ENGR 2322 - FLUID MECHANICS

Chapter 1- Introduction

Dr. Aklilu Tesfamichael Baheta

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
Lesson outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should know:

Property/Some Characteristics of Fluids
Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Describe Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid
Ideal Gas Law
Compressibility of Fluids
Surface Tension
Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units
Systems of Units
 Definition

⚫ Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with

both stationary and moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
⚫ The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is
called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in
motion is called dynamics.
⚫ The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science
that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics)
or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

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 What is a Fluid?
⚫ A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a
fluid.
⚫ A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter how small.

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 What is a Fluid?

⚫ Differences between liquid and gases

Liquid Gases
Difficult to compress and Easily to compress – changes of
often regarded as volume is large, cannot normally
incompressible be neglected and are related to
temperature
Occupies a fixed volume No fixed volume, it changes
and will take the shape of volume to expand to fill the
the container containing vessels
A free surface is formed if Completely fill the vessel so that
the volume of container is no free surface is formed.
greater than the liquid.

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
⚫ The number of fluid engineering applications is enormous:
breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines,
airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs,
engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.
⚫ When you think about it, almost everything on this planet
either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

7
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

8
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ Property: Any characteristic of a system
⚫ Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T,
volume V,and mass m.
⚫ Other less familiar properties include viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and
elevation.
⚫ Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
⚫ Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass
of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
⚫ Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the
size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume V, and
total momentum are some examples of extensive properties.
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 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density
⚫ Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of
the mass of a f1uid to its volume.
⚫ It is denoted the symbol ρ (rho). The unit of mass
density in SI unit is kg per cubic meter, i. e ., kg/m3.
⚫ The density of liquids may be considered as constant while
that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.
⚫ Mathematically density is written as.

Mass of fluid

Volume of fluid
⚫ The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.
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 Properties of Fluids

Density or Mass Density

⚫ The density of a
substance, in general,
depends on temperature
and pressure.

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific weight or Weight Density
⚫ Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio
between the weight of a fluid to its volume.
⚫ Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight
density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
⚫ Mathematically,

w  Weight of fluid  (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity

Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
 Mass of fluid x g
Volume of fluid
 x g
w  g
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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Volume
⚫ Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a
fluid occupied by a unit volume per unit mass of a fluid is
called specific volume.
⚫ Mathematically, it is expressed as

Volume of fluid 1  1
Specific volume  
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid 
Volume
⚫ Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of density. It is
expressed as m3/kg.
⚫ It is commonly applied to gases.

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
⚫ Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or
density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard
fluid.
⚫ For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water (at 4C which has
density of 1000 kg/m3) and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air.
It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol SG.
SG  density of liquid
density of water

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
⚫ If the specific gravity of a
fluid is known, then the
density of the fluid will be
equal to specific gravity of
fluid multiplied by the
density of water.
⚫ For example the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6,
hence density of mercury
= 13.6 x 1000 = 13600
kg/m3.

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 Example . Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of
one liter of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7

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 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
⚫ Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of the fluid.
⚫ When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart move one over
the other at different velocities say u and u+ du as shown in Fig.
1.1 , the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear
stress acting between the fluid layers:

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 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY
• It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer
is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
• The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient
of viscosity.
• It is expressed as:
   du
dy
(1.2)
• Fluids which obey above relation are known as
NEWTONIAN fluids and fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called NON-NEWTONIAN fluids.

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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ where μ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality
and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or
only viscosity.
du
⚫ dy
represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear
deformation or velocity gradient.
⚫ From equation (1.2) we have
  du (1.3)
dy
⚫ Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress
required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
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 Properties of Fluids
Unit of Viscosity.
⚫ The unit of viscosity is obtained by putting the
dimension of the quantities in equation ( 1.3)

SI unit of viscosity  Newton second  Ns

m2 m2

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 Properties of Fluids
Kinematic Viscosity.
⚫ It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid.lt is denoted by the Greek symbol (ν) called
'nu' . Thus, mathematically,
  Viscosity  
Density 
⚫ The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

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 Properties of Fluids
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
⚫ Temperature affects the viscosity.
⚫ The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of
temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with
increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the
viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and
molecular momentum transfer.
⚫ In liquids the cohesive forces predominates the molecular
momentum transfer due to closely packed molecules and
with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces
decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity.

