly detection

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o Neural Networks

o Principle Component Analysis

o Independent Component Analysis

o Apriori algorithm

o Singular value decomposition

Advantages of Unsupervised Learning

o Unsupervised learning is used for more complex tasks as compared to

supervised learning because, in unsupervised learning, we don't have
labeled input data.

o Unsupervised learning is preferable as it is easy to get unlabeled data in

comparison to labeled data.

Disadvantages of Unsupervised Learning

o Unsupervised learning is intrinsically more difficult than supervised learning
as it does not have corresponding output.

o The result of the unsupervised learning algorithm might be less accurate as

input data is not labeled, and algorithms do not know the exact output in
advance.

Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is the training of machine learning models to make
a sequence of decisions. The agent learns to achieve a goal in an uncertain,
potentially complex environment. In reinforcement learning, an artificial
intelligence faces a game-like situation. The computer employs trial and error
to come up with a solution to the problem. To get the machine to do what
the programmer wants, the artificial intelligence gets either rewards or penalties
for the actions it performs. Its goal is to maximize the total reward.
Although the designer sets the reward policy–that is, the rules of the game–he

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gives the model no hints or suggestions for how to solve the game. It‘s up
to the model to figure out how to perform the task to maximize the reward,
starting from totally random trials and finishing with sophisticated tactics
and superhuman skills. By leveraging the power of search and many trials,
reinforcement learning is currently the most effective way to hint machine‘s
creativity. In contrast to human beings, artificial intelligence can gather
experience from thousands of parallel gameplays if a reinforcement learning
algorithm is run on a sufficiently powerful computer infrastructure.

Reinforcement learning is an area of Machine Learning. It is about taking suitable

action to maximize reward in a particular situation. It is employed by various
software and machines to find the best possible behavior or path it should take in
a specific situation. Reinforcement learning differs from the supervised learning in
a way that in supervised learning the training data has the answer key with it so
the model is trained with the correct answer itself whereas in reinforcement
learning, there is no answer but the reinforcement agent decides what to do to
perform the given task. In the absence of a training dataset, it is bound to learn
from its experience.

Examples of reinforcement learning

Applications of reinforcement learning were in the past limited by weak computer
infrastructure. However, as Gerard Tesauro‘s backgamon AI superplayer
developed in 1990‘s shows, progress did happen. That early progress is now
rapidly changing with powerful new computational technologies opening the way
to completely new inspiring applications.
Training the models that control autonomous cars is an excellent example
of a potential application of reinforcement learning. In an ideal situation,
the computer should get no instructions on driving the car. The programmer
would avoid hard-wiring anything connected with the task and allow the machine
to learn from its own errors. In a perfect situation, the only hard-wired element
would be the reward function.

 For example, in usual circumstances we would require an

autonomous vehicle to put safety first, minimize ride time, reduce
pollution, offer

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passengers comfort and obey the rules of law. With an autonomous race
car, on the other hand, we would emphasize speed much more than
the driver‘s comfort. The programmer cannot predict everything that could
happen on the road. Instead of building lengthy ―if-then‖ instructions,
the programmer prepares the reinforcement learning agent to be capable
of learning from the system of rewards and penalties. The agent (another
name for reinforcement learning algorithms performing the task) gets
rewards for reaching specific goals.

Challenges with reinforcement learning

The main challenge in reinforcement learning lays in preparing the simulation
environment, which is highly dependant on the task to be performed. When
the model has to go superhuman in Chess, Go or Atari games, preparing
the simulation environment is relatively simple. When it comes to building
a model capable of driving an autonomous car, building a realistic simulator is
crucial before letting the car ride on the street. The model has to figure out how
to brake or avoid a collision in a safe environment, where sacrificing even
a thousand cars comes at a minimal cost. Transferring the model out
of the training environment and into to the real world is where things get tricky.
Scaling and tweaking the neural network controlling the agent is another
challenge. There is no way to communicate with the network other than through
the system of rewards and penalties.This in particular may lead to catastrophic
forgetting, where acquiring new knowledge causes some of the old to be erased
from the network (to read up on this issue, see this paper, published during
the International Conference on Machine Learning).
Yet another challenge is reaching a local optimum – that is the agent performs
the task as it is, but not in the optimal or required way. A ―jumper‖ jumping like
a kangaroo instead of doing the thing that was expected of it-walking-is a great
example, and is also one that can be found in our recent blog post.
Finally, there are agents that will optimize the prize without performing the task it

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was designed for. An interesting example can be found in the OpenAI video
below, where the agent learned to gain rewards, but not to complete the race.

