NTC Training Center

FluentTOEFL: Crafting Success in PBT Language Skills

Part 1: Sentence Structure and Written Expressions

Module 1: Understanding Parts of Speech
I. Elements in Sentences
In English grammar, sentence elements are the basic components that work together to form a
meaningful and grammatically correct sentence. Some of the most common and essential sentence
elements that you need to know in order to master sentence structure and written expressions
include:

 Subject
 Verb
 Object
 Modifiers

1. Subjects

The subject of a sentence is the person, thing, or idea that the sentence is about. It is the "doer" of
the action in active sentences or the entity being described in passive or stative sentences. The
subject is often a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase.

A. Simple Subject
A simple subject is the main word or group of words that serve as the subject of the
sentence, excluding any modifiers. It is typically a noun or pronoun.
 Example 1: The dog barked. (Simple subject: dog.)
 Example 2: A tall boy is playing basketball. (Simple subject: boy.)

B. Compound Subject
A compound subject consists of two or more subjects joined by a conjunction (e.g., and, or).
These subjects share the same verb.
 Example 1: Tom and Jerry are friends. (Compound subject: Tom and Jerry.)
 Example 2: Neither the manager nor the assistant was available. (Compound
subject: manager and assistant.)
Corelative conjunctions used to create compound subjects include: either … or… ; neither …
nor … ; not only … but also … ; both … and … ; whether … or … .

C. Subject Pronouns
A subject can also be a subject pronoun, which replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Common subject pronouns include I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
 Example 1: She runs every morning. (Subject pronoun: She.)
 Example 2: They are studying for the exam. (Subject pronoun: They.)

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 D. Subject Using a To-Infinitive
A to-infinitive (the base form of a verb preceded by "to") can act as the subject of a
sentence. This form often emphasizes an action or state as the topic of the sentence.
 Example 1: To read novels is my favorite hobby. (Subject: To read novels.)
 Example 2: To travel around the world requires a lot of planning. (Subject: To travel
around the world.)

E. Subject Using a Gerund

A gerund (a verb ending in -ing used as a noun) can also function as the subject of a
sentence. It highlights an action or activity as the topic.
Example 1: Swimming is great exercise. (Subject: Swimming.)
Example 2: Cooking for others brings me joy. (Subject: Cooking for others.)

F. Implied Subject: Imperatives

An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives commands, makes requests, or offer advice.
In this type of sentences, the subject is understood to be the pronoun "you", even though it
is not directly mentioned in the sentence.
 Example 1: Close the door. (You) close the door.
 Example 2: Please pass me the salt. (You) please me the salt.

Practice 1

Below are 20 sentences. First, under the subjects. The, identify the type of subject in each
sentence. Write “S” for Simple Subject, “C” for Compound Subject, “P” for Subject Pronoun, “I” for
Infinitive Subject, “G” for Gerund Subject, and “Im” for Imperative Subject.

…… 0. Dara and Ratana are travelling to New York.

C……...
……………. 1. The cat sleeps on the couch every afternoon.
……………. 2. Tom and Jerry are having an argument.
……………. 3. Close the window before you leave the room.
……………. 4. Writing essays is a skill every student should master.
……………. 5. To finish the project on time requires teamwork and dedication.
……………. 6. It is raining heavily outside.
……………. 7. The dog and the cat get along surprisingly well.
……………. 8. To win the competition is their ultimate goal.
……………. 9. Reading books expands your vocabulary.
……………. 10. They are planning a surprise party for their friend.
……………. 11. Neither the students nor the teacher was prepared for the sudden
announcement.
 ……………. 12. The blue car needs to be washed today.
……………. 13. Jogging every morning helps improve mental clarity.
……………. 14. To learn a new language takes patience and practice.
……………. 15. She loves to read historical fiction novels.
……………. 16. You and your sister need to finish your homework before dinner.
……………. 17. The tall man is waiting by the door.
……………. 18. Swimming keeps you healthy and fit.
……………. 19. To travel to new places is my dream.
……………. 20. He enjoys playing basketball in the evening.

2. Verbs
A verb is a word or phrase that expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Verbs are
the backbone of sentences, essential for conveying what the subject is doing or describing its
condition.
A. Main Verbs
Main verbs are the core verbs in a sentence that express the primary action, state, or
occurrence. They can function independently or with auxiliary verbs.
 Action Verbs: Indicate an action performed by the subject.
Example: She runs every day.

 State Verbs: Describe a condition or state of being rather than an action.

