Module1

Introduction to IoT
1.1 What is IoT?
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects or "things" embedded with
electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity, which enables these objects to collect
and exchange data.

IoT allows objects to be sensed and controlled remotely across existing network Figure1.1EvolutionaryPhasesoftheInternet
infrastructure, creating opportunities for more direct integration between the physical world and
computer-based systems, and resulting in improved efficiency, accuracy and economic The latest phase is the Internet of Things. Despite all the talk and media coverage of IoT, in many ways
benefit."Things," in the IoT sense, can refer to a wide variety of devices such as heart monitoring we are just at the beginning of this phase. When you think about the fact that 99% of “things” are still
implants, biochip transponders on farm animals, electric clams in coastal waters, automobiles with unconnected, you can better understand what this evolutionary phase is all about. Machines and objects
built-in sensors, DNA analysis devices for environmental/food/pathogen monitoring or field in this phase connect with other machines and objects, along with humans.
operation devices that assist fire-fighters in search and rescue operations. Business and society have already started down this path and are experiencing huge
increases in data and knowledge. In turn, this is now leading to previously unrecognized in sights,
These devices collect useful data with the help of various existing technologies and then along with increased automation and new process efficiencies. IoT is poised to change our world
autonomously flow the data between other devices. in new and exciting ways, just as the past Internet phases already have.

1.2 Genesis of IoT

The age of IoT is often said to have started between the years 2008 and 2009. During this time
period, the number of devices connected to the Internet eclipsed the world’s population. With more
“things” connected to the Internet than people in the world, a new age was upon us, and the Internet
of Things was born.
Kevin Ashton is the person who created the term “Internet of Things” .Kevin has
subsequently explained that IoT now involves the addition of senses to computers. In the Twentieth
century, Computers depended on humans to input data and knowledge through typing, barcodes,
and so on.
In the Twenty-first century, Computers are sensing things for themselves. The evolution
of Internet can be categorized into four phases as shown below Figure1.1
1.3 IoT and Digitization
IoT focuses on connecting “things”, such as objects and machines, to a computer network, such as
the Internet. IoT is a well-understood term used across the industry as a whole.
For example:
In a shopping mall where Wi-Fi location tracking has been deployed, the “things” are the Wi-
Fi devices. Wi-Fi location tracking is simply the capability of knowing where a consumer is in a retail
environment through his or her smart phone’s connection to the retailer’s Wi-Fi network.

While the value of connecting Wi-Fi devices or “things” to the Internet is obvious and
appreciated by shoppers, tracking real-time location of Wi-Fi clients provides a specific benefit to
the mall and shop owners.

On the other hand, Digitization can mean different things to different people but generally
encompasses the connection of “things” with the data they generate and the business insights that
result. Digitization is the conversion of information into a digital format.
For example:

The whole photography industry has been digitized. Pretty much everyone has digital
cameras these days, either standalone devices or built into their mobile phones. Almost no one Figure1-2Google’sSelf-DrivingCar
buys film and takes it to a retailer to get it developed. The digitization of photography has
completely changed our experience when it comes to capturing images.
Most connected roadways solutions focus on resolving today’s transportation challenges such as
Example : Video rental industry, Transportation industry
1. Safety 2. Mobility 3.Environment

By addressing the challenges in Table 1.2. Connected roadways will bring many benefits to
1.4 IoT Impact society. These benefits include reduced traffic jams and urban congestion, decreased casualties
andfatalities, increased response time for emergency vehicles, and reduced vehicle emissions.
The following examples illustrate some of the benefits of IoT and their impact.
For example:
1. Connected Roadways
2. Connected Factory With IoT-connected roadways, a concept known as Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) is
3. Smart Connected Buildings possible. This application warns a driver (or triggers the appropriate response in a self-driving car)
4. Smart Creatures when it is not safe to enter an intersection due to a high probability of a collision—
perhapsbecauseanothercarhasrunastopsignorstrayedintothewronglane.Thankstothecommunicatio
1. Connected Roadways ns system between the vehicles and the infrastructure, this sort of scenario can be handled quickly
and safely. Figure1.4 for a graphical representation of IMA.
IoT is going to allow self-driving vehicles to better interact with the transportation system
around them through bidirectional data exchanges while also providing important data to
the riders. Connected roadways is the term associated with both the driver and driverless
cars fully integrating with the surrounding transportation infrastructure
 operations. These operations are composed of plant floors, front officers, and
suppliers operating in independent silos.

