Unit 2

Brain storming
question 2.1
Two-dimensional motion
1 . Consider a ball Introduction
shot horizontally
from a very high Kinematics is the study of motion without considering its causes. For example,
building at a high studying the motion of a football without considering what forces cause or
speed. Assume that
change its motion. Two-dimensional kinematics are simple extensions of the
there is no force of
one-dimensional kinematics developed for motion in a straight line in Grade 11.
gravity acting on the
ball. What would This simple extension will allow us to apply physics to many more situations, and
the motion of the it will also yield unexpected insights about nature.
ball be like? Explain A ball kicked by a football player, the orbital motion of planets, a bicycle
its motion? rounding a curve,the rotation of wheels of a car are a few examples of
2 . The ball is two-dimension motion. In fact, most motions in nature follow curved paths
projected rather than straight lines. Such types of motion along a curved plane are
horizontally from described by two-dimensional kinematics.
the top of the same
building. This time, At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
the force of gravity
• Understand the basic ideas of two-dimensional motions.
is acting on the
ball. What will the
• Describe the motion of objects in horizontal and inclined projectiles;
motion of the ball
be like? Will gravity • Describe uniform rotational motion,rotational dynamics and Kepler’s
affect the ball’s laws
horizontal motion?
Will the ball travel a • Describe Newton’s law of Universal gravitation.
greater (or shorter)
horizontal distance • Develop pertinent problem-solving skills.
due to the influence
of gravity?

24
2.1 Projectile motion 25

2.1 Projectile motion

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the motion of the projectile with respect to the horizontal and
vertical components of its motion.

• Derive equations related to projectile motion.

Discussion
• Apply equations to solve problems related to projectile motion question 2.1

A projectile is a thrown, fired, or released object that moves only under the Which motion is
different from the
influence of gravitational force. The projectile accleration is g = 9.8m/s s . Anyone
others? Explain
who has observed the motion of a ball kicked by a football player (Figure 2.1b)
Why?
has observed projectile motion. The ball moves in a curved path and returns to
a) A ball thrown
the ground. Other examples of projectile motion include a cannonball fired from horizontally into the
a cannon, a bullet fired from a gun, the flight of a golf ball and a jet of water air.
escaping a hose. b) A bullet fired
from a gun.
c) A javelin thrown
by an athlete.
d) A bird flying in
the air.

Figure 2.1 a) A ball thrown horizontally b) A football kicked in a game

Projectile motion of an object is simple to analyze if we make three assumptions:

1. The free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion, and it is

always directed downward. It is the acceleration due to gravity (g)=9.8m/s 2 .

2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.

3. The horizontal velocity is constant because the acceleration of the object

does not have vertical component. With these assumptions, we find that
the path of a projectile, which we call its trajectory, is a parabola as shown
in Figure ??.

The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s motion are completely

independent of each other and can be handled separately, with time t as a
26 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

common variable for both components.

Horizontal Projection

In this type of motion the projectile is projected horizontally from a certain height
as shown in Figure 2.2. Its initial velocity along the vertical direction is zero and it
possesses only horizontal velocity at the beginning. As the time progresses, due
to the impact of gravity, it acquires the vertical component of velocity (Figure 2.2).

Equations for the horizontal component of motion

Figure 2.2 The motion of a ball

The projectile has zero acceleration along x direction. Therefore, the initial
projected horizontally. velocity v0x remains constant throughout the motion. We use constant
acceleration motion equations. The final horizontal velocity, v x after a time t is:

vx = v0x (constant)

The horizontal distance traveled by the projectile at a time t is given by the

equation
Discussion
question 2.2 ∆x = v 0x t (2.1)

Assume that an
airplane flying Equations of vertical motion
horizontally drops a
package to a remote
The vertical motion is a constant accelerated motion. We use the kinematic
village. equations of motion for constant accelerated motion. The final vertical velocity
What kind of motion v y after time t is:
is performed by the
package? v y = v oy + g t (2.2)
Draw the trajectory
of the package. Where v0y is the initial vertical velocity.
As the package hits
the ground at the
The initial vertical velocity has no downward component (v0y =0). Therefore
village, where is the
aircraft? v y = gt

From the kinematics equations, the vertical displacement, ∆y has a form:

1
∆y = v 0y t + g t 2 (2.3)
2
But v0y = 0, therefore
2.1 Projectile motion 27

∆y = 21 gt2

Remember: When you use equations to answer questions on vertical motion,

upwards motion is positive (+) and downwards motion is negative (-).

Time of flight Activity 2.1

The time of flight is the time taken by the projectile to hit the ground. Place two tennis
We know that: balls at the edge of a
tabletop. Sharply
∆y = 21 gt2 snap one ball
horizontally off the
Then
table with one hand
while gently tapping
s
2∆y
t= the second ball off
g
with your other
hand. Measure
Range
the height (y) of
The range is the maximum horizontal distance traveled by the projectile. the table and the
Once we find the time of flight t, we can solve for the horizontal displacement horizontal distance
between the table’s
using:
edge and the balls
∆x = v0x t landing location (R).
Determine the
In projectile motion, the time to cover both the x and y displacement is the same. following from your
By substituting the total time flight, we get: measurements:
a) The time of flight
s
2∆y of both tennis
R = v0x
g balls. Explain your
result.

b) The initial
Example 2.1 horizontal velocity

A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30m away as shown in Figure 2.3. The bullet of the balls when

hits the target 2 cm below the aiming point. they leave the

(a) What is the bullet’s time of flight? edge of the table.

(b) What is the initial velocity of the bullet?

Assume gravity (g) =10m/s 2 .

Solution:
The givens in this question are: ∆X =30 m, ∆Y =2 cm =0.02 m, g=10m/s 2 .
(a) The equation for the vertical displacement is:
28 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

1 2
∆y = gt
2

1
-0.02 m = (-10)t2
2

The vertical displacement is in the negative direction, which gives:

t=0.06 s

Since this is the time of impact with the target, the time of flight of the bullet is also
Figure 2.3 A bullet fired the same.
horizontally.
(b) The equation for x−motion is:

∆x =vox t

∆x 30m
vox = =
t 0.06s

The initial velocity of the bullet is 500 m/s.

Example 2.2

A rescue airplane travelling at 360 km/h horizontally dropps a food package from
a height of 300 m when it passes over a car driver stranded in the desert.
Assumming (g)=10m/s 2 .

(a) How long will it take the food package to reach the ground?

(b) How far from the car driver should the food package be dropped ?

Solution:
(a) The package has the same horizontal velocity as the airplane. Therefore,
the initial vertical velocity is zero.
The equation for the vertical displacement is:
1 2
∆y = gt
2
1
-300 m = (-10)t2
2
The vertical displacement is in the negative direction, which gives:

t =7.74 s

(b) The equation for the horizontal displacement is:

2.1 Projectile motion 29

∆x =v0x t

∆x =100 m/s x 7.74 s

∆x =774 m

Activity 2.2

Use this activity to investigate horizontal projection.

Materials

• Ruler

• A cannon ball made from scrunched up aluminum foil.

• Rubber band.

• A tube made from paper or cardboard with diameter larger than the
diameter of the ball.

Procedures:

1. Put the tube near the edge of the table.

2. Use the rubber band to shoot the ball out of the tube.

3. Stretch the rubber band the same amount each time to make sure
the initial velocity is constant.

4. You can increase the stretching of the rubber band to increase the
initial horizontal velocity of the projectile.

5. Measure the height of the table. Use this height to calculate the time
of flight (assume there is no air resistance).

6. Measure the horizontal distance traveled by the canon ball. Use this
distance to calculate the initial velocity of the projectile.

