A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College

(Second Semester)

About the Instructor-in-Charge

Page 1
 A COURSE ORIENTATION prepared
for the students of Northeastern
College (Second Semester)

A COURSE ORIENTATION prepared for the

Philosophy of Education,
students of Liberal Arts

Vision and Mission

Statements
Philosophy of Education

Northeastern College believes that quality education is affordable not only to

those who are economically capable but also to those who are economically insufficient.

It believes that through quality education its educands could break the economic
barrier, develop their God-given potentials, attain maximum growth, assume diversified
social duties and responsibilities and withstand the challenges that come along life’s
varied avenues.

Vision

Northeastern College was envisioned to stand as one “True Mint of Wisdom” this
part of the region could be proud of.

Mission

Northeastern College was founded with mission to:

1. Contribute to the literacy uplift of the valley

2. Build-up the social, moral and spiritual values of its educands
3. Produced well-prepared individuals for economic responsibilities;
4. Assist the community discover its potentials towards the enjoyment of
progressive and peaceful life of its members.

Institutional Outcomes

A GRADUATE of Northeastern College:

1. God-loving
2. Patriotic
3. Socially responsible
4. Effective Communicator
5. Multi-disciplinary professionals

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 6. Life-long learners
A COURSE OUTLINE prepared for
the students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Pre-requisite/s: None
Course Units: 3
Course Hours/week: 3 Hours

COURSE DESCRIPTION
Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person,
society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. (CMO 20 s
2013) Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally picks
up from the community. The course discusses the context and principles of ethical behavior
in modern society at the level of individual, society, and in interaction with the environment
and other shared resources. The course also teaches students to make moral decisions by
using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to
analyze and solve moral dilemmas. The course is organized according to the three (3) main
elements of the moral experience: (a) agent, including context- cultural, communal, and
environmental; (b) the act; and (c) reason or framework (for the act). Activities, modules and
outputs of the students will be accessed and posted through Student Information &
Accounting System (SIAS), Learning Management System (LMS), Google Classroom,
Edmodo and Close FB Group or Page for evaluation.

COURSE OUTCOMES
Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of
the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. (C)
Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of human existence.
(C)
Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at moral experiences and
solve moral dilemmas. (C)
Describe the elements of moral development and moral experience. (C)
Use ethical frameworks or principles to analyze moral experiences. (PS)
Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems. (C)
Make sound ethical judgments based on principles, facts, and the stakeholders affected. (C)
Develop sensitivity to the common good. (A )

COURSE OUTLINE
WEEK/S COURSE CONTENT/TOPICS
ORIENTATION
A. Mission and Vision of the Institution and Department
1
B. Grading system/Syllabi
C. Requirements
2 A. Difference between moral and non-moral standards Understanding
Sources

Page 3
 B. What are moral dilemmas?
A. The three levels of moral dilemmas: individual; organizational (i.e.,
business, medical, and public sector); and structural (i.e., network
3 of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms, e.g., universal
health care)
B. Freedom as foundation for moral acts
A. What is culture? How does it define our moral behavior?
4
B. The Filipino way
A. Universal values
5
B. How is moral character developed?
6 A. Stages of moral development
7 A. Reason and impartially as requirements for ethics
A. Feelings and reason: upsurge of feelings is natural and what we do
with them is what makes us ethical or unethical
8-9
B. The ethical requirement of reason and impartiality
C. The 7-step moral reasoning model
10 A. The difference between reason and will
11 A. Moral theories and mental frames and why they are important
12 A. Aristotle and St. Thomas
13 A. Kant and rights
14 A. Utilitarianism
A. Justice and fairness
15 - 16 B. Mandated topic: Taxation
C. Globalization and its ethical challenges
17 - 18 A. Millennials and filinnials: Ethical challenges and responses

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: MORAL and NON – MORAL STANDARDS

OVERVIEW
Over the past decade, intuitionist models of morality have challenged the view that
moral reasoning is the sole or even primary means by which moral judgments are
made. Rather, intuitionist models posit that certain situations automatically elicit
moral intuitions, which guide moral judgments. According to these models, moral
judgments are very often produced by reflexive mental computations that are
unconscious, fast, and automatic. From this perspective, affective responses are
automatically triggered by certain moral issues and provide a strong bottom-up
influence on judgments and decision-making. As such, the role of moral reasoning is