Consequently, rectifying downtime issues, quality problems, and the root causes of
various manufacturing inefficiencies is often difficult.
The main challenges facing manufacturing in a factory environment today include the following:

Acceleratingnewproductandserviceintroductionstomeetcustomerandmarketopp
ortunities
Increasing plant production ,quality, and uptime while decreasing cost
❖
Mitigating unplanned downtime
❖
Securing factories from cyber threats
❖
Decreasing high cabling and re-cabling costs
❖
Improving worker productivity and safety
Forexample1:

Executive management is looking for new ways to manufacture in a more cost-effective

manner while balancing the rising energy and material costs. Product development has time to
market as the top priority. Plant managers are entirely focused on gains in plant efficiency and
operational agility. The controls and automation department looks after the plant networks,
controls, and applications and therefore requires complete visibility into all these systems.
Industrial enterprises around the world are retooling their factories with advanced technologies
and architectures to resolve these problems and boost manufacturing
flexibilityandspeed.Theseimprovementshelpthemachievenewlevelsofoverallequipmenteffecti
veness, supply chain responsiveness, and customer satisfaction. A convergence of factory-
based operational technologies and architectures with global IT networks is starting to occur, and

Figure1.3ApplicationofIntersectionMovementAssist this is referred to as the connected factory.

Forexample2:
2. Connected Factory A smelting facility extracts metals from their ores. The facility uses both heat and chemicals to
For years, traditional factories have been operating at a disadvantage, impeded by decompose the ore, leaving behind the base metal. This is a multistage process, and the data and
production environments that are “disconnected” or, at the very least, “strictly gated” to controls are all accessed via various control rooms in a facility. Operators must go to a control
corporate business systems, supply chains, and customers and partners. Managers of room that is often hundreds of meters away for data and production changes. Hours of operator
these traditional factories are essentially “flying blind” and lack visibility into their time are often lost to the multiple trips to the control room needed during a shift. With IoT and a
connected factory solution, true “machine-to-people” connections are implemented to bring
sensor data directly to operators on the floor via mobile devices. Time is no longer system. Temperature sensors are spread throughout the building and are used to influence
wasted moving back and forth between the control rooms and the plant floor. the building management system’s (BMS’s)control of air flow into a room.
Another interesting aspect of the smart building is that it makes them easier and
In addition ,because the operators now receive data in real time, decisions can be
cheaper to manage. Considering the massive costs involved in operating such complex
made immediately to improve production and fix any quality problems.
structures, not to mention how many people spend their working lives inside a building,
Another example 3: managers have become increasingly interested in ways to make buildings more efficient
and cheaper to manage.
Connected factory solution involves a real-time location system(RTLS).An RTLS utilizes small
land easily deployed Wi-Fi RFID tags that attach to virtually any material and provide real-time For example:

location and status. These tags enable a facility to track production as it happens. These IoT sensors The de facto communication protocol responsible for building automation is known as
allow components and materials on an assembly line to “talk” to the network. If each assembly BACnet (Building Automation and Control Network). In a nutshell, the BACnet protocol
defines a set of services that allow Ethernet-based communication between building
line’s output is tracked in real time, decisions can be made to speed up or slow production to meet devices such as HVAC, lighting, access control, and fire detection systems. The same
targets, and it is easy to determine how quickly employees are completing the various stages building Ethernet switches used for IT may also be used for BACnet. This standardization
ofproduction.Bottlenecksatanypointinproductionandqualityproblemsarealsoquicklyidentified. also makes possible an intersection point to the IP network (which is run by the IT
department) through the use of a gateway device. In addition, BACnet/IP has been defined
While we tend to look at IoT as an evolution of the Internet, it is also sparking an evolution of to allow the “things” in the building network to communicate over IP, thus allowing closer
industry. In 2016 the World Economic Forum referred to the evolution of the Internet and the impact consolidation of the building management system on a single network.
of IoTas the “fourth Industrial

Figure1.7Convergence of Building Technologies to IP

Another promising IoT technology in the smart connected building, and one that is seeing
widespread adoption, is the “digital ceiling.” The digital ceiling is more than just a lighting control
Figure1.6 The Four Industrial Revolutions
system. This technology encompasses several of the building’s different networks—including
3. Smart Connected Buildings lighting, HVAC, blinds, CCTV (closed-circuit television), and security systems—and combines
The function of a building is to provide a work environment that keeps the workers
them into a single IP network.Figure1.8 provides a framework for the digital ceiling.
comfortable, efficient, and safe. Work areas need to be well lit and kept at a comfortable
temperature. To keep worker safe, the fire alarm and suppression system needs to be carefully
managed, as do the door and physical security alarm systems. While intelligent systems for
modern buildings are being deployed and improved for each of these functions. Sensors are
often used to control the heating, ventilation ,and air-conditioning(HVAC)
 1.4 Convergence of IT and OT
Until recently, information technology (IT) and operational technology (OT) have for the
most part lived in separate worlds. IT supports connections to the Internet along with
related data and technology systems and is focused on the secure flow of data across an
organization.