Main points in Reinforcement learning –

 Input: The input should be an initial state from which the model will start

 Output: There are many possible output as there are variety of solution to a
particular problem

 Training: The training is based upon the input, The model will return a state
and the user will decide to reward or punish the model based on its output.

 The model keeps continues to learn.

 The best solution is decided based on the maximum reward.

Difference between Reinforcement learning and Supervised learning:

REINFORCEMENT LEARNING SUPERVISED LEARNING

Reinforcement learning is all about making

decisions sequentially. In simple words we can In Supervised learning the
say that the output depends on the state of the decision is made on the
current input and the next input depends on the initial input or the input
output of the previous input given at the start

Supervised learning the

In Reinforcement learning decision is decisions are independent
dependent, So we give labels to sequences of of each other so labels are
dependent decisions given to each decision.

Example: Object
Example: Chess game recognition

Types of Reinforcement: There are two types of Reinforcement:

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1. Positive –
Positive Reinforcement is defined as when an event, occurs due to a
particular behavior, increases the strength and the frequency of the
behavior. In other words, it has a positive effect on behavior.

Advantages of reinforcement learning are:

 Maximizes Performance

 Sustain Change for a long period of time

Disadvantages of reinforcement learning:

 Too much Reinforcement can lead to overload of states which can

diminish the results

2. Negative –
Negative Reinforcement is defined as strengthening of a behavior because
a negative condition is stopped or avoided.

Advantages of reinforcement learning:

 Increases Behavior

 Provide defiance to minimum standard of performance

Disadvantages of reinforcement learning:

 It Only provides enough to meet up the minimum behavior

Various Practical applications of Reinforcement Learning –

 RL can be used in robotics for industrial automation.

 RL can be used in machine learning and data processing

 RL can be used to create training systems that provide custom instruction

and materials according to the requirement of students.

RL can be used in large environments in the following situations:

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1. A model of the environment is known, but an analytic solution is not

available;

2. Only a simulation model of the environment is given (the subject of

simulation-based optimization)

3. The only way to collect information about the environment is to interact

with it.

Single Layer Perceptron

For understanding single layer perceptron, it is important to understand Artificial

Neural Networks (ANN). Artificial neural networks is the information processing
system the mechanism of which is inspired with the functionality of biological
neural circuits. An artificial neural network possesses many processing units
connected to each other. Following is the schematic representation of artificial
neural network −

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The diagram shows that the hidden units communicate with the external layer.
While the input and output units communicate only through the hidden layer of
the network.

The pattern of connection with nodes, the total number of layers and level of
nodes between inputs and outputs with the number of neurons per layer define
the architecture of a neural network.

There are two types of architecture. These types focus on the functionality
artificial neural networks as follows −

 Single Layer Perceptron

 Multi-Layer Perceptron

Single Layer Perceptron

Single layer perceptron is the first proposed neural model created. The content of
the local memory of the neuron consists of a vector of weights. The computation
of a single layer perceptron is performed over the calculation of sum of the input
vector each with the value multiplied by corresponding element of vector of the
weights. The value which is displayed in the output will be the input of an
activation function.

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the implementation of single layer perceptron for an image classification problem

using TensorFlow. The best example to illustrate the single layer perceptron is
through representation of ―Logistic Regression‖.

the following basic steps of training logistic regression −

 The weights are initialized with random values at the beginning of the
training.

 For each element of the training set, the error is calculated with the
difference between desired output and the actual output. The error
calculated is used to adjust the weights.

 The process is repeated until the error made on the entire training set is
not less than the specified threshold, until the maximum number of
iterations is reached.

