Basics of Computer Networking

Lecture 7
 Networking Introduction

 A network is a collection of independent computers, which are connected together to

share information and resources.

 In addition to computers, a network also consists of peripheral devices and data

communication devices with transmission media used for the purpose of exchanging data
and information.

 Need for computer networking

 To share computer Data/Programs
 To share computer Resources

 Bandwidth
 Bandwidth refers to the maximum volume of information that can be transferred over any
communication medium.
 Types of Networks
 Based on the geographical area covered by the network, networks
can be classified as follows:

Local Area Network (LAN):

 A data communication network that connects computers
together in a room, building or a campus is called a ‘Local
area network’.
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 to 50kms.
A wide area network (WAN):
 It is a system of interconnecting many computers over a
large geographical area such as cities, states, countries or
even the whole world.
 Network components

Hardware
Software
Communication Channels
Network Devices
 Communication channels
 Communication Channels refers to the physical media through
which communication signals are transmitted.

 The two commonly used types of cables (Wired TM) to connect

computers are coaxial cables and fiber optic cables.
Wireless TM- Microwave systems

Communication Satellite
Network devices

 Different networking devices have different roles to play in a computer network. These
network devices also work at different segments of a computer network performing
different functions.

 Examples of Network devices are:

 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Bridge
 Gateway
 Modem, etc.
Functions of Network Devices

 Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
 Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and
securely.
 Network devices improves network speed and manage data flow better.
 It protects the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
 Expand the network range and solve signal problems.
Types of Network Devices

 Access Point
 An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like
smartphones and laptops, to connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi
network that lets wireless devices communicate with the internet or other devices
on the network. Access points are used to extend the range of a network or
provide Wi-Fi in areas that do not have it. They are commonly found in homes,
offices, and public places to provide wireless internet access.
Types of Network Devices

 Modems
 Modem is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to
convert digital signal into analog signals of different frequencies and transmits these
signals to a modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be
transmitted over the cable systems, telephone lines, and other communication
mediums. A modem is also used to convert an analog signal back into digital signal.
Modems are generally used to access the internet by customers of an Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
 DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is slower
compared to other types.
 Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than DSL.
 Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on nearby Wi-Fi
signals.
 Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular network
not Wi-Fi or fixed cables.
Types of Network Devices

 Firewalls
 A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data
between your computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking
unauthorized access while allowing trusted data to pass through. Firewalls help
protect your network from hackers, viruses, and other online threats by filtering
traffic based on security rules. Firewalls can be physical devices (hardware),
programs (software), or even cloud-based services, which can be offered as
SaaS, through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.
Types of Network Devices

 Repeater
 A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e.,
regenerate) the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too
weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted
over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit
and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the
original strength. It is a 2-port device.
Types of Network Devices

 Hub
 A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one.
Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets
which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
 Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost,
and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a
wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and
boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables
an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each
port in the hub.
Types of Network Devices

 Bridge
 A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
It typically connects multiple network segments and each port is connected to
different segment. A bridge is not strictly limited to two ports, it can have multiple ports
to connect and manage multiple network segments. Modern multi-port bridges are
often called Layer 2 switches because they perform similar functions.
 Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the
bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e.
bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operations is performed by the source station
Types of Network Devices

 Switch
 A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device.
The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain
of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
 Types of Switch
 Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not
offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an
expansion to a larger network.
 Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs,
QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow
for centralized management.
 Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically
easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
Types of Network Devices

 Router
 A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which
they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the
broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
Types of Network Devices

 Gateway
 A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that
may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents
that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network
layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.
Types of Network Devices

 Brouter
 It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer.
Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working
as a bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.
Types of Network Devices

 NIC
 NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has
a unique ID that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the
cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router
or modem. NIC is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical
and data link layers of the network model.
 Network topologies
 A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and
connecting lines.
 It defines the way different nodes are placed and interconnected with each other.

 Types of Network Topologies:

 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
What is network topology?

 Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and
connections in a computer network, which governs how data flows between devices.
 Network topology impacts network performance, security and scalability, making it a
crucial concept in network design and management.
 Networks consist of a series of interconnected nodes and links. Nodes include devices such
as routers, switches, repeaters and computers. A network topology describes how these
components are arranged in relation to one another and how data moves through the
network.
 Technologies such as 5G, wireless networks and cloud computing continue to drive
network evolution, making effective and purpose-driven network topology design more
important than ever.
 Both physical and logical topology are important considerations when planning network
infrastructure. The physical topology outlines how devices are physically connected, while
the logical topology focuses on how data moves through the network. Choosing the right
network topology is essential to maintaining network reliability, security and scalability.