OT monitors and controls devices and processes on physical operational

systems. These systems include assembly lines, utility distribution networks, production
facilities, roadway systems, and many more.

Typically, IT did not get involved with the production and logistics of OT environments.
Specifically, the IT organization is responsible for the information systems of a business,
such as email, file and print services, databases, and so on.
Figure1.8 A Framework for the Digital Ceiling
In comparison, OT is responsible for the devices and processes acting on
Central to digital ceiling technology is the lighting system. As you are probably aware, the industrial equipment, such as factory machines, meters, actuators, electrical distribution
lighting market is currently going through a major shift toward light-emitting diodes (LEDs). automation devices, SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) systems, and soon.
Compared to traditional lighting, LEDs offer lower energy consumption and far longer life

Table1.3ComparingOperationalTechnology(OT)andInformationTechnology(IT)
4. Smart Creatures
IoT also provides the ability to connect living things to the Internet. Sensors can be placed
on animals and even insects just as easily as on machines, and the benefits can be just as
impressive. One of the most well-known applications of IoT with respect to animals
focuses on what is often referred to as the “connected cow.” Sparked, a Dutch company
,developed a sensor that is placed in a cow’s ear.

The sensor monitors various health aspects of the cow as well as its location
and transmits the data wirelessly for analysis by the farmer. The data from each of these
sensors is approximately 200 MB per year, and you obviously need a network infrastructure
to make the connection with the sensors and store the information.

Once the data is being collected, however, you get a complete view of the
herd, with statistics on every cow. You can learn how environmental factors may be
affecting the herd as a whole and about changes in diet.

This enables early detection of disease as cows tend to eat less days before
they show symptoms. These sensors even allow the detection of pregnancy in cows.
1.5 IoT Challenges IoT Network Architecture and Design
While an IoT-enabled future paints an impressive picture, it does not come without
significant challenges. Many parts of IoT have become reality, but certain obstacles
needtobeovercomeforIoTtobecomeubiquitousthroughoutindustryandoureverydaylife. Enterprise IT network architecture has matured significantly over the past two decades and
is generally well understood; however, the discipline of IoT network architecture is new
Table 1.4 highlights a few of the most significant challenges and problems that IoT is and requires a fresh perspective.
currently facing. It is important to note that while some similarities between IT and IoT
architectures do exist, for the most part, the challenges and requirements of IoT systems
are radically different from those of traditional IT networks.
The terminology is also different to the point where IoT networks are often
under the umbrella of OT, which is responsible for the management and state of operational
systems. In contrast, IT networks are primarily concerned with the infrastructure that
transports flows of data, regardless of the data type.

2.1 Drivers Behind New Network Architectures

While IT systems are mostly concerned with reliable and continuous support of business
applications such as email, web, databases, CRM systems, and so on. IoT is all about the
data generated by sensors and how that data is used. The essence of IoT architectures thus
involves how the data is transported, collected, analyzed, and ultimately acted upon.
Table2.1takesacloserlookatsomeofthedifferencesbetweenITandIoT
networks, with a focus on the IoT requirements that are driving new network
architectures, and considers what adjustments are needed.
Table2.1IoTArchitecturalDrivers
 Figure 2.1 The Main Elements of the oneM2M Architecture
The one M2M architecture divides IoT functions into three major domains:
2.2 Comparing IoT Architectures
1. The application layer,
Two of the best-known architectures are
2. The services layer, and
1. oneM2Mand
3. The network layer.
2. The IoT World Forum(IoTWF)

1. Applications layer:
1. TheoneM2MIoTStandardizedArchitecture
The one M2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity between devices and their
In an effort to standardize the rapidly growing field of machine-to-machine (M2M)
applications. This domain includes the application-layer protocols and attempts to standardize
communications, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) created the
northbound API definitions for interaction with business intelligence (BI) systems. Applications
M2MTechnicalCommitteein 2008.
tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets of data models, and thus they are shown as
The goal of this committee was to create a common architecture that would vertical entities.
help accelerate the adoption of M2M applications and devices. Over time, the scope has expanded 2. Services layer:
to include the Internet of Things.
This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry applications. At this
The goal of oneM2M is to create a common services layer, which can be layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT applications run on, the
readily embedded in field devices to allow communication with application servers. underlying management protocols, and the hardware.
oneM2M’sframework focuses on IoT services, applications, and platforms. These include smart
Examples include backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on.
metering applications, smart grid, smart city automation, e-health, and connected vehicles.
Riding on top is the common services layer. This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware
supporting third-party services and applications.
One of the stated goals of oneM2M is to “Develop technical specifications which address the need • Have a process of defining interfaces that leads to interoperability
for a common M2M Service Layer that can be readily embedded within various hardware and
software nodes, and rely upon connecting the myriad of devices in the field area network • Define a tiered security model that is enforced at the transition points between levels
toM2Mapplication servers, which typically reside in a cloud or datacenter.”