Inclined projectile motion

This is a type of motion in which an object is projected with an initial velocity v0

which makes an angle θ with the horizontal (Figure ??).The initial velocity can be
resolved into two components, vertical and horizontal component. The vertical
component of the velocity changes with time as a result there is acceleration due
30 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

to gravity.

The horizontal component of the velocity is constant throughout the flight; this is
because there is no force acting along the horizontal direction of the projectile as
a result there is no acceleration along x-axis. The analysis of the motion involves
dealing with the two motions.

As shown in Figure 2.4, the projectile has velocity components at different

positions. At the top where it reaches its maximum height the vertical
Discussion component of the velocity becomes zero. After V y becomes zero the projectile
question 2.3 changes its direction and make free fall.
Balls A and B are
kicked at an angle
of 370 and 530 with
the horizontal
respectively, with
the same initial
velocity v0 . Which
ball has:
a) the maximum
horizontal
displacement?
b) the maximum
height?

Figure 2.4 Inclined projectile motion.

Equations of inclined projectile motion

The initial velocity can be expressed as x component and y component:

v0x = v0 cos θ
v0y = v0 sin θ

The horizontal velocity at any time t is:

vx = v0 cos θ (constant)

The vertical velocity at any time t is:

v y = v o si n θ + g t (2.4)
2.1 Projectile motion 31

Displacements of the projectile

There are two different types of displacement of the projectile motion:

Horizontal displacement at any time t:

∆x = v 0 cosθt (2.5)

Vertical displacement at any time t:

1
∆y = v 0 si nθt + g t 2 (2.6)
2

The time to reach the maximum height is:

v y = v0 sinθ + gt

Since v y = 0 at maximum height and g is negative:

v 0 sin θ
t=
g

Time of flight

The time of flight is the total time for which the projectile remains in flight. The
time of flight depends on the initial velocity of the object and the angle of the
projection, θ.
1
∆y = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2
When the point of projection and point of return are on the same horizontal level,
the net vertical displacement of the object is zero, ∆Y =0.
1
0 = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2
Apply factorization, we have:

0 = t(v0 sin θ + 21 gt)

Since t cannot be zero and g is negative,solving for t gives us:

2v 0 sin θ
tt ot al =
g
This last equation does not apply when the projectile lands at a different
elevation from the one at which it was launched.
32 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Horizontal range and maximum height of a Projectile

Let us now consider a special case of projectile motion. Assume a projectile is

launched from the origin at O, as shown in Figure 2.4, and returns to the same
horizontal level. This situation is common in sports, where baseballs, footballs
and golf balls often land at the same level from which they were launched. Two
points in this motion are especially interesting to analyze: the peak point A, which
has Cartesian coordinates (R/2, H), and the point B, which has coordinates (R, 0).
The distance R is called the horizontal range of the projectile, and the distance H
is its maximum height. Let us find R and H mathematically in terms of v0 , θ, and
g.

Range(R)

The range of the projectile is the maximum displacement in the horizontal

direction. There is no acceleration in this direction since gravity only acts
vertically.

∆x = v0 cos θ t

When ∆x is maximum, ∆x=R.

Since the time to cover the range is the total time of flight:

2v 0 sin θ
tt ot al =
g

R = v0 cos θ tt ot al

v 0 2 sin 2θ
R=
g

This equation is valid for launch and impact on a horizontal surface, as shown in
Figure 2.5. We can see in Figure 2.5a the range is directly proportional to the
square of the initial speed v0 and sin2θ. Furthermore, we can see from the
factor sin2θ that the range is maximum at 45◦ .

In Figure 2.5 (a) we can see that the greater the initial velocity, the greater the
range. In Figure (b) the range is maximum at 45◦ . This is true only for conditions
ignoring air resistance. It is interesting that the same range is found for two initial
launch angles that add up to 90◦ . The projectile launched with the smaller angle
has a lower peak than the higher angle, but they both have the same range.
2.1 Projectile motion 33

Figure 2.5 Trajectories of projectiles on leveled ground. (a) The effect of

initial velocity v0 on the range of a projectile with a given initial angle. (b)
The effect of initial angle θ on the range of a projectile with a given initial
speed.

Maximum height (H)

The maximum height of a projectile trajectory occurs when the vertical

component of velocity, v y equals zero. As the projectile moves upwards it goes
against gravity, and therefore the velocity begins to decrease. Eventually the
vertical velocity will reach zero, and the projectile is immediately accelerated
downward under gravity. Thus, once the projectile reaches its maximum height,
it begins to accelerate downward.

1
∆y = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2

v 0 sin θ
The time to cover the maximum height is: t =
g
When ∆y is maximum, ∆y =H

v 0 2 sin2 θ
H=
2g

Discussion question 2.4

1. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to

three times its maximum height. What is the angle of projection?
2. A ball is kicked into the air from the ground at an angle θ with the
horizontal. When the ball reaches its highest point, which statement is
true ? (a) Both the velocity and acceleration of the ball are zero.
34 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

(b) Its velocity is not zero, but its acceleration is zero. (c) Its velocity is
perpendicular to its acceleration. (d) Its acceleration depends on the angle
at which the ball was thrown.
Activity 2.3
3. One ball is thrown horizontally. At the same time, a second ball is
Use this activity to dropped from the same height. Ignoring air resistance and assuming the
investigate inclined
ground is level, which ball hits the ground first? Explain why.
projection.
You need the
materials listed
Relation between range and maximum height
in Activity 2.2.
Procedures: Consider a projectile motion as shown in Figure 2.4. The initial velocity of the
(a) Adjust the tube
projectile is v0 , H is the maximum height and R is its horizontal range. We know
at different
that the maximum height of the projectile H is given by the equation:
angles from the
horizontal.

(b) As before keep

v 0 2 sin2 θ
H=
the stretching of 2g
the rubber band And horizontal range is given by the equation:
constant.

(c) Vary the angle of v 0 2 sin 2θ

projection. R=
g
(d) Measure the Divide the maximum height of the projectile by the horizontal range.
relationship
(In the equation, sin2 θ can be written as sinθsinθ, and sin2θ can be written
between the angle
as 2sinθcosθ).
of projection, H si nθ
range and =
R 4cosθ
maximum height
R t anθ
reached by the H=
4
projectile.

Example 2.3

A football player kicks a ball at angle of 370 with the horizontal. The initial velocity
of the ball is 40 m/s.

a) Find the maximum height reached by the ball.

b) Find the horizontal range of the ball.

2.1 Projectile motion 35

Solution:
In this problem the given quantities are: v0 = 40 m/s, θ = 370 and g=10 m/s2
a) The maximum height reached is:

V0 2 sin2 θ
H=
2g

(40m/s)2 sin 370 sin 370

H=
2x10m/s 2

H=28.8 m

b) The horizontal range is:

V0 2 sin 2θ
R=
g

(40m/s)2 sin 740

R=
10m/s

R=153.8 m

Example 2.4

A ball is kicked from the ground with an initial speed of 25 m/s at an angle of 530
above the horizontal directly toward a wall, as shown in Figure 2.6. The wall is 24
m from the release point of the ball.
(a) How long does the ball take to reach the wall?
(b) How far above the ground level does the ball hit the wall?
(c) What are the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity as it hits the
wall?
(d) What is the resultant velocity with it hits the wall?