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The complete code for evaluation of logistic regression is mentioned

below −

# Import MINST data

from tensorflow.examples.tutorials.mnist import input_data

mnist = input_data.read_data_sets("/tmp/data/", one_hot = True)

import tensorflow as tf

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Parameters

learning_rate = 0.01

training_epochs = 25

batch_size = 100

display_step = 1

# tf Graph Input

x = tf.placeholder("float", [None, 784]) # mnist data image of shape 28*28 = 784

y = tf.placeholder("float", [None, 10]) # 0-9 digits recognition => 10 classes

# Create model

# Set model weights

W = tf.Variable(tf.zeros([784, 10])) b = tf.Variable(tf.zeros([10])) # Construct

model

activation = tf.nn.softmax(tf.matmul(x, W) + b) # Softmax

# Minimize error using cross entropy

cross_entropy = y*tf.log(activation)

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cost = tf.reduce_mean\ (-tf.reduce_sum\ (cross_entropy,reduction_indices = 1))

optimizer = tf.train.\ GradientDescentOptimizer(learning_rate).minimize(cost)

#Plot settings

avg_set = []

epoch_set = []

# Initializing the variables init = tf.initialize_all_variables()

# Launch the graph

with tf.Session() as sess:

sess.run(init)

# Training cycle

for epoch in range(training_epochs):

avg_cost = 0.

total_batch = int(mnist.train.num_examples/batch_size)

# Loop over all batches

for i in range(total_batch):

batch_xs, batch_ys = \ mnist.train.next_batch(batch_size)

# Fit training using batch data sess.run(optimizer, \ feed_dict = {

x: batch_xs, y: batch_ys})

# Compute average loss avg_cost += sess.run(cost, \ feed_dict = {

x: batch_xs, \ y: batch_ys})/total_batch

# Display logs per epoch step

if epoch % display_step == 0:

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avg_set.append(avg_cost) epoch_set.append(epoch+1)

print ("Training phase finished")

plt.ylabel('cost')

plt.legend()

plt.show()

# Test model

# Calculate accuracy

accuracy = tf.reduce_mean(tf.cast(correct_prediction, "float")) print

Output

The above code generates the following output −

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The logistic regression is considered as a predictive analysis. Logistic regression is

used to describe data and to explain the relationship between one dependent
binary variable and one or more nominal or independent variables.

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Multi-Layer Perceptron Learning

Multi-Layer perceptron defines the most complicated architecture of artificial

neural networks. It is substantially formed from multiple layers of perceptron.

The diagrammatic representation of multi-layer perceptron learning is as shown

below −

MLP networks are usually used for supervised learning format. A typical learning
algorithm for MLP networks is also called back propagation‘s algorithm.

the implementation with MLP for an image classification problem.

# Import MINST data

from tensorflow.examples.tutorials.mnist import input_data

import tensorflow as tf

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Parameters

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learning_rate = 0.001

training_epochs = 20

batch_size = 100

display_step = 1

# Network Parameters

n_hidden_1 = 256

# 1st layer num features

n_hidden_2 = 256 # 2nd layer num features

n_input = 784 # MNIST data input (img shape: 28*28) n_classes = 10

# MNIST total classes (0-9 digits)

# tf Graph input

x = tf.placeholder("float", [None, n_input])

y = tf.placeholder("float", [None, n_classes])

# weights layer 1

h = tf.Variable(tf.random_normal([n_input, n_hidden_1])) # bias layer 1

bias_layer_1 = tf.Variable(tf.random_normal([n_hidden_1]))

# layer 1 layer_1 = tf.nn.sigmoid(tf.add(tf.matmul(x, h), bias_layer_1))

# weights layer 2

w = tf.Variable(tf.random_normal([n_hidden_1, n_hidden_2]))

# bias layer 2

bias_layer_2 = tf.Variable(tf.random_normal([n_hidden_2]))

# layer 2

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layer_2 = tf.nn.sigmoid(tf.add(tf.matmul(layer_1, w), bias_layer_2))

# weights output layer

output = tf.Variable(tf.random_normal([n_hidden_2, n_classes]))

# biar output layer

bias_output = tf.Variable(tf.random_normal([n_classes])) # output layer

output_layer = tf.matmul(layer_2, output) + bias_output

# cost function

cost = tf.reduce_mean(tf.nn.sigmoid_cross_entropy_with_logits(

logits = output_layer, labels = y))