Example: He knows the answer.

 Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a complement, providing additional

information about the subject. Common linking verbs include be, seem, become,
appear, feel, look.
Example: The soup tastes delicious.

B. Auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs)

Auxiliary verbs help the main verb form different tenses, moods, or voices.
Common Auxiliary Verbs: be (am, is, are, was, were, been), have (have, has, had), do
(do, does, did).

Examples:
 She is writing a letter. (is helps form the continuous tense.)
 We have finished our work. (have helps form the perfect tense.)
 Did you attend the meeting? (did forms a question.)
 C. Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs used to express necessity, possibility, ability, permission,
or obligation. They are always followed by the base form of the main verb.
Common Modal Verbs: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.
Examples:
 You must complete the assignment. (must expresses obligation.)
 She can drive a car. (can expresses ability.)
 He might come later. (might expresses possibility.)

D. Simple Verbs
A simple verb consists of a single word or a single action/state verb.

Examples:
Present: I walk to school.
Past: She danced beautifully.
Future: We will win the game.

E. Compound Verbs
Compound verbs consist of two or more verbs joined by conjunctions such as and or or.
They express multiple actions or states performed by the subject in a single sentence.

Examples:
 She sings and dances beautifully.
(sings and dances are compound verbs joined by and.)
 You can stay or leave as you wish. (stay and leave are compound verbs joined by or.)
 He reads and writes in three languages. (reads and writes are compound verbs.)

F. Verb Phrases
A verb phrase consists of the main verb along with its auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, or
modifiers. Verb phrases function as a single verb unit in a sentence.

Examples:
 She is running a marathon. (Verb phrase: is running – main verb with auxiliary
verb.)
 We have been working on the project. (Verb phrase: have been working – auxiliary
verbs with the main verb.)
 They might have completed the task. (Verb phrase: might have completed – modal
verb with auxiliaries.)

Practice 2
Identify the types of underlined verbs below. Write “A” for Action Verb, “S” for State Verb, “L” for
Linking Verb, “M” for Modal Verb, and “Aux” for Auxiliary Verb.
……M……... 0. It will very hot tomorrow.
……………. 1. The baby cries every night.
……………. 2. She feels tired after work.
……………. 3. They watched a movie last night.
……………. 4. He can sing beautifully.
……………. 5. The soup tastes delicious.
……………. 6. We are excited about the trip.
……………. 7. They might visit us tomorrow.
……………. 8. I believe in the power of kindness.
……………. 9. She is studying for her exams.
……………. 10. The flowers look beautiful in the sunlight.
……………. 11. He was running late for the meeting.
……………. 12. You should listen carefully to the instructions.
……………. 13. Do you own a vintage bicycle?
……………. 14. The book is on the table.
……………. 15. They have completed the project ahead of schedule.
……………. 16. The stars shine brightly in the clear sky.
……………. 17. She may take the bus instead of walking.
……………. 18. The painting does not appear to be unfinished.
……………. 19. The dog has not been barking at the stranger lately.
……………. 20. We will be traveling to Paris next week.

3. Objects
An object in a sentence is a noun, pronoun, or phrase that receives the action of a verb or is
influenced by it. Objects help complete the meaning of a verb and are essential components in
many sentences.
A. Direct Object
A direct object answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after the verb. It directly
receives the action performed by the subject.

Examples:
 She read the book. (What did she read? → the book)
 The teacher praised the students. (Whom did the teacher praise? → the students)

B. Indirect Object
 An indirect object answers the question "To whom?" or "For whom?" after the verb. It
shows who or what benefits from or is affected by the action. Indirect objects usually come
before the direct object.

Examples:
 She gave her friend a gift. (To whom did she give a gift? → her friend)
 The manager offered the employees a bonus. (To whom did the manager offer a
bonus? → the employees)

C. Infinitive as Object
An infinitive is the base form of a verb preceded by "to." Infinitives can act as objects of
verbs.

Examples:
 He likes to read. (What does he like? → to read)
 She decided to travel. (What did she decide? → to travel)

D. Gerund as Object
A gerund is the -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun. Gerunds can act as objects of
verbs.

Examples:
 I enjoy reading. (What do I enjoy? → reading)
 They postponed meeting. (What did they postpone? → meeting)

E. Object Pronoun
An object pronoun can also be used as an object, which replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Common object pronouns include me, you, us, them, him, her, and it.
• Example 1: She doesn’t want to buy it. (Object pronoun: It.)
• Example 2: It is not possible to tell them. (Object pronoun: Them.)