Solution:
In this problem the given quantities are:

∆x = 24 m, θ =530 , v0 =25 m/s

(a) The horizontal displacement of the ball is given by the equation

∆x = v0 cosθt
Solving for the time at which ∆x = 24 m:
∆x 24m
t= =
v 0 cosθ (25m/s)x0.6

t = 1.6 s
Thus, the ball reaches the wall 1.6s after being thrown.
36 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

(b) We can answer this question if we can find the y coordinate of the ball at the
time it hits the wall, namely at t = 1.6 s. We need the y equation of motion.
1
∆y = v0 sin θ t + gt 2
2
1
∆y = 25 m/s x0.8 x 1.6 s + x(−10m/s 2 )x(1.6s)2
2
∆y =19.2 m
This tells us that the ball hits the wall at 19.2 m above the ground level.

(c) The x and y components of the ball’s velocity at the time of impact (t=1.6 s)
vx =v0 cosθ
vx = 25 m/s x 0.6
vx =15 m/s
v y =v0 sinθ +gt
Figure 2.6 A ball thrown toward a v y = 25m/s x 0.8 +(−10m/s 2 )x1.6 s
wall. v y =4 m/s

(d) The resultant velocity is the vector sum of the x and y components.
q
v= v x2 + v 2y
p
v= (15m/s)2 + (4m/s)2
v= 15.5 m/s

Activity 2.4:

Use this activity to investigate inclined projection. In this activity you use
the law of conservation of mechanical energy that you learned in grade 11.
Materials required

• Ruler

• V-shaped track with a shorter launch track.

• Small ball (e.g. tennis ball).

• protractor

Procedures:

1. Adjust the shorter end of the track to the edge of the surface of a table.

2. Use a short segment of the track at an angle; say 45 degrees with respect
to the surface of a table.
2.1 Projectile motion 37

3. Measure the height of the longer end of the track where the ball is to be
released and also measure the height of the shorter end where the ball is
going to leave the surface of the table.

4. Put the ball in motion down the track.

5. Calculate the speed of the ball on the track just as it leaves the level of
1
the surface of the table using conservation of energy (mgh = mv2 ).
2
6. Calculate the time it takes to fall back to the surface of the table
2V0 sin θ
t= .
g

V0 2 sin 2θ
7. Predict where the ball will land using, x= .
g
8. Put a cup there to catch the ball. Put the ball in motion down the track
again.

9. Change the velocity of the ball by changing the inclined angle of the
longer arm of the track (this is to reduce the height from which the ball is
released).

Discussion question 2.5

1. As a projectile moves in its parabolic path, is there any point along the
path where the velocity and acceleration vectors are (a) perpendicular to
each other (at right angles)? (b) parallel to each other?

2. Which of the following statements about projectile motion are true?

(ignoring air resistance).

(a) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent.

(b) The force on the projectile is constant throughout the flight.
(c) The acceleration of the projectile is constant throughout the flight.
(d) The path depends upon the initial velocity, but not upon the mass
of the projectile.
(e) All of the above statements are true.

3. A projectile is fired on Earth with some initial velocity. Another projectile

38 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

is fired from the surface of the Moon with the same initial velocity. If air
resistance is ignored, which projectile has the greater range? Why? Which
reaches the greater height? Why? (Note that the free-fall acceleration on
the Moon is about 1.6 m/s2 ).

Exercise 2.1
Use g=10m/s 2 where necessary.

1. At which position in its flight will a ball experience its minimum speed
during inclined projection? A. at the beginning B. at maximum height C.
at the end D. the same speed at all positions

2. A gun with a muzzle velocity of 500 m/s shoots a bullet at a target 50 m

away. To hit the target the gun should be aimed: A.directly towards the
target along the line joining the gun and target. B.10 cm high above the
target. C. 5 cm high above the target. D. 5cm below the target.

3. A ball is thrown horizontally with a velocity of 20m/s from a top of

building 90 m high. Calculate:
a) the time taken to reach the ground.
b) the horizontal displacement.
c) The resultant velocity with which it strikes the ground.

4. A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0o above the horizontal
and at a speed of 11.0 m/s.
a) How far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
b) What is the maximum height reached?

5. An object projected at an angle θ with velocity 30 m/s reaches its

maximum height in 1.5 s. Calculate its range.
2.2 Rotational Motion 39

2.2 Rotational Motion

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the motion of a rigid object around a fixed axis.

• Derive equations of motion with constant angular acceleration.

• Apply equations to solve problems related to rotational motion.

Rotational motion is the motion of an object in a circle around a fixed axis. For
example, the rotation of Earth around its axis, the rotation of the flywheel of a
sewing machine, rotation of a ceiling fan, rotation of wheels of a car, and so on.
Figure 2.7 Rotation of a disc of
mass M around a fixed axis.
The disc in Figure 2.7 is performing rotational motion because all of its particles
are rotating around a fixed axis, called its axis of rotation. An object can rotate
around a fixed point in two directions: a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction
(also known as counterclockwise).

Rigid body is n object with a perfectly defined and unchanging shape. NO matter
the size of the force , the distance between any two particles within the object
remains constant.

Angular displacement and angular velocity

Angular displacement(∆θ)

Figure 2.8 is a view from above of a rotating compact disc, or CD . The disc rotates
Figure 2.8 A CD rotating about a
around a fixed axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure, passing through the
fixed axis through O perpendicular
center of the disc at O. One particle of the disc P, is kept at a fixed distance r from to the plane of the figure.
the origin and rotates around O in a circle of radius r.

Because the disc is a rigid object, as the particle moves through an angle θ from
the reference line, every other particle on the object rotates through the same
angle . Therefore, we can associate the angle θ with the entire rigid object as well
as with an individual particle. Figure 2.9 A particle P on a
rotating disc moves from A to B
along the arc of a circle.
As the particle travels from position A to position B in a time interval ∆t ,as shown
in Figure 2.9, the line joining the particle to the center sweeps out an angle ∆θ .
This quantity ∆θ is defined as the angular displacement of the rigid object.
40 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

∆θ = θ f − θ 0 (2.7)

Because rotational motion involves studying circular paths, rather than using
meters to describe the angular displacement of an object, physicists use radians
or degrees. A radian is convenient because it naturally expresses angles in terms
of π since one complete turn of a circle (360 degrees) equals 2π radians.

1revolution = 2πrad = 3600

Angular velocity(ω)

How fast an object is rotating can be calculated using the concept of angular
velocity. If the disc spins rapidly, the angular displacement can occur in a short
time interval. If it rotates slowly, the angular displacement occurs in a longer
time interval. The rate at which angular displacement occurs can vary. These
different rotation rates can be quantified by defining the average angular velocity
ωav (Greek letter omega) as the ratio of the angular displacement of a disc to the
time interval ∆t during which the displacement occurs.

θ f − θ0 ∆θ
ωav = = (2.8)
t f − t0 ∆t

Angular velocity has units of radians per second (rad/s).

Angular acceleration

If the angular velocity of an object changes from ω0 to ω f in the time interval

∆t, the object has an angular acceleration. The angular acceleration α (Greek
letter alpha) of a rotating rigid object is defined as the ratio of the change in the
angular speed to the time interval ∆t during which the change in the angular
speed occurs:

ω f − ω0 ∆ω
α= = (2.9)
t f − t0 ∆t

Angular acceleration has units of radians per second squared (rad/s2 ).