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 Properties of Fluids
⚫ But in the case of gases the cohesive force are small and
molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the
increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer
increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between
viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are:
 1 
(i) For liquids,   o
 1 t  t 
2

where   Viscosityof liquid at t oC, in poise 1 poise  1 Ns2

10 m
o  Viscosity of liquid at 0oC,in poise
,   are constants for the liquid
For water, μo  1.79 x 10-3 poise,  0.03368and  0.000221
  o  t  t 2
(ii) For a gas,
where for air o  0.000017,   0.000000056,   0.1189x 10 -9
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 Kinematic viscosity for air & crude oil
Increasing temp → increasing
viscosity

Increasing temp → decreasing

viscosity
 Classification of Fluid Flows
⚫ There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered
in practice, and it is usually convenient to classify them on
the basis of some common characteristics to make it
feasible to study them in groups.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
⚫ When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a
friction force develops between them and the slower layer
tries to slow down the faster layer.
⚫ This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid
property viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness
of the fluid.
⚫ Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the
molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow…
⚫ There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid
flows involve viscous effects to some degree.
⚫ Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are
called viscous flows.
⚫ However, in many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or
pressure forces.
⚫ Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions
greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in
accuracy.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Internal versus External Flow
⚫ A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external,
depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow in a
confined channel or over a surface.
⚫ The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a
plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow.
⚫ The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.
⚫ Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow, and
airflow over a ball or over an exposed pipe during a windy
day is external flow .

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
⚫ A flow is classified as being compressible or
incompressible, depending on the level of variation of
density during flow.
⚫ Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to
be incompressible if the density remains nearly constant
throughout.
⚫ Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains
unchanged over the course of its motion when the flow (or
the fluid) is incompressible.
⚫ The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus
the flow of liquids is typically incompressible. Therefore,
liquids are usually referred to as incompressible substances.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow…
⚫ A pressure of 210 atm, for example, causes the density of
liquid water at 1 atm to change by just 1 percent.
⚫ Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. A
pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a
change of 1 percent in the density of atmospheric air.
⚫ Gas flows can often be approximated as incompressible if
the density changes are under about 5 percent.
⚫ The compressibility effects of air can be neglected at
speeds under about 100 m/s.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
⚫ Some flows are smooth and orderly
while others are rather chaotic.
⚫ The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of
fluid is called laminar.
⚫ The flow of high-viscosity fluids
such as oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
⚫ The highly disordered fluid motion
that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called
turbulent .
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
⚫ A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on
how the fluid motion is initiated.
⚫ In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in
a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
⚫ In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the
rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser) fluid .
⚫ In solar hot-water systems, for example, the
thermosiphoning effect is commonly used to replace pumps
by placing the water tank sufficiently above the solar
collectors.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
⚫ The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering, and thus it is important to have a clear
understanding of their meanings.
⚫ The term steady implies no change at a point with time.
⚫ The opposite of steady is unsteady.
⚫ The term uniform implies no change with location
over a specified region.

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 Types of Fluids
1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal
fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which
exist, have some viscosity.
2. Real fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is knownas
real fluid. All the fluids: in actual practice, are real fluids.
3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stressis
directly, proportional to the rate of shear strain (or
velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid. A real fluid, in which shear stress
is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

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 Types of Fluids

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid.

A fluid, in which shear
stress is more than the
yield value and shear
stress is proportional
to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity
gradient), is known as
ideal plastic fluid.

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 Example 3
If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by
u  2 y  y2
3
in which u is velocity in metre per second at a distance y
metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0
and y= 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63
poises.

37
38
 Example 4
The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with
oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil
film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per
sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed.
Determine : ·
i. the dynamic viscosity of the oil, and
ii. the kinematic viscosity of the oil if the specific gravity of the
oil is 0.95.