F. Object of Preposition
A noun or pronoun that stands after preposition is called “object of preposition”. Together,
they form a prepositional phrase, which functions as a modifier in a sentence. We will
discuss prepositional phrase further in “modifier” part.

Example:
 She is travelling to Paris.
 A dog ran across the street.

Practice 3
Read the sentences below. Identify the underlined words or phrase as direct object, indirect object
or object o preposition. Write “D” for Direct Object, “I” for Indirect Object, and “P” for Object of
Preposition.
…… 0. She gave her mother a flower.
D……...
……………. 1. I found a wallet on the street.
……………. 2. The teacher explained the concept to the students.
……………. 3. He offered me a cup of tea.
……………. 4. They built a house for their grandparents.
……………. 5. Sarah sent her friend a postcard.
……………. 6. The dog chased the cat around the yard.
……………. 7. We showed them our holiday photos.
……………. 8. John bought his sister a present for her birthday.
……………. 9. He wrote a letter to his boss.
……………. 10. The audience enjoyed the performance.
……………. 11. She told her friend an interesting story.
……………. 12. The company awarded him a bonus.
……………. 13. They provided the refugees with food and water.
……………. 14. I handed the keys to the landlord.
……………. 15. The children watched the movie together.
……………. 16. She made her brother a cup of coffee.
……………. 17. He explained the problem to his team.
……………. 18. We reserved a table at the restaurant.
……………. 19. He read his daughter a bedtime story.
……………. 20. They provided him an opportunity to study abroad.

4. Modifiers
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that provides additional information about another
element in a sentence, such as a noun, verb, or adjective. Modifiers help to describe, limit, or
specify the meaning of the word they modify. They can make sentences more vivid, detailed, and
precise.

A. Adjectives
An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun by describing, limiting, or qualifying it. Adjectives
provide details about a noun's color, size, shape, quantity, or quality.
Examples:
 The beautiful flower bloomed. ("beautiful" modifies the noun "flower")
 She wore a red dress. ("red" modifies the noun "dress")
 Adjectives can be classified into different categories including: determiner, opinion,
size, shape, age, color, origin, and materials.
 Determiner: some, a lot of, one, two, many, my, your, that, those, each … etc.
 Opinion: beautiful, interesting, boring, delicious, funny, horrible … etc.
 Size: big, small, huge, tiny, enormous, large … etc.
 Shape: round, square, oval, triangular, circular … etc.
 Age: old, young, modern, ancient, mature, new … etc.
 Color: red, blue, yellow, golden, white … etc.
 Origin: American, Japanese, Khmer, Indian … etc.
 Material: wooden, metal, plastic, cotton, leather, silk, paper, aluminum … etc.

B. Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Adverbs typically describe how,
when, where, or to what degree an action occurs, or they can modify adjectives or other
adverbs to indicate intensity or extent.

Examples:
 She ran quickly. ("quickly" modifies the verb "ran")
 He is extremely talented. ("extremely" modifies the adjective "talented")
 The cat moved very quietly. ("very" modifies the adverb "quietly")

Adverbs can be classified into different types including:

a. Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner describe how an action is performed. They

answer the question "How?" or "In what way?" These adverbs often end in -ly,
although not all of them do.
Examples:
 She sings beautifully. (How does she sing?)
 The dog ran quickly. (How did the dog run?)

b. Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time tell us when an action took place, how often it
occurs, or for how long. They answer questions like "When?", "How long?", or "How
often?" Some examples include tomorrow, recently, always, an hour ago, soon …etc.

Example:
 She will arrive tomorrow. (When will she arrive?)
 He has been working recently. (When has he been working?)

c. Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency describe how often something

happens. They answer questions like "How often?" or "How frequently?"
 Adverbs of frequency include “always, often, usually, sometimes, rarely, seldom,
never … etc.”

Examples:
 I always drink coffee in the morning. (How often do I drink coffee?)
 He never eats vegetables. (How often does he eat vegetables?)

d. Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree describe the intensity or extent of an action,

adjective, or another adverb. They answer questions like "To what degree?" or "How
much?"
Some examples of adverbs of degree include: very, extremely, absolutely, really, too,
quite, almost … etc.

Examples:
 The movie was extremely interesting. (To what degree was the movie
interesting?)
 She is very tall. (To what degree is she tall?)

e. Adverbs of Place: Adverbs of place describe where an action happens. They answer
the question "Where?"