https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/network-topology
What are the components of network
topologies?
 Network topologies consist of two primary components: nodes and links.
Understanding these elements is vital for effective network design and
management.
Nodes

 A node is a point of connection in a network that can send and receive data.
Nodes include both physical devices and communication equipment such as
computers, phones, IoT devices, routers, switches, repeaters and hubs. Each
node plays a role in transmitting, receiving or forwarding data within the
network. These devices form the backbone of network infrastructure.
 For example, in a local area network (LAN), each computer is a node. A router
is a device that acts as a node when it connects your computer to a wide area
network (WAN). A switch manages data traffic by directing data only to the
specific device that it is intended for, improving efficiency and reducing
network congestion A network bridge is a type of node that connects two
network segments to each other, enabling data to flow between them. A
repeater takes in information, cleans it of noise and then retransmits the signal
to the next node in the network.
Links

 Links are the transmission media that are used to send information between
the nodes in a network. They can be wired or wireless and internet service
providers often dictate the type of cabling and equipment used.
 The most common type of link is a cable, though the type of cable that is
used depends on the network that is being created. For example, coaxial
cables and Ethernet cables are commonly used for LAN networks; twisted-
pair cables are widely used for telephone lines and in telecommunications
networks; fiber-optic cables carry pulses of light that communicate data
and are often used for high-speed internet and underseas communication
cables.
 Wireless links provide flexibility and ease of installation, making them
popular in modern networks. However, they can present limitations in
speed and security compared to wired options.
Physical topology vs. logical topology

 A network topology describes two different aspects of a communications

network: the physical topology and the logical topology.
 A physical network topology describes the placement of each component in
the network and how they are physically connected. A network topology map
can help network administrators visualize how devices are connected to each
other and how to best arrange links and nodes.
 Logical topology describes how network devices appear to be connected to
each other and how data flows through the network, regardless of the physical
connections. Data doesn’t necessarily flow omnidirectionally in every network
and the logical network topology can illustrate how data should transfer and
the number of links and nodes data travels through before it reaches its
destination.
 Logical topology can differ significantly from physical topology, especially in
complex networks where multiple data routes exist.
What are the types of network
topologies?
 Network administrators often use network topology diagrams to optimize the
placement of nodes and links within a network infrastructure. While each
network design is unique, most network configurations are based on, or
combine elements from, several fundamental topology types. The main types of
network topologies include:
 Point-to-point topology
 Bus topology
 Ring topology
 Star topology
 Tree topology
 Mesh topology
 Hybrid topology
topologies

 A point-to-point network is the simplest and most basic type of network

topology. It consists of two nodes that are connected by a single link. Data
travels back and forth between these two endpoints. Though easy to set
up, its simplicity limits its use in modern networks.
 In a bus topology, all nodes are connected to a single cable—known as
the bus or backbone—like bus stops branching off from a bus route. Data
travels in both directions along the cable.
 This topology is cost-effective and easy to implement, but it has limitations,
such as a single point of failure; if the backbone fails, the entire network
goes down. Bus networks are also less secure due to the shared backbone.
Additionally, as more nodes share a central cable, the risk of data collisions
increases, reducing network efficiency and potentially causing network
slowdowns.
 In a ring topology, nodes are connected in a circular fashion, with each
node having exactly two neighbors. Data flows in one direction around the
ring, though dual-ring systems can send data in both directions. These
networks are generally cheap to install and expand and data flows quickly
within the network.
 The main vulnerability of ring networks is that a failure of a single node can
bring down the whole network. Dual-ring networks are used to protect
against this type of failure. A dual-ring network features two concentric
rings instead of one. The rings send data in opposite directions. The second
ring is used when there is a failure in the first ring. This redundancy minimizes
downtime and makes sure that data can continue flowing if one ring fails.
 In a star network, all the nodes are connected to a central hub. The nodes
are positioned around that central hub in a shape that roughly resembles a
star. If a single node fails, the rest of the network is unaffected, as long as
the central hub is operational.
 A star topology is generally easy to troubleshoot and manage, which
makes it a popular choice for LANs. Its centralized structure also makes
adding or removing devices relatively easy, contributing to its scalability. In
a star network, the performance of the entire network depends on the
central hub and the connections to it. If the central hub goes down, then
the entire network goes down with it.
 Tree topology combines elements of both bus and star networks, creating a
hierarchical structure. In this configuration, a central hub serves as the root
node, connecting to multiple star networks rather than individual nodes.
This architecture enables a higher number of devices to connect to a
central data center, enhancing data flow efficiency.
 Like star networks, tree topologies facilitate straightforward identification
and resolution of issues with individual nodes. In tree topologies, network
nodes depend on a central hub, creating dependencies that can affect
network performance. Tree topologies also inherit vulnerabilities from both
bus and star networks. The single point of failure at the central hub can
disrupt the entire network.
 A mesh topology is a highly interconnected network structure where each node is directly
linked to multiple other nodes. In a full mesh configuration, every node connects to every
other node within a single network, creating redundant paths for data transmission. This
high level of interconnectivity enhances network resilience and fault tolerance, as data
can reroute through alternative paths if a connection fails. Partial mesh topologies, where
only some nodes are directly connected to all other nodes, offer a balance between the
sturdiness of full mesh and the cost-effectiveness of simpler topologies.
 The decentralized structure of mesh networks reduces reliance on a single point of failure,
enhancing both security and efficiency. Mesh networks provide several advantages such
as improved data transmission speeds and scalability.
 However, these benefits come with increased complexity in network design and
management. The proliferation of connections in a mesh topology can lead to higher
implementation and maintenance costs, particularly in full mesh configurations for large
networks. Despite these challenges, mesh topologies find extensive application in critical
infrastructure, wireless networks and scenarios requiring high reliability and performance.
 A hybrid topology combines elements of different topologies to meet
specific needs. For instance, a network might use star and mesh
configurations to balance scalability with reliability. A tree network that
combines a star network and a bus network is also an example of hybrid
topology.
 Each hybrid network topology can be customized to build an efficient
network architecture based on specific use cases and business needs.
However, creating a customized network architecture can be challenging
and can require more cabling and network devices, raising maintenance
cost
Why is network topology important?