Solution. Given:
Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Area A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m2
Thickness of oil film dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate u = 2.5 m/s
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40
 Thermodynamic Properties
⚫ Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible
fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important
role.
⚫ With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo
large variation in density.
⚫ The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume
and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of
state as

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 Thermodynamic Properties
J
⚫ The value of gas constant R is R  287
kg.K

⚫ Isothermal Process. If the changes in density occurs at

constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal
and relationship between pressure (p) and density (ρ) is
given by p  constant
ρ
⚫ Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no
heat exchange to and from the gas, the process is called
adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to
friction, the relationship between pressure and density is
given by
p
 constant
ρk
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 Thermodynamic Properties
⚫ where k = (Cp/Cv) Ratio of specific heat of a gas at
constant pressure and constant volume.
⚫ k = 1.4 for air

43
 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
⚫ Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of
elasticity, Ev which is defined as the ratio of
compressive stress to volumetric strain.
⚫ Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in the Fig.
⚫ Let V= Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder
p =Pressure of gas when volume is V
⚫ Let the pressure is increased to p+ dp, the volume of gas
decreases from V to V – dV.
⚫ Then increase in pressure = dp
⚫ Decrease in volume = dV
⚫ Volumetric strain = - dV/V

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 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
⚫ - ve sign means the volume
decreases with increase of pressure.

Increase of pressure
Bulk modules Ev 
Volumetric strain
dp
   dp V
- dV dV
V
⚫ Compressibility is given by = 1/Ev

Hence, bulk modulus can be expressed as

 p for isothermal process

Ev  
45
kp for isentropic process
Fluid properties

Surface Tension

• What’s happening here?

– Bug is walking on water
• Why is this possible?
– It doesn’t weigh much
– It’s spreading its weight
out
– The downward forces are
less than the effects of
surface tension
 Fluid properties
Surface Tension
• A molecules in the interior of a liquid is under
attractive force in all direction.
• However, a molecule at the surface of a liquid is
acted on by a net inward cohesive force that is
perpendicular to the surface.
• Hence it requires work to move molecules to
the surface against this opposing force and
surface molecules have more energy than
interior ones
• Higher forces of attraction at surface
• Creates a “stretched membrane effect”
 Fluid properties
Surface Tension
• Surface tension, σs: the force resulting from
molecular attraction at liquid surface [N/m]

– surface tension varies with temperature

Fs= Lσs

Fs= surface tension force [N]

σs = surface tension [N/m]
L = length over which the surface
tension acts [m]
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface Tension on liquid Droplet and
Bubble
⚫ Consider a small spherical droplet of a
liquid of radius ‘R'. On the entire
surface of the droplet, the tensile force
due to surface tension will be acting.
⚫ Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
⚫ P= Pressure intensity inside the
droplet (in excess of the outside
pressure intensity)
⚫ R= Radius of droplet.
⚫ Let the droplet is cut into two halves.
The forces acting on one half (say left
half) will be
49
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
⚫ (i) tensile force due to
surface tension acting
around the circumference
of the cut portion as
shown and this is equal to
= σ x Circumference
= σ x 2πR
⚫ (ii) pressure force on the
area (π/4)d2 and
⚫ = P x πR2 asshown

50
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
⚫ These two forces will be equal and opposite under
equilibrium conditions, i.e.,

⚫ A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces

in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two
surfaces are subjected surface tension.

51
 Surface Tension……. Example 1
⚫ Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm
diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above
atmospheric pressure.

52
 Surface Tension……. Example 2
⚫ The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter
0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm2 (atmospheric pressure).
Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface
tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.

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 Surface Tension and Capillarity
Capillarity
⚫ Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a
liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general
level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
⚫ The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while
the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary
depression.
⚫ The attraction (adhesion) between the wall of the tube and
liquid molecules is strong enough to overcome the mutual
attraction (cohesion) of the molecules and pull them up the
wall. Hence, the liquid is said to wet the solid surface.
⚫ It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value
depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of
the tube and surface tension of the liquid.
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 Surface Tension and Capillarity

Expression for Capillary Rise

⚫ Consider a glass tube of small
diameter ‘d’ opened at both ends
and is inserted in a liquid, say water.
⚫ The liquid will rise in the tube
above the level of the liquid.
⚫ Let h = the height of the liquid in
the tube . Under a state of
equilibrium, the weight of the liquid
of height h is balanced by the force
at the surface of the liquid in the
tube. But the force at the surface of
the liquid in the tube is due to
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surface tension.
 Expression for Capillary Rise…
⚫ Let σ = Surface tension of liquid
θ = Angle of contact between the liquid and glass tube
⚫ The weight of the liquid of height h in the tube
= (Area of the tube x h) x ρ x g

56
 Expression for Capillary Rise…

⚫ The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is

approximately equal to zero and hence cos θ is equal to
unity. Then rise of water is given by

⚫ Contact angle depends on both the liquid and the solid.