#cost = tf.reduce_mean(tf.nn.sigmoid_cross_entropy_with_logits(output_layer,
y))

# optimizer

optimizer = tf.train.AdamOptimizer(learning_rate = learning_rate).minimize(cost)

# optimizer = tf.train.GradientDescentOptimizer(

learning_rate = learning_rate).minimize(cost)

# Plot settings

avg_set = []

epoch_set = []

# Initializing the variables

init = tf.global_variables_initializer()

# Launch the graph

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with tf.Session() as sess:

sess.run(init)

# Training cycle

for epoch in range(training_epochs):

avg_cost = 0.

total_batch = int(mnist.train.num_examples / batch_size)

# Loop over all batches

for i in range(total_batch):

batch_xs, batch_ys = mnist.train.next_batch(batch_size)

# Fit training using batch data sess.run(optimizer, feed_dict = {

x: batch_xs, y: batch_ys})

# Compute average loss

avg_cost += sess.run(cost, feed_dict = {x: batch_xs, y: batch_ys}) /

total_batch

# Display logs per epoch step

if epoch % display_step == 0:

print

Epoch:", '%04d' % (epoch + 1), "cost=", "{:.9f}".format(avg_cost)

avg_set.append(avg_cost)

epoch_set.append(epoch + 1)

print

"Training phase finished"

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plt.ylabel('cost')

plt.legend()

plt.show()

# Test model

# Calculate accuracy

print

The above line of code generates the following output −

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Organizing Feature Map

Kohonen Self-Organizing feature map (SOM) refers to a neural network, which is

trained using competitive learning. Basic competitive learning implies that the
competition process takes place before the cycle of learning. The competition
process suggests that some criteria select a winning processing element. After the
winning processing element is selected, its weight vector is adjusted according to
the used learning law (Hecht Nielsen 1990).

The self-organizing map makes topologically ordered mappings between input

data and processing elements of the map. Topological ordered implies that if two
inputs are of similar characteristics, the most active processing elements
answering to inputs that are located closed to each other on the map. The weight
vectors of the processing elements are organized in ascending to descending
order. Wi < Wi+1 for all values of i or Wi+1 for all values of i (this definition is valid
for one-dimensional self-organizing map only).

The self-organizing map is typically represented as a two-dimensional sheet of

processing elements described in the figure given below. Each processing element
has its own weight vector, and learning of SOM (self-organizing map) depends on
the adaptation of these vectors. The processing elements of the network are
made competitive in a self-organizing process, and specific criteria pick the
winning processing element whose weights are updated. Generally, these criteria
are used to limit the Euclidean distance between the input vector and the weight
vector. SOM (self-organizing map) varies from basic competitive learning so that
instead of adjusting only the weight vector of the winning processing element
also weight vectors of neighboring processing elements are adjusted. First, the
size of the neighborhood is largely making the rough ordering of SOM and size is
diminished as time goes on. At last, only a winning processing element is
adjusted, making the fine-tuning of SOM possible. The use of neighborhood
makes topologically ordering procedure possible, and together with competitive
learning makes process non-linear.

It is discovered by Finnish professor and researcher Dr. Teuvo Kohonen in 1982.

The self-organizing map refers to an unsupervised learning model proposed for

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applications in which maintaining a topology between input and output spaces.

The notable attribute of this algorithm is that the input vectors that are close and
similar in high dimensional space are also mapped to close by nodes in the 2D
space. It is fundamentally a method for dimensionality reduction, as it maps high-
dimension inputs to a low dimensional discretized representation and preserves
the basic structure of its input space.

All the entire learning process occurs without supervision because the nodes are
self-organizing. They are also known as feature maps, as they are basically
retraining the features of the input data, and simply grouping themselves as
indicated by the similarity between each other. It has practical value for
visualizing complex or huge quantities of high dimensional data and showing the
relationship between them into a low, usually two-dimensional field to check
whether the given unlabeled data have any structure to it.