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 relegated to the role of post hoc justification or corrective control following the initial
intuition, but is not the causal impetus for a moral judgment. In the current paper, we
present three experiments showing that moral evaluations are also susceptible to
construal. Specifically, we show that people can deliberately construe a wide variety
of actions through either a moral or a non-moral lens with different consequences for
their evaluations. This chapter will discuss moral and non-moral standards.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
MORALITY IS NORMATIVE
AND NOT PURELY
DESCRIPTIVE
When we think about values, very often we are thinking about morality. What is
distinctive about moral claims is that they are normative and not purely descriptive.
They talk about right or wrong actions, what should or should not happen. However,
although a moral claim is not purely descriptive, it can include some descriptive
elements. For example, the last moral claim above implies the factual claim that the
police did play music to drown out a protest. This is the descriptive element, and the
normative component lies in the additional value judgement on what has been done.
Notice also that descriptive claims about moral beliefs in themselves are not
normative. A few years back a survey in Hong Kong drew the conclusion that many
young people think there is nothing wrong with corruption. This conclusion is a
statement about the a moral belief shared by many young people. But the
conclusion is a purely descriptive statement that does not evaluate the shared belief.

ETHICS
A kind of investigation and includes both the activity of investigating and the results
of the investigation. Examines one’s moral standards or the moral standards of the
society.
MORALITY
Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is right
and wrong, or good and evil. Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned with
or relating to human behavior, especially the distinction between good and bad (or
right and wrong) behavior.

MORAL STANDARDS
Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they
believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral
standards with moral values and moral principles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS

a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or
benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For

Page 5
instance, following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball
games but does not necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing.

b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority. If a moral
standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he/she
is supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even
with self-interest. Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but
they take precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and
even legal ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family
in order to devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered, he/she
probably was not justified. It may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it
probably is morally wrong to do so. When a particular law becomes seriously
immoral, it may be people’s moral duty to exercise civil disobedience. There is a
general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come a time when the injustice of
an evil law is unbearable and thus calls for illegal but moral non-cooperation (such
as the antebellum laws calling for citizens to return slaves to their owners).

c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or
persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be
considered in the process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards
cannot be changed nor nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body. One
thing about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or
adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support and justify them.

d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the
relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain
person P, then it is morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.

This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, “Do unto others what you would
them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)” and in the formal Principle of Justice,
“It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B to
treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without
there being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two which
can be stated as a reasonable ground for difference of treatment.” Universalizability
is an extension of the principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent
about one’s value judgments.

e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a certain
person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal
standpoint in which each person’s interests are impartially counted as equal.

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 Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in
morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of
all concerned parties.

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.
These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as,
‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles
are proposed for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature
is used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of
satisfaction or of guilt.

If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special purpose,
it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his behavior
afterwards. On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the current
fashion trend (e.g. refusing to wear tattered jeans).

NON – MORAL STANDARDS

Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by
nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of
etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules.

Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and
ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically relevant
depending on some factors and contexts.

MORAL DILEMMAS
Moral dilemmas are situations in which the decision-maker must consider two or
more moral values or duties but can only honor one of them; thus, the individual will
violate at least one important moral concern, regardless of the decision. This chapter
draws a distinction between real and false dilemmas. The former are situations in
which the tension is between moral values or duties that are, more or less, on equal
footing. In a real dilemma, the choice is between a wrong and another, roughly equal
wrong. The latter are situations in which the decision-maker has a moral duty to act
in one way but is tempted or pressured to act in another way. In a false dilemma, the
choice is actually between a right and a wrong.

A moral dilemma can occur because of a prior personal mistake. This is called a
self-inflicted dilemma. A classic example is the Bible story about King Herod. On
Herod’s birthday, his stepdaughter Salome danced so well that he promised to give
her whatever she wanted. Salome consulted her mother about what she should wish
for, and she decided to ask for the head of John the Baptist on a platter. The king
now had a choice between honoring the promise to his stepdaughter and honoring
the life of John the Baptist. The king had inadvertently designed a moral trap for
himself—a dilemma in which, whatever he decided, he would be acting immorally.