A critical objective of one M2M is to attract and actively involve

organizations from M2M-related business domains, including telematics and intelligent
transportation, healthcare, utility, industrial automation, and smart home applications, to name just
a few

3. Network layer:
This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and endpoints. It includes the
devicesthemselvesandthecommunicationsnetworkthatlinksthem.Embodimentsofthiscommunicati
ons infrastructure include wireless mesh technologies, such as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-
to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE 801.11ah. Also included are wired device connections, such
as IEEE 1901 power line communications.

2. The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture

In 2014 the IoTWF architectural committee (led by Cisco, IBM, Rockwell Automation, and
others) published a seven-layer IoT architectural reference model. While various IoT reference Figure2.2 IoT Reference Model Published by the IoT World Forum
models exist, the one put forth by the IoT World Forum offers a clean, simplified perspective
on IoT and includes edge computing, data storage, and access.
Layer1:Physical Devices and Controllers Layer
It provides a succinct way of visualizing IoT from a technical perspective.
Each of the seven layers is broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses the The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers layer. This layer
entire model. is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various end point devices and
sensors that send and receive information. The size of these “things” can range from almost
As shown in Figure 2.2, the IoT Reference Model defines a set of levels
with control flowing from the center (this could be either a cloud service or a dedicated microscopic sensors to giant machines in a factory. Their primary function is generating data and
datacenter), to the edge, which includes sensors, devices, machines, and other types of being capable of being queried and/or controlled over a network.
intelligent end nodes.
In general, data travels up the stack, originating from the edge, and goes Layer2:Connectivity Layer
north bound to the center. Using this reference model, wearable to achieve the following:
In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity. The most important
• Decompose the IoT problem into smaller parts.
function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of data. More specifically, this
• Identify different technologies at each layer and how they relate to one another. includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the network and between the network and
information processing that occurs at Layer3 (the edge computing layer).
• Define a system in which different parts can be provided by different vendors.
 As we notice, the connectivity layer encompasses all networking elements of IoT
and doesn’t really distinguish between the last-mile network (the network between the
sensor/endpoint and the IoT gateway, discussed later in this chapter), gateway, and backhaul
networks.

Functions of the connectivity layer are detailed in Figure2-3.

Figure2-4IoTReferenceModelLayer3Functions

Upper Layers: Layers4–7

The upper layers deal with handling and processing the IoT data generated by the bottom layer.
For the sake of completeness.
Table2.2SummaryofLayers4–7ofthe IoTWF Reference Model

Figure2-3IoT Reference Model Connectivity Layer Functions

Layer3: Edge Computing Layer

At this layer, the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows into
information that is ready for storage and processing by higher layers. One of the basic
principles of this reference model is that information processing is initiated as early and as
close to the edge of the network as possible.
IT and OT Responsibilities in the IoT Reference Model To meet this requirement, data has to be buffered or stored at certain points
within the IoT stack. Layering data management in this way through out the stack helps the
An interesting aspect of visualizing an IoT architecture this way is that you can start to organize
top four layers handle data at their own speed.
responsibilities along IT and OT lines. Figure2-5illustrates a natural demarcation point between
IT and OT in the IoT Reference Model framework. As a result, the real-time “data in motion” close to the edge has to be organized and stored so that
it becomes “data at rest” for the applications in the IT tiers. The IT and OT organizations need to
work together for overall data management.

Additional IoT Reference Models

In addition to the two IoT reference models already presented in this chapter, several other
reference models exist. These models are endorsed by various organizations and standards bodies
and are often specific to certain industries or IoT applications. Table 2-3 highlights these additional
IoT reference models.
Table2.3Alternative IoT Reference Models

Figure2-5IoT Reference Model Separation of IT and OT

As demonstrated in Figure 2-5, IoT systems have to cross several boundaries beyond just the
functional layers. The bottom of the stack is generally in the domain of OT. For an industry like
oil and gas, this includes sensors and devices connected to pipelines, oil rigs, refinery
machinery, and so on.

The top of the stack is in the IT area and includes things like the servers,
databases, and applications, all of which runona part of the network controlled by IT. In the
past, OT and IT have generally been very independent and had little need to even talk to
each other. IoT is changing that paradigm.