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A self-Organizing Map (SOM) varies from typical artificial neural networks (ANNs)
both in its architecture and algorithmic properties. Its structure consists of a
single layer linear 2D grid of neurons, rather than a series of layers. All the nodes
on this lattice are associated directly to the input vector, but not to each other. It
means the nodes don't know the values of their neighbors, and only update the
weight of their associations as a function of the given input. The grid itself is the
map that coordinates itself at each iteration as a function of the input data. As
such, after clustering, each node has its own coordinate (i.j), which enables one to
calculate Euclidean distance between two nodes by means of the Pythagoras
theorem.

A Self-Organizing Map utilizes competitive learning instead of error-correction

learning, to modify its weights. It implies that only an individual node is activated
at each cycle in which the features of an occurrence of the input vector are
introduced to the neural network, as all nodes compete for the privilege to
respond to the input.

The selected node- the Best Matching Unit (BMU) is selected according to the
similarity between the current input values and all the other nodes in the
network. The node with the fractional Euclidean difference between the input
vector, all nodes, and its neighboring nodes is selected and within a specific
radius, to have their position slightly adjusted to coordinate the input vector. By
experiencing all the nodes present on the grid, the whole grid eventually matches
the entire input dataset with connected nodes gathered towards one area, and
dissimilar ones are isolated.

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Algorithm:

Step:1

Each node weight w_ij initialize to a random value.

Step:2

Choose a random input vector x_k.

Step:3

Repeat steps 4 and 5 for all nodes on the map.

Step:4

Calculate the Euclidean distance between weight vector wij and the input vector
x(t) connected with the first node, where t, i, j =0.

Step:5

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Track the node that generates the smallest distance t.

Step:6

Calculate the overall Best Matching Unit (BMU). It means the node with the
smallest distance from all calculated ones.

Step:7

Discover topological neighborhood βij(t) its radius σ(t) of BMU in Kohonen Map.

Step:8

Repeat for all nodes in the BMU neighborhood: Update the weight vector w_ij of
the first node in the neighborhood of the BMU by including a fraction of the
difference between the input vector x(t) and the weight w(t) of the neuron.

Step:9

Repeat the complete iteration until reaching the selected iteration limit t=n.

Here, step 1 represents initialization phase, while step 2 to 9 represents the

training phase.

Where;

t = current iteration.

i = row coordinate of the nodes grid.

J = column coordinate of the nodes grid.

W= weight vector

w_ij = association weight between the nodes i,j in the grid.

X = input vector

X(t)= the input vector instance at iteration t

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β_ij = the neighborhood function, decreasing and representing node i,j distance
from the BMU.

σ(t) = The radius of the neighborhood function, which calculates how far neighbor
nodes are examined in the 2D grid when updating vectors. It gradually decreases
over time.

Hopfield Networks

Hopfield network is a special kind of neural network whose response is different

from other neural networks. It is calculated by converging iterative process. It has
just one layer of neurons relating to the size of the input and output, which must
be the same. When such a network recognizes, for example, digits, we present a
list of correctly rendered digits to the network. Subsequently, the network can
transform a noise input to the relating perfect output.

In 1982, John Hopfield introduced an artificial neural network to collect

and retrieve memory like the human brain. Here, a neuron is either on or off
the situation. The state of a neuron(on +1 or off 0) will be restored, relying on
the input it receives from the other neuron. A Hopfield network is at first
prepared to store various patterns or memories. Afterward, it is ready to
recognize any of the learned patterns by uncovering partial or even some
corrupted data about that pattern, i.e., it eventually settles down and restores
the closest pattern. Thus, similar to the human brain, the Hopfield model
has stability in pattern recognition.

A Hopfield network is a single-layered and recurrent network in which the

neurons are entirely connected, i.e., each neuron is associated with other
neurons. If there are two neurons i and j, then there is a connectivity
weight wij lies between them which is symmetric wij = wji .

With zero self-connectivity, Wii =0 is given below. Here, the given three neurons
having values i = 1, 2, 3 with values Xi=±1 have connectivity weight Wij.

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Updating rule:

Consider N neurons = 1, … , N with values Xi = +1,

-1. The update rule is applied to the node i is given
by:

If hi ≥ 0 then xi → 1 otherwise xi → -1

Where hi = is called field at i, with b£ R a bias.