2.2 Rotational Motion 41

Direction of angular velocity and angular acceleration

Angular velocity and angular accelerations can be treated as a vectors, so we Discussion

must include magnitude and direction. For rotation around a fixed axis, the question 2.6
direction of rotational motion is specified in relation to the direction along the
In small group,
axis of rotation. Therefore, the directions of ω and α are along this axis. discuss how to find
To illustrate this convention, it is convenient to use the right-hand rule the direction of
demonstrated in Figure 2.10. When the four fingers of the right hand are wrapped angular velocity
in the direction of rotation, the extended right thumb points in the direction of ω. and angular

The direction of α follows from its definition α = ∆ω /∆t. It is in the same acceleration.

direction as ω if the angular speed is increasing in time, and it is antiparallel

(parallel but moving in the opposite direction) to ω if the angular speed is
decreasing in time.

Figure 2.10 The right-hand rule for determining the direction of the angular
velocity vector.

Equation of motion for constant angular acceleration

Consider a rigid object such as the CD rotating around a fixed axis with a constant
angular acceleration. A set of kinematic equations exist for rotational motion just
as they do for translational motion. They have a similar form and are derived in a
similar fashion.

ωf − ω0
α= (constant angular acceleration) (2.10)
tf − t0
Then, by rearranging, we get an equation
42 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

ω f = ωo + α∆t (2.11)

where ωo is the angular speed of the rigid object at time t = 0. This equation allows
us to find the angular speed ω f of the object at any later time t.
If the angular acceleration is constant, the average angular velocity is obtained
by:
ωo + ω f
ωav =
2

∆θ
ωav =
∆t
Combining these two equations, you we get:

∆θ ωo + ω f
=
∆t 2

When we substitute ω f = ωo + α∆t

1
∆θ = ωo ∆t + α∆t 2 (2.12)
2
This equation allows us to find the angular displacement of the object at any later
time t.
ωo + ω f ω f − ωo
µ ¶
We know that: ∆θ = ∆t and ∆t =
2 α
Combining these two equations, we get:
ωo + ω f ω f − ωo
µ ¶µ ¶
∆θ =
2 α

ω2f = ω20 + 2α∆θ (2.13)

This equation allows us to find the angular speed ω f of the rigid object for any
value of its angular position ∆θ.

Example 2.5

What is the average angular velocity of a rotating wheel if its angular speed
changes from 30 rad/s to 50 rad/s in 2 s?
2.2 Rotational Motion 43

Solution:
In this problem the given quantities are: ωi =30 rad/sec, ω f = 50 rad/s and t=2 s

ω f − ω0
αav =
∆t

50r ad /s − 30r ad /s
αav =
2s

αav = 10 r ad /s 2

Example 2.6

A rotating wheel has an initial angular velocity of 10 rad/s and accelerates at

2.5 rad/s2 .

(a) How many revolutions are completed in 30 s?

(b) What is angular speed of the wheel at t =20 s?

Solution:
The given quantities are ωo = 10 rad/s, α = 2.5 rad/s2 , t=30 s

(a) ∆θ = ωo ∆t + 21 α∆t 2
Substitute the known values to find the angular displacement.
1
∆θ=10rad/sx30s + x2.5r ad /s 2 x900s 2
2
∆θ = 300 rad + 1125 rad
∆θ = 1425 rad
Convert rad in to revolution
1rev = 2π rad µ
1r ev
¶
∆θ = 1425 rad
2πr ad
∆θ = 226.9 rev
(b) The final speed at t = 20 s is asked ω f = ωo + α∆t
ω f = 10 rad/s + 2.5 rad/s2 x20 s
ω f = 60 rad/s

Example 2.7

A car’s wheel has an initial angular velocity of 6 rad/s and a constant angular
acceleration of 3 rad/s2 . Calculate the angular velocity after 100 rev ?
44 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Solution:
The given quantities are: ωo = 6 rad/s, α = 3 rad/s2 , ∆θ = 100 rev
First convert rev to rad.

1rev = 2πrad
³ ´
2πr ad
∆θ = 100 rev 1r ev

∆θ = 628 rad

ω2f = ω20 + 2α∆θ

ω2f =(6r ad /s)2 + 2x(3r ad /s 2 )2 x628r ad

ω f = 61.68 rad/s

Kinematic equations for rotational and linear motion

The kinematics for rotational motion is completely analogous to linear (or

translational) kinematics. Many of the equations for the mechanics of rotating
objects are similar to the motion equations for linear motion. When solving
problems involving rotational motion, we use variables that are similar to linear
variables (distance, velocity and acceleration) but take into account the curvature
or rotation of the motion. We defined:

• the angular rotation ∆θ, which is the angular equivalence of distance, ∆s;

• the angular velocity ω, which is the angular equivalence of linear velocity v;

• the angular acceleration α, which is the angular equivalence of linear

acceleration, a.

Example 2.8

A wheel has a radius of 20 cm and accelerates from rest to 15 rev/s in 30 s. What is

the magnitude of the tangential acceleration of a point at the tip of the wheel.

Solution:
The angular acceleration is:
ω f − ωo 15r ev/s − 0
α= =
∆t 30s

α =0.5 r ev/s 2
2.2 Rotational Motion 45

Table 2.1 shows the analogy between linear and angular motion equations.

Linear motion with Angular motion with

constant acceleration constant angular
acceleration
v f = v0 + a∆t ω f = ωo + α∆t
v f + v0 ω f + ω0
Vav = ωav =
µ 2 2 ¶
v f + v0 ω f + ω0
¶ µ
∆s = ∆t ∆θ = ∆t
2 2
1 1
∆s = v0 t + a∆t 2 ∆θ = ωo ∆t + α∆t 2
2 2
v f 2 = v0 2 + 2a∆s ω f 2 = ω20 + 2α∆θ

Since 1rev = 2π rad α =3.14 r ad /s 2 Therefore, the tangential acceleration is

at = αr

at = 3.14 rad/s2 x 0.2 m

at = 0.6 m/s2

Example 2.9

A car accelerates from 20 m/s to 24 m/s in 5 s. Calculate the angular acceleration

of the wheels of the car if the radius of a wheel is 40 cm.

Solution:
First, we calculate the tangential acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel.

The equation to use is:

v f − v o 24m/ sec −20m/s
at = =
∆t 5s
a t = 0.8 m/s 2

Then the angular acceleration of the wheels is:

at
α=
r
0.8m/s 2
α=
0.4m
α = 2 r ad /s 2
46 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Example 2.10

A boy rides a bicycle for 5 minutes. The wheel with radius of 30 cm completes
2000 rev during this time. Calculate.

(a) the average angular velocity of the wheel.

(b) the linear distance traveled by the bicycle in 5 minutes.