⚫ If θ is less than 90o, the liquid is said to "wet" the solid.
However, if θ is greater than 90o, the liquid is repelled by
the solid, and tries not to "wet" it.
⚫ For example, water wets glass, but not wax. Mercury on the
other hand does not wet glass.
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 Capillarity

Expression for Capillary Fall

⚫ lf the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the revel of
mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level
of the outside liquid as shown above.

58
 Capillarity
Expression for Capillary Fall
⚫ Let h = Height of depression in
tube.
⚫ Then in equilibrium, two forces
arc acting on the mercury inside
the tube.
⚫ First one is due to surface tension
acting in the downward direction
and is equal to σ x πd x cos θ.
⚫ Second force is due to hydrostatic
force acting upward and is equal
to intensity of pressure at a depth
'h' x Area
59
 Capillarity
Expression for Capillary Fall

Value of θ for mercury and glass tube is 128o

60
 Capillarity…Example 1
⚫ Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm
diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b)
mercury. Take surface tensions σ = 0.0725 N/m for
water and σ = 0.52 N/m for mercury in contact with
air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6
and angle of contact = 130o.

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 Capillarity…Example 1

62
 Flow Analysis Techniques
⚫ In analyzing fluid motion,
we might take one of two
paths:
1. Seeking an estimate of
gross effects (mass flow,
induced force, energy
change) over a finite
region or control volume
or
2. Seeking the point-by-
point details of a flow
pattern by analyzing an
infinitesimal region of
the flow.
63
 Flow Analysis Techniques
⚫ The control volume technique is useful when we are
interested in the overall features of a flow, such as mass
flow rate into and out of the control volume or net forces
applied to bodies.
⚫ Differential analysis, on the other hand, involves
application of differential equations of fluid motion to any
and every point in the flow field over a region called the
flow domain.
⚫ When solved, these differential equations yield details
about the velocity, density, pressure, etc., at every point
throughout the entire flow domain.

64
 Dimensions and Units
⚫ Fluid mechanics deals with the measurement of many
variables of many different types of units. Hence we need
to be very careful to be consistent.
Dimensions and Base Units
⚫ The dimension of a measure is independent of any
particular system of units. For example, velocity may be
in metres per second or miles per hour, but dimensionally,
it is always length per time, or L/T = LT−1 .
⚫ The dimensions of the relevant base units of the Système
International (SI) system are:

65
 Dimensions and Units

Derived Units

66
67
Unit Table

Quantity SI Unit English Unit

Length (L) Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg) Slug (slug) =
lb*sec2/ft
Time (T) Second (s) Second (sec)
Temperature (  ) Celcius (oC) Farenheit (oF)
Force Newton Pound (lb)
(N)=kg*m/s2

68
 Dimensions and Units…

⚫ 1 Newton – Force required to accelerate a 1 kg of mass

to 1 m/s2
⚫ 1 slug – is the mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s2 when acted
upon by a force of 1 lb
⚫ To remember units of a Newton use F=ma (Newton’s 2nd
Law)
⚫ [F] = [m][a]= kg*m/s2 = N
⚫ To remember units of a slug also use F=ma => m = F / a
⚫ [m] = [F] / [a] = lb / (ft / sec2) = lb*sec2 / ft

69
Summary

What is fluid property? (mention some properties)

What is specific weight?
What is density?
What is specific gravity?
What is viscosity?
Describe Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid
what is ideal Gas Law?
What is Compressibility of Fluids?
What causes surface Tension?
Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units
Systems of Units
Study Examples 1-3, 1-4, 1-5 and 1.8
Solve
1.39, 1.48 (Pg-33), 1.81 (Pgs.35-36)