Page 7
rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
Page 8
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
Page 9
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 10
 thinking;
 Define and explain the
terms that are relevant
to ethical thinking; and,
 Evaluate the difficulties
that are involved in
maintaining certain
commonly-held notions
on ethics.

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE
Sub-topic: VALUE

OVERVIEW
In August 2007, newspapers reported what seemed to be yet another sad incident of
fraternity violence. Cris Anthony Mendez, a 20 year old student of University of the
Philippines (UP), was rushed to the hospital in the early morning hours,
unconscious, with large bruises on his chest back and legs. He passed away that
morning, and the subsequent autopsy report strongly suggests that his physical
injuries were most probably the result of “hazing” (the term colloquially used to refer
to initiation rites in which neophytes may be subjected to various forms of physical
abuse). What exactly happened remains an open question, as none of those who
were with him that night came forward to shed light on what had transpired.
Needless to say, none of them came forward to assume responsibility for the death
of Cris. These questions that concern good and bad, or right and wrong – and these
are questions concerning value- are the kinds of questions that we deal with in
ethics. This chapter will discuss value.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
FRIEDRICH HEGEL, CHARLES DARWIN, AND KARL MARX believed that all
living forms and social systems are mere result of progressive transformations over
time, and man is shaped by either evolutionary processes and/or the culture that
surrounds him. They rejected the idea that man is born with some innate nature.

ETHICS
Page 11
 Generally speaking, is about matters such as the good thing that we should pursue
and the bad thing that we should avoid; the right ways in which we could or should
act and the wrong ways of acting. It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in
human behaviour. It may involve obligations that we are expected to fulfil,
prohibitions that we are required to respect or ideals that we are encouraged to
meet. Ethics as a subject for us to study is about determining the grounds for the
values with particular and special significance to HUMAN LIFE.

KINDS OF VALUATION
AESTHETICS: derived from the Greek word “aesthesis” (sense or feeling) and
refers to the judgements of personal approval or disapproval that we make about
what we see, hear, smell or taste. We often use the word “taste” to refer to the
personal aesthetic preferences that we have on these matters, such as “his taste in
music”, or “taste in clothes”.

ETIQUETTE: sense of approval or disapproval concerning to certain actions which

we can be considered relatively more trivial in nature. Concerned with right or wrong
actions, but those which might be considered not quite grave enough to belong to a
discussion on ethics.

TECHNICAL VALUATION: derive from the Greek word “techne” of “technique” and
“technical” which are often refer to a proper way (right way) of doing things but may
not necessarily be an ethical one.

Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and technical valuation allows us to

have a rough guide as to what belongs to a discussion of ethics. They involve
valuations that we make in a sphere of human actions, characterized by certain
gravity and concern the human well-being or human life itself. Therefore, matters
that concern life and death such as war, capital punishment or abortion and matters
that concern human well-being such as poverty, inequality or sexual identity.

ETHICS AND MORALS

MORALS: may refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe
acts that people perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s personal
conduct is referred to as his morals, and if he falls short of behaving properly, this
can be described as IMMORAL. However, we also have terms such as “moral
judgement” or “moral reasoning”.

ETHICS: can be spoken of as the discipline of studying and understanding ideal

human behaviour and ideals ways of thinking. It is acknowledged as an intellectual
discipline belonging to philosophy. However, acceptable and unacceptable
behaviors are also generally described as ethical and unethical, respectively.
Example: Professional ethics for engineers, medical practicioners and many more.

DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE

Page 12
 DESCRIPTIVE study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups make their
moral valuations without making any judgement either for or against these
valuations. This kind of study is often the work of the social scientist: either historian,
sociologist or anthropologist.

NORMATIVE study of ethics, as often done in philosophy or moral theology,

engages in the question: What could or should be considered as the right way of
acting? In other words, a normative discussion prescribes what we ought to maintain
as our standard or bases for moral valuation.
ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGMENT AND DILEMMA
MORAL ISSUE: Distinguish a situation that calls for moral valuation. It is often used
to refer to those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and
inconclusive debate. (Capital punishment or euthanasia)

MORAL DECISION: When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice
of what act to perform. Example: I choose not to take something I did not pay for.