Solution:
r = 30 cm = 0.3 m, ∆θ = 2000 rev

∆t = 5 min = 5×60 = 3000 s

∆θ 2000r ev
(a) ωav = = = 6.67 rev/s
∆t 3000s
1rev=2π rad
ωav = 41.9 rad/s

(b) Convert 2000 rev into rad

∆θ = 12560 rad
Then ∆s = r∆θ
∆s = 0.3 m × 12560 rad
∆s = 3768 m

Relationship between angular motion and translational motion

quantities

In this section, we derive some useful relationships between the angular

quantities θ, ω and α of a rotating rigid object and the corresponding linear
quantities s, v, and a of a point,p in the object. To do so, we must keep in mind
that when a rigid object rotates around a fixed axis as in Figure 2.11, every
particle of the object moves in a circle whose center is on the axis of rotation.
As the particle moves along the circle through an angular displacement of θ, it
moves through an arc length s.
The arc length s is related to the angle θ through the equation:

s =rθ (2.14)

Note that in this equation the angular displacement must be expressed in rad
(not degrees or revolutions).
2.2 Rotational Motion 47

Because point p, in the figure moves in a circle, the translational velocity vector
→
−
v is always tangent to the circular path, and hence is called tangential velocity.

The magnitude of the tangential velocity of the point P is by definition the

tangential speed v= ∆s/∆t, where s is the distance traveled by this point
measured along the circular path. Recalling that ∆s= r∆θ and noting that r is
constant, we get:

∆s ∆θ
v= =r (2.15)
∆t ∆t Figure 2.11 As a rigid object
∆θ rotates around the fixed axis (the
Because ω = , it follows that: z axis) through O, the point P has
∆t a tangential velocity →
−
v that is
v = ωr (2.16)
always a tangent to the circular
path of radius.
Therefore, the tangential speed of a point on a rotating rigid object equals the
radius multiplied by the angular speed. Although every point on the rigid object
has the same angular speed, not every point has the same tangential speed
because r is not the same for all points on the object. The tangential speed of a
point on the rotating object increases as it moves outward from the center of
rotation.

We can relate the angular acceleration of the rotating rigid object to the tangential
acceleration of the point P by taking the rate of change v.

∆v ∆ω
a= =r (2.17)
∆t ∆t
∆ω
Because α = , it follows that
∆t
a =rα (2.18)

That is, the tangential component of the translational acceleration of a point on a

rotating rigid object equals the radius multiplied by the angular acceleration.

Example 2.11

A rope is wrapped many times around a pulley of radius 50 cm as shown in Figure

2.12. How many revolutions of the pulley are required to raise a bucket to a height
of 20 m?

Solution: Figure 2.12 A rope wrapped a

∆s around a pulley of radius 50 cm.
∆θ =
r
48 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

When the bucket is raised to 20 m the same length of rope is wrapped around the
pulley.

Thus ∆s=20 m
20
∆θ =
0.5
∆θ=40 rad

1 rev=2π rad

∆θ=6.34 rev

Example 2.12

The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel is 18 rad/s. If the radius of the wheel is
40 cm, what is the speed of the bicycle in m/s?

Solution:

r = 40 cm=0.4 m

ω=18 rad/s

The linear speed of the bicycle is

v = ωr

∆s = 0.4 m x 18 rad/s

v=7.2 m/s

Example 2.13

Consider two particles, A and B, on a flat rotating disk as shown in Figure 2.13.
Particle A is 20cm and particle B is 40cm from the center. The disc starts from rest
and its angular speed increases to 20rad/s in 4s.

(a) What is the average angular and linear acceleration for particle B?

(b) What is the average angular and linear acceleration for particle A?

Solution:
Figure 2.13 Particle A and B on ω f − ωo
the rotating disc are at different (a) αav =
∆t
radius.
(20 − 0)r ad /s
αav =
4s
2.2 Rotational Motion 49

αav = 5r ad /s 2
a=αr
a= (5 rad/s2 )(0.4 m)
a= 2 m/s2

(b) The angular acceleration is the same for all particles about the axis of rotation
but the linear accleration depends on r.
a=αr
a= (5 rad/s2 )(0.2 m)
a= 1 m/s2

Discussion question 2.7

1. What is the angular speed of the second hand of a clock? What is the
direction of →
−
ω as you view a clock hanging vertically?

2. A wheel rotates counterclockwise in the xy plane. What is the direction of

→
−
ω ? What is the direction of →
−
α if the angular velocity is decreasing in time?

3. When a wheel of radius R rotates about a fixed axis, do all points on the
wheel have (a) the same angular speed? and (b) the same linear speed?

Exercise 2.2

1. When a wheel of radius R rotates about a fixed axis, all points on the
wheel have the same angular speed. True or False.

2. Which of the following can not be a unit for angular displacement ? A.

deg B. rad . rev D. rpm

3. A rope is wrapped many times around a pulley of radius 20 cm. What is

the average angular velocity of the pulley if it lifts a bucket to 10 m in 5 s?

4. A particle moves in a circle 1.50 m in radius. Through what angle in

radians does it rotate if it moves through an arc length of 2.50 m? What is
this angle in degrees?

5. A wheel is under a constant angular deceleration of 5r ad /s 2 . Its initial

speed is 3 rad/s. What angular distance will it travel just before coming
50 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

to rest?

6. A wheel initially turning at 200 rpm uniformly increases its speed to 600
rpm in 8s. Calculate:
(a) the angular acceleration of the wheel in r ad /s 2 . (b) the number of
revolutions turned by the wheel during the 8 s interval.

2.3 Rotational Dynamics

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define the physical concept of torque in terms of force and distance from axis
of rotation.

• Define the physical concept of moment of inertia in terms of point mass and
distance from the axis of rotation.

• Express torque in terms of moment of inertia and angular acceleration.

• Solve problems involving torque and rotational kinematics.

Having developed the kinematics of rotational motion, we now turn to the

dynamics of rotational motion. Just as force played a big role in linear dynamics,
we have a torque in rotational dynamics. We begin by defining this quantity and
showing how it acts on objects in rotational motion. Next, we relate torque to our
study of kinematics through an equation very similar to Newton’s second law.

Torque

Torque is the rotational effect of force. Torque is what causes an object to acquire
angular acceleration. If F is the force acting on an object and r is the distance from
the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force, as shown in Figure 2.14,
the magnitude of the torque is given by:

Figure 2.14 Counterclockwise

rotation by F around the pivot τ = r F si nθ (2.19)
point.
where θ is the angle between r and F when they are drawn from the same origin.
Torque is a vector quantity, meaning it has both a direction and a magnitude.
Its SI unit is Nm. The direction of the torque is along the axis of rotation. It is
2.3 Rotational Dynamics 51

determined by a right-hand-rule: when you curl the fingers of your right hand in
the direction of the rotation, your thumb points in the direction of the torque.

Example 2.14

The object in Figure 2.15 is pivoted at O. Three forces act on it in the directions
shown: F 1 = 10 N at 3.0 m from O; F 2 = 16 N at 4.0 m from O; and F 3 = 19 N at 8.0 m
from O. What is the net torque about O?

Solution:
F 2 andF 3 give a torque in the counterclockwise direction (positive, usually) and F 1
gives a torque in the clockwise direction (negative torque).

τ1 = r 1 F 1 si nθ
τ1 = 3mx10N xsi n(120)0
τ1 = −25.9N m

τ2 = r 2 F 2 si nθ
τ2 = 4mx16N xsi n(150)0
τ2 = 32N m Figure 2.15 Three forces acting on
an object pivoted at O.

