New Era University

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering

CE 415C-18 Structural Design of Towers

& Other Vertical Structures
First Semester
SY 2021-2022

Engr. Winfred G. Liwanag II, M. Eng

Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of College of Engineering and Architecture
New Era University
[email protected]
© August 2021
Chapter 3 – Lateral Loads –
Wind Load

New Era
University
 Agenda
❑Damages Due to Wind
❑Nature of Winds
❑Characteristics of Wind
❑Code Provisions – Wind Load
▪ General Requirements
▪ Velocity Pressure

❑Directional Procedure – Example Problem

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 LOADINGS - RECAP
Dead Load: Selfweight +
Imposed DL + Partitions
Gravity Loads
Live Load: Occupants,
Equipment, Vehicles, etc

Basic Loads
Wind Load: Wind
pressure converted to
load on each floor
Lateral Loads Water Pressure, Soil
Pressure
Seismic Load: Basic
shear converted to load
on each floor

But wait
there’s more! Temperature, Creep,
Shrinkage
Secondary and
Internal Loads
Settlement,
Prestressing

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2004 TY Unding

11 Photos courtesy of Michael Padua, Typhoon2000.com

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND

12 Taken from TPU Lectures by Prof. Yukio Tamura

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND

13 Taken from TPU Lectures by Prof. Yukio Tamura

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND

14 Taken from TPU Lectures by Prof. Yukio Tamura

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND

15 Taken from TPU Lectures by Prof. Yukio Tamura

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND

16 Taken from TPU Lectures by Prof. Yukio Tamura

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
2005 Hurricane
Katrina

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 DAMAGES DUE TO WIND
1940 Tacoma
Narrows Bridge

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 NATURE OF WIND
Wind is the term used for air in motion and is usually applied to the natural horizontal motion of the
atmosphere. Motion in a vertical or nearly vertical direction is called a current.

Surface boundary layer the lowest

Surface Boundary Layer
layer of the earth's atmosphere extending
to about 1km. Winds within it are
affected by friction with the earth's
surface.

Above this layer, the horizontal airflow is

no longer influenced by the ground
effect. The wind speed at this height is
called the gradient wind speed, and it
is precisely in this boundary layer where
most human activity is conducted.

Therefore, how wind effects are felt

within this zone is of great concern.

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 NATURE OF WIND
TYPES OF WINDS
Winds that are of interest in the design of buildings can be
classified into three major types:

1. Prevailing winds. Surface air moving toward the low-pressure

equatorial belt is called prevailing winds or trade winds.
2. Seasonal winds. The air over the land is warmer in summer
and colder in winter than the air adjacent to oceans during the
same seasons. Movements of air caused by variations in
pressure difference are called seasonal winds. The monsoons of
the China Sea and the Indian Ocean are an examples.
3. Local winds. Local winds are those associated with the
regional phenomena and include whirlwinds and
thunderstorms. These are caused by daily changes in
temperature and pressure, generating local effects in winds.

The variations in the speed of prevailing and seasonal winds are

referred to as fluctuations in mean velocity. The variations in the
local winds, are referred to as gusts.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

The flow of wind is complex because many flow situations arise from the interaction of wind with structures.

However, in wind engineering, simplifications are made to arrive at design wind loads by distinguishing the
following characteristics:

❑ Variation of wind velocity with height

❑ Wind turbulence
❑ Statistical probability
❑ Vortex shedding phenomenon
❑ Dynamic nature of wind–structure interaction

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

❑ Variation of wind velocity with height.

▪ The viscosity of air reduces its velocity adjacent to
the earth’s surface to almost zero.

▪ The height at which velocity ceases to increase is

called the gradient height, and the corresponding
velocity, the gradient velocity.

▪ This characteristic of variation of wind velocity with

height is a well-understood phenomenon, as
evidenced by higher design pressures specified at
higher elevations in most building codes.

Influence of exposure terrain on variation of wind

velocity with height
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

❑ Wind turbulence
▪ Any movement of air at speeds greater than 2 to 3
mph (0.9 to 1.3 m/s) is turbulent, causing particles
of air to move randomly in all directions.