Examples:
 The children are playing outside. (Where are the children playing?)
 He looked everywhere for his keys. (Where did he look?)

C. Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its object (which is usually a noun or
pronoun), along with any modifiers of the object. Prepositional phrases can act as
adjectives or adverbs, modifying a noun or a verb.

Examples:
 The book on the table is mine. ("on the table" modifies the noun "book")
 She walked through the park. ("through the park" modifies the verb "walked")

Prepositional phrases often act as adjective phrases or adverbial phrases.

 Example (adjective phrase): The chair under the window is comfortable.
 Example (adverbial phrase): She arrived in the morning.
D. Participial Phrase as a Modifier
 A participial phrase begins with a participle (a verb form that functions as an adjective)
and includes any modifiers or objects related to the participle. Participial phrases function
as adjectives, modifying nouns or pronouns.

 Present Participle: V + -ing Example: Sleep -> Sleeping

 Past Participle: V3 Example: Make -> Made

Examples:
 Running late, he missed the bus. ("Running late" modifies the noun "he")
 The broken window needs repair. ("broken" modifies the noun "window")

E. To-Infinitive Phrase as a Modifier

A to-infinitive phrase consists of the infinitive form of a verb (to + base form) along with
any objects or modifiers. As modifiers, to-infinitive phrases often function as adjectives or
adverbs depending on how they are used in the sentence.

Examples:
 She has a lot of work to do. ("to do" modifies the noun "work")
 He was the first person to arrive. ("to arrive" modifies the noun "person")
 She exercises to stay healthy. ("to stay healthy" modifies the verb "exercises" as an
adverbial phrase)

F. Noun Appositive
An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames or provides additional information
about another noun next to it.

Examples:
 My brother, a skilled carpenter, built this chair. ("a skilled carpenter" is an
appositive modifying "brother")
 The city of Paris, the capital of France, is beautiful. ("the capital of France" is a non-
restrictive appositive modifying "Paris")

Appositives can help provide more details about people, places, or things in a concise way.

Practice 4
Read the sentences below. Identify the underlined phrases. Write “Prep” for Prepositional Phrase,
“P” for Participial Phrase, “T” for To-infinitive Phrase, and “N” for “Noun Appositive”.

P 0. The children, excited by the news, ran to the park.

Prep 1. She left without saying goodbye.
Prep 2. The book on the shelf belongs to me.
P 3. Riding his bike, he waved to his friends.
Prep 4. The dog is playing under the tree.
Prep 5. She enjoys reading novels in the evening.
P 6. The woman wearing a red dress is my aunt.
T 7. They went to the beach last weekend.
T 8. His dream to travel abroad has come true.
Prep 9. The meeting will start after lunch.
T 10. To finish the project, we need more resources.
Prep 11. The cat sitting on the windowsill is mine.
N 12. The boy with the red backpack is my brother.
T 13. I went to the store to buy some bread.
P 14. Walking through the park, we saw many interesting things.
N 15. The American space exploration agency, NASA has discovered another new
planet near the sun.
T 16. She worked hard to achieve her goals.
N 17. The movie about space exploration was fascinating.
Prep 18. The teacher is in the classroom.
N 19. The professor, an expert in the field, gave a lecture.
P 20. Having completed the task, he relaxed for the day.

Practice 5: Identifying Missing Parts

Look at the sentences below. Identify the missing part in each sentence. Write “S” for Subject, “V”
for Verb, “O” for Object, and “M” for Modifier.

……M……... 0. The rain forest, __________ large trees that provide shade to the vegetation
below, is home to unique flora and fauna.
……S…V……. 1. Despite the polar bear’s tremendous weight and height, __________ of
sprinting at tremendous speed.
……V………. 2. The leaders of the two countries __________ an agreement to avoid future
conflicts.
……V………. 3. The committee has met and __________.
……S+V………. 4. Having been presented the financial aspects of the proposed agreement,
__________.
……O………. 5. Professor Anderson wrote __________, which is expected to be published in
 the next few months.
……M………. 6. __________, that runner is likely to be the first one chosen.
……O………. 7. The company president wrote an e-mail and planned to send __________ as
soon as the vote was complete.
……S+V………. 8. As the result of Diane’s illness and the effects of the medication, __________
to curtail her work and public speaking activities.
……V………. 9. In spite of the fact that the Olympic athletes are not permitted to compete
for compensation, some of them __________ the past and will again in the
future.
……V………. 10. To master the art of fiction writing __________ discipline and practice, as
well as studying the works of other great authors.