At the bottom, in the OT layers, the devices generate real-time data at their own
rate—sometimes vast amounts on a daily basis. Not only does this result in a huge amount of
data transiting the IoT network, but the sheer volume of data suggests that applications at the top
layer will be able to ingest that much data at the rate required.
2.3 A Simplified IoT Architecture Data analytics component. The applications layer typically has both analytics and industry-specific
IoT control system components.
The framework is presented as two parallel stacks:
1. The IoT Data Management and Compute Stack and
2. The Core IoT Functional Stack.
Reducing the framework down to a pair of three-layer stacks in no way suggests that the model
lacks the detail necessary to develop a sophisticated IoT strategy. Rather, the intention is to
simplify the IoT architecture into its most basic building blocks and then to use it as a foundation
to understand key design and deployment principles that are applied to industry-specific use cases.
All the layers of more complex models are still covered, but they are grouped here in functional
blocks that are easy to understand.Figure2-6 illustrates the simplified IoT model.

Figure2-7 Expanded View of the Simplified IoT Architecture

The Core IoT Functional Stack

From an architectural standpoint, several components have to work together for an IoT network to
be operational:

“Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the environment
in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the information needed.

Communications network layer: When smart objects are not self-contained, they need to
communicate with an external system. In many cases, this communication uses a wireless
technology. This layer has four sub layers:

1. Access network sub layer: The last mile of the IoT network is the access network. This is
Figure2.6SimplifiedIoTArchitecture typically made up of wireless technologies such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa. The
This separation gives you better visibility into the functions of each layer. The presentation of the sensors connected to the access network may also be wired.
Core IoT Functional Stack in three layers is meant to simplify your understanding of the IoT 2. Gateways and backhaul network sub layer: A common communication system
architecture into its most foundational building blocks. Figure 2-7 highlights an expanded view of organizes multiple smart objects in a given area around a common gateway. The gateway
the IoT architecture. Core IoT Functional Stack can be expanded into sub layers containing greater communicates directly with the smart objects. The role of the gateway is to forward the
detail and specific network functions. collected information through a longer-range medium (called the backhaul) to a head end
central station where the information is processed. This information exchange is a Layer7
For example, the communications layer is broken down into four separate sub layers: the access (application) function, which is the reason this object is called a gateway. On IP networks,
network, gateways and backhaul, IP transport, and operations and management sub layers. this gateway also forwards packets from one IP network to another, and it therefore acts as
a router.
The applications layer of IoT networks is quite different from the application layer of a typical
enterprise network .Instead of simply using business applications, IoT often involves a strong big
 3. Network transport sub layer: For communication to be successful, network and transport
layer protocols such as IP and UDP must be implemented to support the variety of devices
to connect and media to use.
4. IoT network management sub layer: Additional protocols must be in place to allow
the head end applications to exchange data with the sensors. Examples include CoAP
and MQTT.
Application and analytics layer: At the upper layer, an application needs to process the collected
data, not only to control the smart objects when necessary, but to make intelligent decision based
on the information collected and, in turn, instruct the “things” or other systems to adapt to the
analyzed conditions and change their behaviors or parameters.

Layer1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer

Most IoT networks start from the object, or “thing,” that needs to be connected.
Figure2-8Example of Sensor Applications Based on Mobility and Throughput
There are myriad ways to classify smart objects.
1. Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the object
Layer2: Communications Network Layer
carries its own energy supply or receives continuous power from an external power source.
2. Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move oral Once you have determined the influence of the smart object form factor over its transmission
ways stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one capabilities (transmission range, data volume and frequency, sensor density and mobility), you are
object to another. ready to connect the object and communicate.
3. Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object
a. Access Network Sublayer
should report monitored parameters. A rust sensor may report values once a months
4. Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at each There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology you choose and the type of
report cycle. A humidity sensor in a field may report a simple daily index value, while an connectivity topology this technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain
engine sensor may report hundreds of parameters, from temperature to pressure, gas number of use cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how much data to transport at
velocity, compression speed, carbon index, and many others. Richer data typically drives what interval and over what distance).
higher power consumption.
5. Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is located.
These use cases determined the frequency band that was expected to be most
suitable, the frame structure matching the expected data pattern (packet size and communication
6. Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects over
intervals),and the possible topologies that these use cases illustrate. One key parameter
a given area, connected to the same gateway. An oil pipeline may utilize a single sensor at
determining the choice of access technology is the range between the smart object and the
key locations every few miles.
information collector. Figure 2-9 lists some access technologies you may encounter in the IoT
Figure 2-8 provides some examples of applications matching the combination of mobility and world and the expected transmission distances.
throughput requirements.
 b. Gateways and Backhaul Sub layer

Data collected from a smart object may need to be forwarded to a central station where
data is processed. As this station is often in a different location from the smart object, data
directly received from the sensor through an access technology needs to be forwarded to
another medium (the backhaul) and transported to the central station. The gateway is in
charge of this inter-medium communication.