▪ This is in contrast to the laminar flow of particles of

heavy fluids, which move predominantly parallel to
the direction of flow.

▪ For structural engineering purposes, velocity of wind

can be considered as having two components: a
mean velocity component that increases with
height, and a turbulent velocity that remains the
Schematic representation of mean and gust pressure
same over height
▪ Similarly, the wind pressures, which are proportional to the square of the velocities, also fluctuate as
shown in the figure. The total pressure Pt at any instant t is given by the relation
Pt = Ṗ + P’

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

❑ Statistical probability
▪ In many engineering sciences the intensity of certain events is considered to be a function of the
duration recurrence interval (return period).
▪ The probability that events such as floods, wind storms or tornadoes, rainfall, earthquakes will occur is
often expressed as a return period.
▪ The inverse of probability (generally expressed in %), it gives the estimated time interval between
events of a similar size or intensity.
▪ For example, the return period of a flood might be 100 years; otherwise expressed as its probability of
occurring being 1/100, or 1% in any one year. This does not mean that if a flood with such a return
period occurs, then the next will occur in about one hundred years' time - instead, it means that, in any
given year, there is a 1% chance that it will happen, regardless of when the last similar event was. Or,
put differently, it is 10 times less likely to occur than a flood with a return period of 10 years (or a
probability of 10%).

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

❑ Statistical probability
Table. Probability of Exceeding Design Wind Speed During Design Life of Building
▪ The general expression for
probability P that a design wind
speed will be exceeded at least once
during the exposed period of n years
is given by

P = 1-(1-Pa)n

where
Pa = annual probability of being
exceeded (reciprocal of the mean
recurrence interval)

n = exposure period in years

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

❑ Vortex shedding phenomenon

▪ Wind buffeting against a bluff body gets diverted in three
mutually perpendicular directions, giving rise to forces and
moments about the three directions.
▪ In civil and structural work, the force and moment
corresponding to the vertical axis (lift and yawing moment)
are of little significance. Six components of wind
▪ Therefore, aside from the uplift forces on large roof areas, the
flow of wind is simplified and considered two-dimensional, as
shown in figure, consisting of along wind and transverse
wind.
▪ Along wind—or simply wind—is the term used to refer to drag
forces, and transverse wind is the term used to describe
crosswind. The crosswind response causing motion in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of wind typically dominates
over the along-wind response for tall buildings.

Simplified two-dimensional flow of wind

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

❑ Vortex shedding phenomenon

▪ At low wind speeds, since the shedding occurs at the same instant on either side of the building, there
is no tendency for the building to vibrate in the transverse direction. It is therefore subject to along-
wind oscillations parallel to the wind direction.
▪ At higher speeds, the vortices are shed alternately, first from one and then from the other side. In
addition to along-wind impulse, there is an impulse in the transverse direction.
▪ The frequency of transverse impulse is precisely half that of the along-wind impulse. This type of
shedding, which gives rise to structural vibrations in the flow direction as well as in the transverse
direction, is called vortex shedding.

Vortex-shedding phenomenon

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD
❑ NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES,
7TH EDITION (NSCP 2015), VOLUME 1
▪ American Society of Civil Engineers ASCE/SEI 7-10, Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures

▪ NSCP 2015 now uses wind contour maps (colored) for the entire
Philippine Archipelago. NSCP 2010 uses wind zones.

▪ From 55 pages (NSCP 2010) to 157 pages (NSCP 2015).

▪ It is noted that NSCP 2015 is based on the use of ULS or Strength

level windspeeds with a load factor of 1.0, whereas the earlier
NSCP 2010, was based on service winds with a significant
additional load factor. This mirrors the change made in the USA
between ASCE7-05 and ASCE7-10.

❑ Wind Loads: Guide to the Wind Load Provisions of

ASCE 7-10 by Mehta and Coulbourne
❑ Manual For Wind Load Calculations by ASEP

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD
Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS) can
MWFRS consist of a structural frame or an assemblage of structural
elements that work together to transfer wind loads acting on
the entire structure to the ground.