Thus, xi → sgn(hi), where the value of sgn(r)=1, if r ≥ 0, and the value of

sgn(r)=-1, if r < 0.

We need to put bi=0 so that it makes no difference in training the network with
random patterns.

We, therefore, consider hi= .

We have two different approaches to update the nodes:

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Synchronously:

In this approach, the update of all the nodes taking place simultaneously at each
time.

Asynchronously:

In this approach, at each point of time, update one node chosen randomly or
according to some rule. Asynchronous updating is more biologically realistic.

Hopfield Network as a Dynamical system:

Consider, K = {-1, 1} N so that each state x £ X is given by xi £ { -1,1 } for 1 ≤ I

≤N

Here, we get 2N possible states or configurations of the network.

We can describe a metric on X by using the Hamming distance between any two
states:

P(x, y) = # {i: xi≠yi}

N Here, P is a metric with 0≤H(x,y)≤ N. It is clearly symmetric and reflexive.

With any of the asynchronous or synchronous updating rules, we get a discrete-

time dynamical system.

The updating rule up: X → X describes a

map. And Up: X → X is triviallycontinuous.
Example: Suppose we have only two neurons: N = 2
There are two non-trivial choices for connectivities:

w12 = w21 =
1 w12= w21
= -1
Asynchronous updating:

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In the first case, there are two attracting fixed points termed as [-1,-1] and [-1,-
1]. All orbit converges to one of these. For a second, the fixed points are [-1,1]
and [1,-1], and all orbits are joined through one of these. For any fixed
point, swapping all the signs gives another fixed point.

Synchronous updating:
In the first and second cases, although there are fixed points, none can be
attracted to nearby points, i.e., they are not attracting fixed points. Some orbits
oscillate forever.

Energy function evaluation:

Hopfield networks have an energy function that diminishes or is unchanged with

asynchronous updating.

For a given state X ∈ {−1, 1} N of the network and for any set of
association weights Wij with Wij = wji and wii =0 let,

Here, we need to update Xm to X'm and denote the new energy by E' and show
that.

E'-E = (Xm-X'm ) ∑i≠mWmiXi.

Using the above equation, if Xm = Xm' then we have E' = E

If Xm = -1 and Xm' = 1 , then Xm - Xm' = 2 and hm= ∑iWmiXi ? 0

Thus, E' - E ≤ 0

Similarly if Xm =1 and Xm'= -1 then Xm - Xm' = 2 and hm= ∑iWmiXi < 0

Thus, E - E' < 0.

Note:
If Xm flips, then E' - E = 2Xmhm

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Neurons pull in or push away from each other:

Suppose the connection weight Wij = Wji between two neurons I and
j. If Wij > 0, the updating rule implies:
o If Xj = 1, then the contribution of j in the weighted sum, i.e., WijXj,
is positive. Thus the value of Xi is pulled by j towards its value Xj=
1

o If Xj= -1 then WijXj , is negative, and Xi is again pulled by j towards

its value Xj = -1

Thus, if Wij > 0 , then the value of i is pulled by the value of j. By symmetry, the
value of j is also pulled by the value of i.

If Wij < 0, then the value of i is pushed away by the value of

j. It follows that for a particular set of values Xi ∈ { -1 , 1 }
for; 1 ≤ i ≤ N, the selection of weights taken as Wij = XiXj
for;
1 ≤ i ≤ N correlates to the Hebbian

rule. Training the network: One pattern

(Ki=0)

Suppose the vector x→ = (x1,…,xi,…,xN) ∈ {-1,1}N is a pattern that we like to

store in the Hopfield network.

To build a Hopfield network that recognizes x→, we need to select connection

weight Wij accordingly.

If we select Wij =ɳ XiXj for 1 ≤ i , j ≤ N (Here, i≠j), where ɳ > 0 is the learning
rate, then the value of Xi will not change under updating condition as we
illustrate below.

We have

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It implies that the value of Xi, whether 1 or -1 will not change, so that x→
is a fixed point.

Note that - x→ also becomes a fixed point when we train

the network with x→ validating that Hopfield networks
are sign blind.

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