τ3 = r 3 F 3 si nθ
τ3 = 8mx19N xsi n(45)0
τ2 = 107.4N m
τnet = τ1 + τ2 + τ3
τnet = −25.9N m + 32N m + 107.4N m
τnet = 113.5N m (counterclockwise direction)

Moment of inertia (I)

The moment of inertia of an object is the quantitative measure of rotational

inertia, just as mass is the quantitative measure of linear inertia inertia in
translational motion. The greater the moment of inertia of a rigid object or Figure 2.16 Point mass rotating
system of particles, the greater is its resistance to change in angular velocity about O
about a fixed axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia depends on the mass and axis of rotation of the body.The
moment of inertia is given the symbol I. For a single point mass, as shown in
52 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Figure 2.16, rotating at radius r from the axis of rotation the moment of inertia is:

I = mr 2 (2.20)

From the formula, the SI unit of moment of inertia is kg m 2 . Moment of inertia is

a scalar quantity.
The moment of inertia for more than one particle around a fixed axis is:

I = m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + m 3 r 32 ...

Example 2.15

Three particles are connected by rigid rods of negligible mass lying along the y-axis
as shown in Figure 2.17. If the system rotates about the x-axis with angular speed
of 2 rad/s, find the moment of inertia about the x-axis.

Solution:

I = m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + m 3 r 32
I = 4kg (3m)2 + 2kg (2m)2 + 3kg (4m)2
I = 164 kg m 2

Figure 2.17 Three particles

rotating around the x-axis. Torque and angular acceleration

When a number of individual forces act on a rotating object, we can calculate the
net torque:

τnet = τ1 + τ2 + τ3 ...

We can relate the net torque to angular acceleration α, by analogy with Newton’s
second law of motion (F = ma). We replace m by I and a by α.

τ = Iα (2.21)

The angular acceleration of a rotating object is proportional to the net torque on

the object.

Example 2.16
2.3 Rotational Dynamics 53

When a torque of 36 Nm is applied to a wheel, the wheel acquires an angular

acceleration of 24r ad /s 2 . Find the rotational inertia of the wheel.

Solution:

τ = Iα
36N m
I=
24r ad /s 2
I=1.5 kg m 2

Example 2.17

A motor capable of producing a constant torque 100 Nm and a maximum rotation

speed of 150 rad/s is connected to a flywheel with rotational inertia 0.1 kgm2 .

(a) What angular acceleration will the flywheel experience as the motor is
switched on?

(b) How long will the flywheel take to reach the maximum speed if starting from
rest?

Solution:
(a) The angular acceleration is:
τ
α=
I
100N m
α=
0.1kg m 2
α = 1000 r ad /s 2
(b) The time to reach the maximum speed is:
ω f = ωo + α∆t

ω f − ωo 150r ad /s − 0
t= =
α 1000r ad /s 2

t=0.15 s
54 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Exercise 2.3

1. A force of 400 N is applied to a beam at a distance of 5 m from the

pivot point, as shown in Figure 2.18. Calculate the magnitude of the
torque which turns the bar around pivot.

2. Three point masses, each of mass m, are placed at the corners

of an equilateral triangle of side L. Find the moment of inertia
of the system about an axis passing through one of the corners
perpendicular to the plane of the triangle.

Figure 2.18 Torque on a beam by 3. A disc with moment of inertia 2 kgm2 changes its angular speed from
400 N force.
3 rad/s to 8rad/s by a net torque of 50 Nm.How long will the disc
take to change its angular speed?

2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the motion of the planets around the Sun.

• State Kepler’s three laws.

• Apply equations to solve problems related to orbital motion.

The planets orbit the Sun. They maintain their respective distances from the
Sun. They do not cross each other as they revolve around the Sun. Kepler’s laws
describe how planetary bodies orbit around the Sun.

Kepler’s laws
Figure 2.19 Earth with its Moon
revolving around the Sun. Humans have observed the movements of the planets, stars, and other celestial
objects for thousands of years. In early history, these observations led scientists
to regard Earth as the center of the Universe. This geocentric model was
elaborated and formalized by the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy
(c.100–c.170) in the second century and was accepted for the next 1400 years.

In 1543, Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) suggested that

Earth and the other planets revolved in circular orbits around the Sun (the
2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws 55

heliocentric model). Discussion

question 2.8
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) wanted to determine how the
In small group
universe was constructed and pursued a project to determine the positions of discuss the
both stars and planets. His observations of the planets and stars visible from following questions.
Earth were carried out using only a large sextant and a compass. (The telescope What is the shape of
had not yet been invented.) an orbit?
What’s in the middle
of the orbit?
German astronomer Johannes Kepler was Brahe’s assistant for a short while
What is the
before Brahe’s death, where upon he acquired his mentor’s astronomical data.
difference between
Kepler spent 16 years trying to deduce a mathematical model for the motion of circle and ellipse?
the planets. Such data are difficult to sort out because the moving planets are
observed from a moving Earth. After many lengthy calculations, Kepler found
that Brahe’s data on the revolution of Mars around the Sun led to a successful
model. Kepler’s complete analysis of planetary motion is summarized in three
statements known as Kepler’s laws.

Kepler’s first law

Discussion
Kepler’s first law is sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses. It states that the question 2.9
orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse (near circular, oval) with the Sun at
Think of the planets
one focus (Figure 2.20a).
orbiting the Sun.
Do all the planets
The planet follows the ellipse in its orbit, meaning that the planet-to-Sun distance move at the same
is constantly changing as the planet goes around its orbit. An ellipse is a closed speed? At which
curve such that the sum of the distances from a point on the curve (r1 + r2 ) to the position are the

two foci, f 1 and f 2 is constant, as shown in Figure 2.20b. planets’ orbital

speeds greatest?
Explain why.

Figure 2.20 (a) The motion of a planet about the Sun. (b) Any distance
drawn from f 1 and f 2 to a point on the curve add up to a constant.
56 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Kepler’s second law

Kepler’s second law is sometimes referred to as the law of equal areas. It

describes the speed at which any given planet will move while orbiting the Sun.
Basically, it states that planets do not move with constant speed along their orbits.
Instead, their speed varies so that the line joining the centers of the Sun and the
planet sweeps out equal area in equal times. The point at which a planet is
nearest the Sun is called perihelion. The point of greatest separation is aphelion.
Figure 2.21 The shaded regions Hence Kepler’s second Law, a planet is moving fastest when it is at perihelion and
shown have equal areas and slowest at aphelion.
represent the same time interval.

Kepler’s second law states that each planet moves so that an imaginary line
drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times interval.

Consider Figure 2.21. The time it takes a planet to move from position A to B,
sweeping out area A1 ,is exactly the time taken to move from position C to D,
Discussion sweeping area A2 and to move from E to F, sweeping out area A3 . These areas are
question 2.10 the same: A1 =A2 =A3
In small groups
discuss the Comparing the areas in the Figure 2.21 and the distance traveled along the ellipse
following questions. in each case, we can see that in order for the areas to be equal, the planet must
What is the period speed up as it gets closer to the Sun and slow down as it moves away.
of Earth?
What is meant by
Kepler’s Third law
the orbital period of
a planet? Kepler’s third law compares the orbital period and the average radius of orbit of a
Which planet has
planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler’s first and second laws that
the shortest orbital
describe the motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a
period: Earth or
Pluto? comparison between the motion characteristics of different planets. The period
Is there a systematic (T ) of a planet is the time for one complete revolution around the Sun.
relationship
between period Kepler’s third law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases
and radius for the rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Thus we find that Mercury, the innermost
planets?
planet, takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun. Earth takes 365 days, while Saturn
requires 10,759 days to do the same.
2.4 Planetary motion and Kepler’s laws 57

T2
Kepler’s third law states that the ratio , where T is the time period and R is the
R3
average distance from the sun is the same for all planets:

T2
=K (2.22)
R3
K is a proportionality constant which is nearly the same for all planets.
Kepler’s third law equation is valid for both circular and elliptical orbits. Notice
that the constant of proportionality is independent of the mass of the planet.
Therefore, the equation is valid for any planet.