For example, dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) allows vehicle-to-vehicle and

vehicle-to-infrastructure communication. In this model, the smart object’s position relative to
the gateway is static. The car includes sensors and one gateway. Communication between the
sensors and the gateway may involve wired or wireless technologies. Sensors may also be
integrated into the road infrastructure and connect over a wired or wireless technology to a
gateway on the side of the road. A wireless technology is used for backhaul communication,
Figure2-9AccessTechnologiesand Distances peer-to-peer ,or mesh communication between vehicles.

c. Network Transport Sub layer

This communication structure thus may involve peer-to-peer (for example, meter to meter),
For example, cellular is indicated for transmissions beyond 5 km, but you could achieve a
point-to-point (meter to head end station), point-to-multipoint (gateway or head-end to
successful cellular transmission at shorter range (for example, 100 m). By contrast, Zig Bee is
multiple meters), unicast and multicast communications (software update to one or
expected to be efficient over a range of a few tens of meters, but you would not expect a successful
multiple systems).
Zig Bee transmission over a range of 10 km.
In a multitenant environment (for example, electricity and gas consumption management),
Range estimates are grouped by category names that illustrate the environment or the vertical different systems may use the same communication pathways. This communication occurs
where data collection over that range is expected. Common groups are as follows: over multiple media (for example, power lines inside your house or a short-range wireless
system like indoor Wi-Fi and/or ZigBee), a longer-range wireless system to the gateway, and
• PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal space around
yet another wireless or wired medium for backhaul transmission.
a person. A common wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.

• HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale, common d. IoT Network Management Sublayer
wireless technologies for IoT include Zig Bee and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). IP, TCP, and UDP bring connectivity to IoT networks. Upper-layer protocols need to take
care of data transmission between the smart objects and other systems. Multiple protocols
• NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundred meters. The term NAN is
have been leveraged or created to solve IoT data communication problems. Some networks
often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is collected.
rely on a push model (that is, a sensor reports at a regular interval or based on a local
• FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred meters.FAN trigger), whereas others rely on a pull model (that is, an application queries the sensor over
typically refers to an outdoor area larger than a single group of house units. The FAN is the network), and multiple hybrid approaches are also possible.
often seen as “open space”(and therefore not secured and not controlled). Reusing well-known methods, Extensible Messaging and Presence
Protocol(XMPP) was created. XMPP is based on instant messaging and presence. It allows
• LAN(local area network):Scale of upto100m.This term is very common in networking,
the exchange of data between two or more systems and supports presence and contact list
and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when standard networking
maintenance. It can also handle publish/subscribe, making it a good choice for distribution
technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are used. Other networking classifications,
of information to multiple devices. A limitation of XMPP is its reliance on TCP, which
such as MAN (metropolitan area network, with a range of up to a few kilometers) and
may force subscribers to maintain open sessions to other systems and may be a limitation
WAN (wide area network, with a range of more than a few kilometers),are also commonly
for memory-constrained objects.
used.
Layer3:Applications andAnalyticsLayer DataAnalyticsVersusBusinessBenefits
Once connected to a network, your smart objects exchange information with other systems. As Data analytics is undoubtedly a field where the value of IoT is booming. Almost any object can be
soon as your IoT network spans more than a few sensors, the power of the Internet of Things connected, and multiple types of sensors can be installed on a given object. Collecting and
appears in the applications that make use of the information exchanged with the smart objects. interpreting the data generated by these devices is where the value of IoT is realized.
Analytics Versus Control Applications A smarter architectural choice may be to allow for an open system where the
network is engineered to be flexible enough that other sensors may be added in the future, and
• Analytics application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects,
where both upstream and down stream operations are allowed.
processes the collected data, and displays information resulting from the data that was
processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT network, from historical reports, This flexibility allows for additional processing of the existing sensors and also
statistics, or trends to individual system states. deeper and more efficient interaction with the connected objects. This enhanced data processing
can result in new added value for businesses that are not envisioned at the time when the system
• Control application: This type of application controls the behavior of the smart object or
is initially deployed.
the behavior of an object related to the smart object.
An example of a flexible analytics and control application is Cisco Jasper, which provides a
For example, a pressure sensor may be connected to a pump. A control application increases the
turnkey cloud-based platform for IoT management and monetization. Consider the case of vending
pump speed when the connected sensor detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very
machines deployed throughout a city. At a basic level, these machines can be connected, and sensors
useful for controlling complex aspect so far IoT network with a logic that cannot be programmed
can be deployed to report when a machine is in an error state. A repair person can be sent to address
inside a single IoT object.
the issue when such a state is identified. This type of alert is a time saver and avoids the need for the
repair team to tour all the machines in turn when only one may be malfunctioning.