MORAL JUDGMENT: When a person is an observer who make an assessment on

the actions or behaviour of someone. Example: A friend of mine chooses to steal
from a store, and I make an assessment that it is wrong.

MORAL DILEMMA: Going beyond the matter of choosing right over wrong, or good
over bad, and considering instead the more complicated situation wherein one is
torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing between the lesser two evils.
When an individual can choose only one from a number of possible actions, and
there compelling ethical reasons for the various choices. Example: A mother may be
conflicted between wanting to feed her hungry child, but then recognizing that it
would be wrong for her to steal.

REASONING
A person’s fear of punishment or desire for reward can provide him reasons for
acting in a certain way. The promise of rewards and the fear of punishments can
certainly motivate us to act, but are not in themselves a determinant of the rightness
or wrongness of a certain way of acting or of the good or the bad in particular
pursuit.

PRINCIPLES: Rationally established grounds by which one justifies and maintains

her moral decisions and judgments. We can maintain principles but we can also ask
what good reasons for doing so. Such reasons may differ.

MORAL THEORY: Systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining certain

principles.

FRAMEWORK: System of thought or of ideas. A theory of interconnected ideas, and

that at the same time, a structure through which we can evaluate our reasons for
valuing a certain decision or judgement. There are different frameworks that can
make us reflect on the principles that we maintain and thus, the decisions and

Page 13
 judgment we make. By studying these, we can reconsider, clarify, modify and
ultimately strengthen our principles, thereby informing better both our moral
judgments and moral decisions.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
Page 14
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
Page 15
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti

Page 16
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 17
 A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the
students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)
Subject: ETHICS
Topic: THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE
Sub-topic: SOURCES OF AUTHORITY At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to:
 Identify the ethical
OVERVIEW aspect of human life
and the scope of ethical
Insight and inspiration can sometimes come from the beliefs, thinking;
teachings and practices of other religions and from non-  Define and explain the
religious sources. A decision is generally better made if the terms that are relevant
individual has considered a variety of sources of guidance and to ethical thinking; and,
 Evaluate the difficulties
help rather than just one, or if they always consult the same
that are involved in
one. This helps an individual to gain the most complete picture maintaining certain
of the situation they face and the options available, and so commonly-held notions
helps them make a better decision. Several common ways of on ethics.
thinking about ethics are based on the idea that the standards
of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that command
our obedience. In the following section, we will explore such
ideas: authority of the law, one’s religion and cultures.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS is a branch of ethics that studies the relation of human
beings and the environment and how ethics play a role in this. Environmental ethics
believe that humans are a part of society as well as other living creatures, which
includes plants and animals.

AUTHORITY
Authority is the degree of discretion conferred on people to make it possible for them
to use their judgment. When an enterprise is small then decision-taking power is
centralized in few hands. As the enterprise grows there is a need to delegate
authority to more and more people to cope with the work.

The main purpose of delegation is to make organization possible. “Just as no one

person in enterprise do all the tasks necessary for accomplishment of group
purpose, so it is impossible, as an enterprise grows, for one person to exercise all
the authority for making decisions.” Authority is the legitimate right to give orders and
get orders obeyed.

It has the following elements:

1. There exists a right in authority. The right is given by a superior to the subordinate. It
puts the persons in a position to regulate the behaviour of his subordinates.

2. The right of giving of order is legitimate.

Page 18
3. The right of decision-making also goes with authority. This will enable in deciding
what is to be done, when it is to be done and who is to do it.
4. Authority is given to influence the behaviour of subordinates so that right things are
done at right times.
5. The exercise of authority is always subjective. It is influenced by the personality traits
of the person on whom it is used.

When it comes to finding out about or

understanding something, or making
decisions about what to do, most people
have various sources of authority they can
go to for guidance and help. These might
include:
 friends
 family
 personal experience
 rational thinking
 conscience

Religious people also have other sources of

guidance and help available to them.
These might include:
 sacred texts
 founders of the faith
 religious principles or rules
 faith community leaders
 religious tradition
 other people in the faith community

RELIGION
BIBLE: The Christian holy book is the Bible and this is the most important source of
authority for Christians, as it contains the teachings of God and Jesus Christ. All
Christians, regardless of denomination, regard the Bible as the starting point for
guidance about their faith. It contains 66 different books and is split into the Old
Testament and the New Testament.