As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance from Sun
(orbital radius) for Earth and Mars as given in table 2.2.
Table 2.2 The orbital period and average distance from the Sun for Earth and
Mars.
Period(s) Average T2 /R3 (2 /m3 )
distance (m)
7
Earth 3.156 x 10 1.4957 x 1011 2.977 x 10−19
Mars 5.93 x 107 2.278 x 1011 2.975 x 10−19

Observe that the T 2 /R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for Mars. In fact, the
T2 /R3 ratio is the same for the other planets.

Example 2.18

Earth has an orbital period of 365 days and its mean distance from the Sun is
1.495×108 km. The planet Pluto’s mean distance from the Sun is 5.896×109 km.
Using Kepler’s third law, calculate Pluto’s orbital period in Earth days?

Solution:
The given quantities are: TE = 365 d a y a, r E = 1.495 × 108 km , r P = 5.896 ×
109 km
We use Kepler’s third law to calculate Pluto’s orbital period.

T2E T2p
=
R3E R3p

365days T2p
3
= 3
(1.495x108 km) (5.896x109 km)

To solve for Tp , we cross-multiply and take the square root.

58 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

Thus : TP = 9.0 × 1014 days

Example 2.19

If Saturn is on average 9 times farther from the Sun than Earth is, what is this
distance in Earth years?

Solution:
rS = 9rE , TE = 1year
TS =?
T2E T2S
=
R3E R3S

1Year T2S
=
R3E (9R E )3
TS = 27 years

Exercise 2.4

1. According to Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, a satellite increases

its speed as it approaches the Sun and decreases its speed as it moves
away from the Sun. True or False.

2. Given that the Moon orbits Earth every 27.3 days and that it is an
average distance of 3.84×108 m from the center of Earth, calculate
the period of an artificial satellite orbiting at an average altitude of
1,500 km above Earth’s surface. (Radius of Earth is 6380 km.)

3. How would the period of an object in a circular orbit change if the

radius of the orbit doubled?

A. The period would increase by a factor of 2.

B. The period would decrease by a factor of 4.

p
C. The period would increase by a factor of 2 2.
p
D. The period would decrease by a factor of 2 2.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gravity-and-orbits/latest/
gravity-and-orbits_en.html
2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 59

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain what determines the strength of gravity.
Brainstorming
• Describe how Newton’s law of universal gravitation extends our question 2.2
understanding of Kepler’s laws.
Imagin the Sun’s
• Apply equations to solve problems related to Newton’s law of universal gravity is suddenly
switched off. What
gravitation.
will happen to the
planets?
Planets orbit the Sun. If we look more closely at the Solar System, we see almost
unimaginable numbers of stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects orbiting one
another and interacting through gravity. All these motions are governed by
gravitational force.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) pointed out that heavy and light objects fall toward
Earth at the same rate (so long as air resistance is the same for each). But it took
Sir Isaac Newton (in 1666) to realize that this force of attraction between masses
is universal.
Discussion
Question 2.11
Newton proved that the force that causes, for example, an apple to fall toward the
ground is the same force that causes the Moon to fall around, or orbit, Earth. This What keeps the
planets in orbit?
universal force also acts between the Earth and the Sun, or any other star and its
Explain your
satellites. Each attracts the other.
answer.

Newton defined this attraction mathematically. The force of attraction between

two masses is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

Gm 1 m 2
Fg = (2.23)
r2
where G is a constant, called the universal gravitational constant, m1 is the first
mass, m2 is the second mass, and r is the distance between the two masses. G is a
Figure 2.22 Gravitational
universal constant, meaning that it is thought to be the same everywhere in the
attraction is along a line joining
Universe. The value G in SI units is G = 6.67x10−11 Nm2 /kg2 . the centers of mass of the two
bodies.
60 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

The gravitational force is always attractive, and it depends only on the masses
involved and the distance between them. The force is directed along the line
joining the two masses, as shown in Figure 2.22. The magnitude of the force on
each body is the same but the direction is opposite, consistent with Newton’s
third law, action-reaction (F12 = -F21 .)

Example 2.20

A 10 kg mass and a 100 kg mass are 1 meter apart. What is the force of attraction
between them?

Solution:
G is given above, m1 = 10 kg, and m2 = 100 kg. Putting these values into Newton’s
gravitational force
Gm 1 m 2
Fg =
r2
³ ´
6.673x10−11 N m 2
2 x10kg x100kg
kg
Fg =
(1m)2

Fg = 6.67 x 10−8 N

Example 2.21

If a person has a mass of 60.0 kg, what would be the force of gravitational
attraction on him at Earth’s surface?

Solution:
G is given above, Earth’s mass ME is 5.97 × 1024 kg, and the radius rE of Earth is
6.38 × 106 m. Putting these values into Newton’s gravitational law:

G ME m
Fg =
rE 2

(6.673x10−11 N m 2 /kg 2 )x5.97x1024 kg x60kg

Fg = 2
(6.38x106 m)
F g = 584N

We can check this result with the relationship: Fg = mg

Fg = 60 kgx9.8 m/s2
Fg = 588 N
2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 61

You may remember that g, the acceleration due to gravity, is another important Discussion
constant related to gravity. By substituting g for a in the equation for Newton’s question 2.12
second law of motion (F = ma) we get: Fg = mg.
By what factor
Combining this with the equation for universal gravitation force gives would a person’s
weight at the surface
G ME m
mg = (2.24) of Earth change
rE 2
if Earth had its
Cancelling the mass m on both sides of the equation and filling in the values for present mass but
the gravitational constant, mass and radius of the Earth, gives the value of g on eight times its
the surface of the earth. which may look familiar. present volume?
By what factor
−11 2 2 24
(6.673x10 N m /kg )x5.97x10 kg would a person’s
g= 2
= 9.8 m/s 2 (2.25)
6 weight at the surface
(6.38x10 m)
of Earth change
Centripetal Force if Earth had its
present size but only
It is possible to derive Kepler’s third law from Newton’s law of universal gravitation. one-third its present
A force that pulls an object towards the centre of a circle is called centripetal force mass?
as shown in Figure 2.23. The source for the centripetal force in the Solar System
is the gravitational force of the Sun. Without the centripetal force from the Sun
the planets would travel in a straight line. The velocity of the planets is high
enough so that they continuously accelerate towards the Sun without ever leaving
their orbits. It is for this reason that the planets do not fall into the sun from its
strong gravitational force of attraction. Applying Newton’s second law of motion
to circular motion gives an expression for centripetal force.

mv 2
Fc = (2.26)
r
where v is the tangential speed and r is the radius of the orbit and m is mass of
the planet.
The gravitational attraction of the Sun provides the centripetal force needed to
keep planets in orbit around the Sun. Earth’s gravity keeps the Moon and all types
Figure 2.23 Centripetal force
of satellite in orbit around Earth. Because the gravitational force provides the
constantly pulls the object towards
centripetal acceleration of the planet, it follows that: the center of the circle.

mp v 2 G Ms mp
= (2.27)
r r2

Mp is mass of the planet, Ms is mass of the sun (Ms ≈1.989x1030 kg) and v is the
62 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

speed of the plane about the sun.