DataVersusNetworkAnalytics
Analytics is a general term that describes processing information to make sense of collected data IoT Data Management and Compute Stack
Data analytics: The data generated by IoT sensors is one of the single biggest challenges in building an IoT
This type of analytics processes the data collected by smart objects and combines it to provide an system. In the case of modern IT networks, the data sourced by a computer or server is typically
intelligent view related to the IoT system. At a very basic level, a dashboard can display an alarm generated by the client/server communications model, and it serves the needs of the
when a weight sensor detects that a shelf is empty in a store In a more complex case, temperature, application.
pressure, wind, humidity, and light levels collected from thousands of sensors maybe combined In sensor networks, the vast majority of data generated is unstructured and of very little use on
and then processed to determine the likelihood of a storm and its possible path. In this case, data its own. These requirements include the following:
processing can be very complex and may combine multiple changing values over complex
algorithms. 1. Minimizing latency: Milliseconds matter for many types of industrial systems, such as
when you are trying to prevent manufacturing line shutdowns or restore electrical service.
Network analytics: Analyzing data close to the device that collected the data can make a difference between
Most IoT systems are built around smart objects connected to the network. A loss or degradation in averting disaster and a cascading system failure.
connectivity is likely to affect the efficiency of the system .Such a loss can have dramatic effects. 2. Conserving network bandwidth: Offshore oil rigs generate 500 GB of data weekly.
Commercial jets generate 10 TB for every 30 minutes of flight. It is not practical to
For example, open mines use wireless networks to automatically pilot dump trucks. A lasting loss transport vast amounts of data from thousands or hundreds of thousands of edge devices to
of connectivity may result in an accident or degradation of operations efficiency (automated dump the cloud. Nor is it necessary because many critical analyses do not require cloud-scale
trucks typically stop upon connectivity loss). processing and storage.
3. Increasing local efficiency: Collecting and securing data across a wide geographic area
with different environmental conditions may not be useful. The environmental conditions
 in one area will trigger a local response independent from the conditions of another site Fog Computing
hundreds of miles away. Analyzing both areas in the same cloud system may not be
necessary for immediate efficiency. The best-known embodiment to fedge services in IoT is fog computing.Any device with
computing, storage, and network connectivity can be a fog node.
As illustrated in Figure 2-14, data management in traditional IT systems is very simple. The
endpoints (laptops, printers, IP phones, and so on) communicate over an IP core network to servers Examples include industrial controllers, switches, routers, embedded servers, and IoT gateways.
in the data center or cloud. Data is generally stored in the data center, and the physical links from Analyzing IoT data close to where it is collected minimizes latency, offloads gigabytes of network
access to core are typically high bandwidth, meaning access to IT data is quick.
traffic from the core network, and keeps sensitive data inside the local network.

An advantage of this structure is that the fog node allows intelligence gathering
(such as analytics) and control from the closest possible point, and in doing so, it allows better
performance over constrained networks. In one sense, this introduces a new layer to the traditional
IT computing model, one that is often referred to as the “fog layer.”

Figure2-15shows the placement of the fog layer in the IoT Data Management and Compute Stack.

Figure2-14TheTraditionalIT Cloud Computing Model

IoTsystemsfunctiondifferently.Severaldata-relatedproblemsneedtobe addressed:

Bandwidth in last-mile IoT networks is very limited. When dealing with

thousands/millions of devices, available bandwidth may be on order oftens of Kbps per
device or even less.

Latency can be very high. Instead of dealing with latency in the milli seconds range, large
IoT networks often introduce latency of hundreds to thousands of milliseconds.
Figure2-15TheIoT Data Management and Compute Stack with Fog Computing
Network backhaul from the gateway can be unreliable and often depends on 3G/LTE
or even satellite links. Backhaul links can also be expensive if a per-byte data usage
model is necessary.
Fog services are typically accomplished very close to the edge device, sitting as close to the IoT
The volume of data transmitted over the backhaul can be high, and much of the data may endpoints as possible. One significant advantage of this is that the fog node has contextual
not really be that interesting (such as simple polling messages). awareness of the sensors it is managing because of its geographic proximity to those sensors.

Big data is getting bigger. The concept of storing and analyzing all sensor data in the For example, there might be a fog router on an oil derrick that is monitoring all the sensor activity at
cloud is impractical. The sheer volume of data generated makes real-time analysis and that location. Because the fog node is able to analyze information from all the sensors on that derrick,
response to the data almost impossible.
it can provide contextual analysis of the messages it is receiving and may decide to send back only the
relevant information over the backhaul network to the cloud. In this way, it is
performing distributed analytics such that the volume of data sent upstream is greatly reduced and
Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence
is much more useful to application and analytics servers residing in the cloud. of a large number of IoT endpoints.