Structural elements such as cross-bracing, shear walls, roof

trusses, and roof diaphragms are part of the Main Wind-
Force Resisting System
Cladding

Cladding
support

Components and Cladding (C&C) elements of the

building envelope that do not qualify as part of the MWFRS.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Wind Load
Procedure

Analytical Simplified Wind Tunnel

Procedure Procedure Procedure

applicable for buildings

Directional Envelope
if certain parameters
Procedure Procedure
were met

provides ▪ The analytical procedure can be used for any and all buildings and
specification of provides structures.
pressure and force pressure ▪ Whereas the simplified procedure is restricted to certain types of
coefficients coefficients that buildings, as well as other restrictive requirements.
associated with are independent ▪ The wind tunnel procedure can be used for any building or
specific directions of wind
structure, though because of its cost and extra time required to
(e.g. windward, direction.
leeward) perform the customized tests, it is used for buildings or structures of
unusual shape or when wind loads are critical.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Basic Wind Speed, V

▪ 50-year return period

▪ 3-sec gust speed
▪ at 10m height*
▪ in flat, open country terrain*

*meteorological standard

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Basic Wind Speed, V

Wind Hazard Map
NSCP 2010

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Basic Wind Speed, V

Wind Hazard Map
NSCP 2015

For Occupancy Category lll, IV and V buildings and other

structures - use Figure 207 A.5-1 A.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Basic Wind Speed, V

Wind Hazard Map
NSCP 2015

For Occupancy Category II buildings and other structures

-use Figure 207 A.5-1 B.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Basic Wind Speed, V

Wind Hazard Map
NSCP 2015

For Occupancy Category I buildings and other structures

- use Figure 207 A.5-1 C.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Wind Directionality, Kd

▪ shall be determined from Table 207A.6-1

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Exposure Category

▪ shall be determined from section 207A.7

▪ Exposure B - Urban and suburban areas,

wooded areas, areas with many closely spaced
obstructions.

▪ Exposure C - Open terrain with scattered

obstructions. Airports, areas that are generally
flat open country.

▪ Exposure D - Flat, unobstructed areas and

water surfaces outside hurricane prone regions.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Topographic Factor, Kzt

▪ shall be determined from section 207A.8

▪ For flat terrain, Kzt = 1.0

▪ If with wind speed-up refer to section 207A.8.1

and 207A.8.2

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Gust Effect Factor, G

▪ shall be determined from section 207A.9.

▪ If building f < 1 hertz, flexible buildings and

other structures. Calculate “G” by rational
analysis that incorporates the dynamic properties
of the main wind-force resisting system.

▪ If building f > 1 hertz, can be considered rigid.

▪ G = 0.85 for stiff buildings and stiff/rigid

structures.

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Gust Effect Factor, G

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Gust Effect Factor, G

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Gust Effect Factor, G

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 CODE PROVISIONS - WIND LOAD

Section 207A – General Requirements

❑ Enclosure Classification + Internal Pressure Coefficient, (GCpi)

▪ shall be determined from section 207A.10 and 207A.11

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 VELOCITY PRESSURE

Velocity Pressure – Section 207B.3.2

❑ Velocity pressure, qz evaluated at height z shall be calculated by the following equation:

𝟐
N
𝒒𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝑲𝒛 𝑲𝒛𝒕 𝑲𝒅 𝑽 2
; 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚
Where
Kd = wind directionality factor, see Section 207A.6
Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient, see Section 207.B.3.1
Kzt = topographic factor defined, see Section 207A.8.2
V = basic wind speed, see Section 207A.5
qz = velocity pressure calculated using Equation shown above at height z
qzt = velocity pressure calculated using Equation shown above at mean roof height h

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 VELOCITY PRESSURE

Velocity Pressure – Section 207B.3.2

❑ Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz

qz = velocity pressure calculated using Equation

shown above at height z

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 VELOCITY PRESSURE

Velocity Pressure – Section 207B.3.2

❑ Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz

qzt = velocity pressure calculated using Equation

shown above at mean roof height h

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 DIRECTIONAL PROCEDURE– Example Problem

Refer to word document.

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 Any Questions?

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