G Ms
v2 = (2.28)
r

The orbital speed of the planet is

2πr
v= (2.29)
T

where T is the period of the planet about the Sun.

Thus
(2πr )2 G M s
= (2.30)
T2 r
T2 4π2
= = 2.97x10−19
r 3 G Ms
This equation is Kepler’s third law: the square of the period is proportional to the
cube of the distance of the planet from the Sun. The proportionality constant K
takes the value:
4π2
K= ≈ 2.97x10−19
G Ms
The above equation is therefore valid for any planet. If we were to consider the
orbit of a satellite such as the Moon about the Earth, the constant would have a
4π2
different value, with the Sun’s mass replaced by the Earth’s mass; that is, .
G ME

Exercise 2.5

1. The gravitational force between a 60 kg man and Earth is not equal

because Earth is more massive than the man therefore, it exerts the
greatest force. True or False.

2. Two objects are attracted to each other by a gravitational force F.

If the distance between the objects is doubled, what is the new
gravitational force between the objects in terms of F ?
A. 4 F B. 1/4F C. 16F D. 1/16F

3. Newton’s law of gravitation applies to:

A. Small bodies only. B. Plants only. C. All bodies irrespective of
their size. D. Moon and satellites only

4. Suppose the gravitational force between two spheres is 30 N. If the

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 63

magnitude of each mass doubles, what is the force between the

masses?

5. Calculate the mass of the Sun, noting that the period of Earth’s orbit
around the Sun is 3.156 x 107 s and its distance from the Sun is 1.496
x 1011 m.

6. A hypothetical planet has a mass of four times that of the Earth and
radius of twice that of the Earth? What is the acceleration due to
gravity on the planet in terms of the acceleration on Earth?

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gravity-force-lab/latest/
gravity-force-lab_en.html

Unit summary

• Projectile refers to an object that is in flight with acceleration due to

gravity after being thrown or projected.

• A football kicked in a game, a bullet fired from a gun, the flight of a golf
ball, a jet of water escaping a hose are a few common examples of
projectile motion

• The horizontal component of the velocity is constant throughout the

projectile motion.

• The vertical motion has a constant acceleration which is the accleration

due to gravity.

• In projectile motion the time to cover both the horizontal and vertical
displacement is the same.

• When the angle of projection is measured with the horizontal axis: given
by:

– The vertical displacement is:

1
∆ y = v 0 sin θ t + 2 g t2

– The horizontal displacement is:

∆ x=v 0 cosθt
64 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

– The vertical velocity is:

v y =v 0 sinθ+gt

– The horizontal velocity is:

v x =v 0 cosθ

• When a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis, the angular position,
angular speed, and angular acceleration are related to the
translational position, translational speed, and translational
acceleration through the relationships

s = rθ , v = rω, a= rα

• For a body rotating around a fixed axis, every particle on the body has
the same rotational quantities ∆θ, ω, and α. That is ∆θ, ω, and α
describe the rotational motion of the entire body.

• ω and α are vector quantities.

• The direction of →
−
ω is given by the right-hand-rule (RHR) and the
→
−
direction of α follows from its definition: α = ∆ω ∆t

• Right-hand rule: Wrap your four right-hand fingers in the direction of

rotation. Your extended thumb points in the direction of →
−
ω.

• Mathematically, we have defined the rotational quantities θ, ω, and α

similar to how we defined the linear quantities s, v, and a for linear
motion. Therefore, the rotational equations of motion with constant
angular acceleration, should also be similar.

• The speed at which any planet moves through space is constantly

changing. A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the Sun and
slowest when it is furthest from the Sun.

• Kepler’s laws apply to any celestial body orbiting any other celestial body.
For example, any planet around a Sun, the Moon around Earth, any
satellite around Earth.

• A planet in the Solar System is in orbit around the Sun, due to the
gravitational force on the planet exerted by the gravitational force of
the Sun.
2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 65

• Every object in the Universe attracts every other object with a force
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

• Torque is the rotational effect of force.

• Moment of inertia is a measure of an object’s resistance to changes to its

rotation.

• The motion of planets around the Sun governed by the gravitational

force the Sun and the planets.

• Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that any particle of matter in

the universe attracts any other with a force varying directly as the
product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance
between them.

• The gravitational force is always attractive.

• The source for the centripetal force in the solar system is the gravitational
force of the sun. Without the centripetal force from the sun the
planets would travel in a straight line.

End of unit Problems

1. A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of a building 45 m high.

Calculate:

(a) the time taken to reach the ground.

(b) the horizontal displacement from the foot of the building to the
strike point.

(c) The resultant velocity with which it strikes the ground.

2. A football is kicked at angle 300 with the horizontal with an initial velocity
of 20 m/s. Calculate:

(a) the horizontal and vertical component of initial velocity.

(b) the time of flight

(c) the range

66 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

(d) the horizontal displacement at t=1.5 s.

3. The launching speed of a certain projectile is five times the speed it has
at its maximum height. Calculate the elevation angle at launching.

4. During volcanic eruptions, pieces of solid rock can be blasted out of a

volcano; these projectiles are called volcanic bombs (Figure 2.24).

(a) At what initial speed would the bomb have to be ejected, at 350
to the horizontal, from the hole at A in order to fall at the foot of
the volcano at B? (Ignore the effects of air resistance on the bomb’s
travel.)

(b) What would be the time of flight?

Figure 2.24 Volcanic bombs away.

2.5 Newton’s law of universal Gravitation 67

Figure 2.25 A firefighter directs a stream of water from a fire hose.

5. A firefighter, a distance d from a burning building, directs a stream of

water from a fire hose at angle θ i above the horizontal, as shown in
Figure 2.25. If the initial speed of the stream is vi , at what height h
does the water strike the building?

6. A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every minute. Consider a

point on the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15 m.

(a) Through what linear distance does the point move in one
revolution?

(b) What is the linear speed of the point?

7. A car traveling at 80 km/h has wheels with a 40 cm radius. If the car

can be brought to stop within 30 revolutions, what is the angular
acceleration of the wheels?

8. The angular velocity of the belt of a grindstone is 40 rad/s. To what angle

does the belt rotate in one minute. Given your answer a) in rad b) in
rev and c) in degree.

9. A cyclist rides a bicycle with a wheel radius of 0.50 m across campus. If

the wheel completes 320 rotations between her apartment and the
cafeteria, how far has she traveled?
68 Unit 2 Two-dimensional motion

10. A spinning wheel is slowed down by a brake, giving it a constant angular

acceleration of -5.60 rad/s2 . During a 4.20 s time interval, the wheel
rotates through 62.4 rad. What is the angular speed of the wheel at
the end of the 4.20 s interval?

11. Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, has a mean orbital radius of 1.22x109
m. The orbital period of Titan is 15.95 days. Hyperion, another moon
of Saturn, orbits at a mean radius of 1.48x109 m. Use Kepler’s third
law of planetary motion to predict the orbital period of Hyperion in
days.

12. The planet Mercury travels around the Sun with a mean orbital radius
of 5.8x1010 m. The mass of the Sun is 1.99x1030 kg. How long does it
take Mercury to orbit the Sun. Give your answer in Earth days.

13. Two identical isolated particles, each of mass 2.00 kg, are separated by a
distance of 30.0 cm. What is the magnitude of the gravitational force
exerted by one particle on the other?