In addition, having contextual awareness gives fog nodes the ability to react to events in the IoT
Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT end point: Although it is
network much more quickly than in the traditional IT compute model. The fog layer thus provides
possible to connect wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when dealing
a distributed edge control loop capability, where devices can be monitored, controlled, and with a large number of end points, and wireless access is the easiest way to achieve
analyzed in real time without the need to wait for communication from the central analytics and such scale.
application servers in the cloud.
Use for real-time interactions: Important fog applications involve real-time
For example, interactions rather than batch processing.

Tire pressure sensors on a large truck in an open-pitman might continually report Edge Computing
measurements all day long. There may be only minor pressure changes that are well within
In recent years, the concept of IoT computing has been pushed even further to the edge, and in
tolerance limits, making continual reporting to the cloud unnecessary. Is it really useful to
some cases it now resides directly in the sensors and IoT devices.
continually send such data back to the cloud over a potentially expensive backhaul connection?
With a fog node on the truck, it is possible to not only measure the pressure of all tires at once IoT devices and sensors often have constrained resources, however, as compute
but also combine this data with information coming from other sensors in the engine, capabilities increase. Some new classes of IoT end points have enough compute capabilities to
hydraulics, and so on. perform at least low-level analytics and filtering to make basic decisions.

With this approach, the fog node sends alert data upstream only if an actual For example, consider a water sensor on a fire hydrant. While a fog node sitting on an
problem is beginning to occur on the truck that affects operational efficiency. IoT fog electrical pole in the distribution network may have an excellent view of all the fire hydrants
computing enables data to be preprocessed and correlated with other inputs to produce relevant in a local neighborhood, a node on each hydrant would have clear view of a water pressure
information. drop on its own line and would be able to quickly generate an alert of a localized problem. The
fog node, on the other hand, would have a wider view and would be able to as certain whether
This data can then be used as real-time, actionable knowledge by IoT-enabled
the problem was more than just localized but was affecting the entire area.
applications. Longer term, this data can be used to gain a deeper understanding of network
behavior and systems for the purpose of developing proactive policies, processes, and Another example is in the use of smart meters. Edge compute–capable meters are able to
responses. Fog applications areas diverse as the Internet of Things itself. communicate with each other to share information on small subsets of the electrical distribution
grid to monitor localized power quality and consumption, and they can inform a fog node of
What they have in common is data reduction, monitoring or analyzing real-time data from
events that may pertain to only tiny sections of the grid. Models such as these help ensure the
network-connected things and then initiating an action, such as locking a door, changing
highest quality of power delivery to customers.
equipment settings, applying the brakes on a train, zooming a video camera, opening a valve
in response to a pressure reading, creating a bar chart, or sending an alert to a technician to
make a preventive repair.
The Hierarchy of Edge, Fog, and Cloud
The defining characteristic of fog computing areas follows:
It is important to stress that edge or fog computing in no way replaces the cloud. In the same way
that lower courts do not replace the supreme court of a country, edge and fog computing layers
Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog nodes is as close to the
IoT end point as possible to deliver distributed computing. simply act as a first line of defense for filtering, analyzing, and otherwise managing data endpoints.
This saves the cloud from being queried by each and every node for each event.
Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the
Services and applications targeted by the fog nodes demand widely distributed This model suggests a hierarchical organization of network, compute, and data storage
deployments. resources.
At each stage, data is collected, analyzed, and responded to when necessary, according to the The fog IoT application then directs different types of data to the optimal place for analysis:
capabilities of the resources at each layer. As data needs to be sent to the cloud, the latency
1. The most time-sensitive data is analyzed on the edge or fog node closest to the things
becomes higher. It is important to note that the heterogeneity of IoT devices also means a
generating the data. Data that can wait seconds or minutes for action is passed along to an
heterogeneity of edge and fog computing resources.
aggregation node for analysis and action.
While cloud resources are expected to be homogenous, it is fair to expect that in many cases 2. Data that is less time sensitive is sent to the cloud for historical analysis, big data analytics,
both edge and fog resources will use different operating systems, have different CPU and data and long-term storage. For example, each of thousands or hundreds of thousands of fog
storage capabilities, and have different energy consumption profiles. Edge and fog thus require nodes might send periodic summaries of data to the cloud for historical analysis and
an abstraction layer that allows applications to communicate with one another. storage.

The abstraction layer exposes a common set of APIs for monitoring, provisioning, and
controlling the physical resources in a standardized way. The abstraction layer also requires a
mechanism to support virtualization, with the ability to run multiple operating systems or
service containers on physical devices to support multi tenancy and application consistency
across the IoT system.Figure2-16illustratesthehierarchicalnatureofedge, fog ,and cloud.

Figure2-16 Distributed Compute and Data Management Across an IoT System

From an architectural stand point, fog nodes closest to the network edge receive the data
from IoT devices.