OLD TESTAMENT: The Old Testament is a collection of books that were written
before the life of Jesus. It contains the rules which Christians should live by,
contained in the Ten Commandments in the book of Exodus.

The Old Testament also contains examples of:

 other people that Christians can learn from, eg Job
 prayers and songs that are used in worship, eg The Song of Solomon
 passages that are regarded as prophecies of the Messiah, such as Isaiah
chapter 53

Page 19
 NEW TESTAMENT: The New Testament is a collection of books that were written
after Jesus died and rose from the dead. It contains the four gospels - Matthew,
Mark, Luke and John. It is in the gospels that Christians learn about the example
that Jesus set and the teachings that he gave to his disciples and early followers.
The New Testament also contains the teachings of Saint Paul who helped to form
the early church's teachings. He wrote some of the letters, sometimes called
epistles, that are in the New Testament, such as Romans and Galatians..

Some Christians also regard the Deuterocanonical books or Apocrypha as part of

the Bible. The Deuterocanonical are books that are accepted as scripture by Roman
Catholics and the Eastern Churches, but they were not in the Hebrew Canon and
are not regarded as canonical by Protestants. These books are usually placed after
the Old Testament in a Bible. They help to place other books in historical context
and offer a different view on the Hebrew Bible. Examples of Deuterocanonical books
include The Book of Wisdom and The Books of Maccabees.

LAWS
FORMAL/LEGAL AUTHORITY: According to this theory authority is based upon the
rank or position of the person and this authority may be given by law or by social
rules and regulations protected by law. A law may grant authority to a policeman to
arrest a person committing a crime. The president of a company may take an action
against an employee for not complying with rules because company rules has
bestowed this authority in him.

This authority is called formal authority. This type of authority is embedded in the
bureaucracy where authority is bestowed upon contractually hired and appointed
officials. In a company form of organization shareholders appoint Board of Directors
to exercise all authority. The Board to Directors delegates its powers to the Chief
Executive who delegates it to the managers and so on.

While bureaucracy is the purest form of legal authority, other forms may comprise of
elected office bearers or office bearers appointed by the members. These persons
follow authority since their roles are defined by the rules and regulations framed by
such bodies.

TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY: Traditional authority has evolved from a social order

and communal relationship in the form of ruling lord and obedient subjects. The
obedience results in traditional authority of the lord. The traditional chief rules as per
his own pleasure and makes his own decisions. Generally, these decisions are
based on considerations like ethnic equity and justice. The authority passes from the
father to the son.

In a family system, father exercises traditional authority over members of the family.
The traditional authority is generally followed in Indian family system. It is the father
who guides the activities of the family and others obey out of respect and traditions.
In traditional form of authority there is no formal law or structured discipline and
relationships are governed by personal loyalty and faithfulness rather than
compulsions of rules and regulations or duties of the office.
Page 20
ACCEPTANCE THEORY
The authority of the superior has no meaning unless it is accepted by the
subordinates. Chester Bernard was of the view that it is the acceptance of authority
which is more important. If the subordinates do not accept the orders of a superior
there will be no use of exercising authority.

The acceptance theory, though supporting the behavioural approach to

management, presents many problems in an organization. It undermines the role of
a manager in the organization. He may not be sure whether his orders will be
accepted or not. He will know it only when his orders are actually executed. It means
that orders flow from bottom to up.

COMPETENCE THEORY
There is also a feeling that authority is generated by personal competence of a
person. A person may get his orders accepted not due to formal authority but
because of his personal qualities. These qualities may be personal or technical. The
advice of some persons may be accepted even if they do not have a formal
authority. They enjoy this authority by virtue of their intelligence, knowledge, skill and
experience.

When a doctor advises rest to a patient he accepts this advice because of Doctor’s
knowledge and not because of his formal authority or legal right. The patient will get
relief only if he obeys the doctor. Similarly, we accept the diagnosis of a car
mechanic without questioning it because of his competency for this work. So the
knowledge or competency of a person gives him a status where his authority is
accepted by others.

CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
The charismatic authority rests on the personal charisma of a leader who commands
respect of his followers. The personal traits such as good looks, intelligence, integrity
influence others and people follow the dictates of their leaders because of such
traits. The followers become attached to the leader because they feel that he will
help them in achieving their goals. The charismatic leaders are generally good
orators and have hypnotic effect on their followers. The religious and political leaders
come under this category.

CULTURE
Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware that there are
ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our own, that there is in fact a
wide diversity of how different people believe it is proper to act.

 There are aesthetic differences (Japanese art vs.Indian art), religious

differences (Buddhism vs. Christianity), and etiquette differences
(conflicting behaviors regarding dining practices).

Page 21
  Various examples also include: nudity can be more taboo in one culture
than in another; relations between men and women can show a wide variety
across different cultures, ranging from greater liberality and equality on
one hand, to greater inequality and a relation of dominance vs.
submission on the other.

From the reality of diversity, it is possible for someone to jump to the further claim
that the sheer variety at work in the different ways of valuation means there is no
single universal standard for such valuations, and that this holds true as well in the
realm of ethics.

 Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or unacceptable is relative to,

or that is to say dependent on one’s culture. This position is referred to as
CULTURAL RELATIVISM.

There is something appealing to this way of thinking because cultural relativism seems
to conform to what we experience, which is the reality of the differences in how
cultures make their ethical valuations.

 By taking one’s culture as the standard, we are provided a basis for our
valuations.
 This teaches us to be tolerant of others from different cultures, as we
realize that we are in no position to judge whether the ethical thought or
practice of another culture is acceptable or unacceptable.
 Thus, our culture’s moral code is neither superior to nor inferior to any other but
would provide us the standards that are appropriate and applicable to us.

“Ethics? It is simple. Just follow whatever your culture says.”

 Tempting as this idea, there are problems.

 James Rachels, he presents some of these difficulties. The first 3 points in
the following are a brief restatement of some of his criticisms of cultural
relativism; followed by an additional fourth point of criticism based on more
recent and more contextualized observations.

1. The argument of cultural relativism is premised on the reality of difference. Because

different cultures have different moral codes, we can’t say that any one moral code
is the right one.
2. We are in no position to render any kind of judgement on the practices of another
culture. This seems to be a generous and an open-minded way of respecting
others. But what if the practice seems to call for comment?
3. We are in no position to render judgement on the practices of even our
own culture. If our culture was the basis for determining right and wrong, we would
be unable to say that something within our cultural practice was
problematic, precisely because we take our culture to be the standard for making
such judgment.

Page 22
4. Perhaps the most evident contemporary difficulty with cultural relativism is that we
can maintain it only by following the presumption of culture as a single, clearly
defined substance or as something fixed and already determined.

Finally, we can conclude this criticism of cultural relativism by pointing out how it is a
problem in our study of ethics because it tends to deprive us of our use of
critical thought. On the positive side, cultural relativism promotes a sense of
humility that is urging us not to imagine that our own culture is superior to another.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar

Page 23
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
Page 24
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
Page 25
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE
Sub-topic: SENSES OF THE SELF

OVERVIEW
Insight and inspiration can sometimes come from the beliefs, teachings and
practices of other religions and from non-religious sources. A decision is generally
better made if the individual has considered a variety of sources of guidance and
help rather than just one, or if they always consult the same one. This helps an
individual to gain the most complete picture of the situation they face and the options
available, and so helps them make a better decision. Several common ways of
thinking about ethics are based on the idea that the standards of valuation are
imposed by a higher authority that command our obedience. It is sometimes thought
that one should not rely on any external authority to tell oneself what the standards

Page 26
 of moral valuation are, but should instead turn inwards. In this chapter, we will look
into three theories about ethics that center on the self: SUBJECTIVISM,
PYSCHOLOGICAL EGOISM and ETHICAL EGOISM.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
MORAL SUPERNATURALISM states that GOD, or Someone supernatural is the
moral lawgiver or is the source of the human rules of decency.