 Network topology plays a crucial role in determining overall network

functionality and efficiency. The configuration of nodes and links directly
impacts various aspects of network performance, security and
management. A well-structured topology can help promote efficient data
transmission, minimize downtime and simplify troubleshooting.
Impact on network performance

 The choice of network topology significantly affects data transfer speeds,

bandwidth and network latency. For instance, a star topology might offer
faster data transmission for networks with a few nodes, while a mesh
topology provides better performance for larger, more complex networks.
 The right topology enhances the efficient flow of data and minimizes
bottlenecks, leading to a more efficient network. This is crucial for
organizations handling large volumes of data or running time-sensitive
applications.
Network reliability and fault tolerance

 Different topologies offer varying levels of redundancy and fault tolerance.

Mesh topologies, for example, provide multiple data paths, enhancing
network reliability. If one node or link fails, data can be rerouted through
alternative paths.
 In contrast, bus or star topologies might be more vulnerable to single points
of failure. A well-designed topology can reduce the risk of downtime.
Scalability and flexibility

 As organizations grow and evolve, their network needs change. Topology

design impacts how easily a network can scale to accommodate new
devices or expand to new locations.
 Star and tree topologies, for instance, enable the easier addition of new
nodes compared to bus or ring topologies. Topologies like star and mesh
are better suited for handling high volumes of network traffic. Scalability is
key for businesses planning for future growth or anticipating changes in
network requirements.
Cost considerations

 Network topology directly influences implementation and maintenance

costs. While some topologies, such as bus topologies, might have lower
initial setup costs, others, such as mesh topologies, require more extensive
cabling and equipment.
 However, the long-term costs that are associated with maintenance,
upgrades and potential downtime must also be considered. Selecting the
optimal topology can lead to significant cost savings over time by reducing
the need for extensive troubleshooting and minimizing network issues. It is
also important to consider the total cost of ownership (TCO), which includes
the initial investment, ongoing operational expenses and the costs of
potential downtime when selecting the most cost-effective topology.
Security implications

 The network’s structure affects its vulnerability to security threats and the
ease of implementing security measures. Centralized topologies like star
topologies might enable easier implementation of security and access
control protocols, while decentralized structures like mesh offer inherent
security benefits through data path diversity.
 Firewalls are often used in network topologies to protect against external
threats. A secure network topology not only prevents unauthorized access
but also helps organizations comply with industry regulations such as GDPR
and HIPAA. Understanding these implications is crucial for designing
networks that protect sensitive information and comply with security
regulations.
Ease of management and troubleshooting

 Different topologies vary in their ease of management and problem

diagnosis. Star topologies, for example, simplify troubleshooting since issues
can often be isolated to specific nodes or the central hub. In contrast, ring
topologies can require more effort to locate and resolve issues.
 The choice of topology significantly impacts network management
efficiency and the speed of problem resolution, which is essential for
maintaining smooth operations. Automated monitoring tools can further
enhance network management by accelerating and optimizing the
identification and resolution processes. Administrators can also use network
topology mapping tools to provide visual representations that help network
teams identify potential issues.