SUBJECTIVISM
The starting point of SUBJECTIVISM is the recognition that the individual thinking
person (the subject) is at the heart of all moral valuations. He/she is the one who is
confronted with the situation and is burdened with the need to make a decision or
judgment. Form this point, subjectivism leaps to the more radical claim that the
individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong.
Examples: “No one can tell me what is right or wrong”
“No one knows my situation better than myself”
“I am entitled to my own opinion”
“It is good if I say that it is good.”

There is something appealing about these statements because they seem to

express cherished sense of personal independence. But close look at these
statements may reveal problems and in seeing these, we see the problems of
subjectivism.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
A theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human actions. As a
descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in a particular way. Instead, it points
out there is already an underlying basis for how one acts. The ego or self has its
desires and interests, and all our actions are geared toward satisfying these
interests.

This theory has a couple strong points. The first is SIMPLICITY. When an idea is
marked by simplicity, it has a unique appeal to it; a theory that conveniently identifies
a single basis that will somehow account for all actions is a good example of it. The
second is that of PLAUSABILITY. It is plausible that self-interest is behind a
person’s actions. It is clearly the motivation behind many of the actions one perform
which are obviously self-serving, it could very well also be the motivation behind an
individual’s seemingly other-directed actions. It is not only plausible, but also
irrefutable.

Psychological egoism is an irrefutable theory because there is no way to try to

answer it without being confronted by the challenge that, whatever one might say,
there is the self-serving motive at the roof of everything. The psychological egoist
can and will insist on his/her stand no matter how one might try to object.

Page 27
ETHICAL EGOISM
Differs from psychological egoism in that it does not suppose all our actions are
already inevitably self-serving. Instead, ethical egoism prescribes that we should
make our own ends, our own interests, as the single overriding concern. We may act
in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do that only if it ultimately benefits
us. This theory acknowledges that it is a dog-eat-dog world out there and given that,
everyone ought to put herself at the center. One should consider herself as the
priority and not allow any other concerns, such as the welfare of other people, to
detract from this pursuit.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar

Page 28
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
Page 29
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
Page 30
 At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to:
 explain freedom as an
essential characteristic
of ethics;
 explain the moral
REFERENCE/S dimension; and
 identify other basic
foundations of morality
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: FREEDOM AS A FOUNDATION OF ETHICS

OVERVIEW
Why do matters of right/wrong and good/bad need a
foundation? What difference would a foundation make? Let‘s consider these
comments from someone: ―I am going to obey my conscience regardless of
whether it is or it is not grounded in any foundation. I am going to obey it even if
some reliable foundation tells me not to. Even if a god suddenly appears and tells
me to do something that my conscience won‘t let me do, I am not doing it. So, where
did this conscience come from? How about if a person‘s conscience contradicts the
conscience of another individual? The comment above leads us to the question of
choice, freedom or liberty and decision. It also leads to the question of end. In this
chapter, we will look FREEDOM as foundation of ethics.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
RELATIVISM is the view that there is no absolute knowledge, that truth is different
for each individual, social group or historic period, and is therefore relative to the
circumstances of the knowing subject.

FREEDOM
Freedom or liberty may be described as the power or right to act, speak or think as
one wants without hindrance or restraint. But this power is not absolute. It has
limitations. ―Great power comes with great responsibility.‖ Imagine the world if
there is no limit to freedom and no appeal for responsibility. When one changes the
question from ―what do I want to do?‖ to ―what do I ought to do?‖, all moral acts
become clearer and point to freedom of choice. There is the invocation for people to
use their freedom in way that they won‘t harm anyone including animals, plants and
the whole of nature, to not abuse their freedom and to give limitation to it. The
exercise of freedom to act morally liberates us from our selfish passions and desires.
If we are not free in making decisions, then the ethical value of our decisions are
questionable.

Page 31
 Kant points to freedom as the autonomy or self-determination of rational beings. This
type of freedom plays a crucial role in the ethical journey of each individual, of
societies and humanity as a whole. Our everyday choices allow us to pursue our
goals that in a way enable us to live well and pursue the kind of human beings we
ought to be. We want to be virtuous by choice, for example, because reason and
experience teaches us that there is no fulfillment in life if we are coerced to live a life
that we do not like. There is no true happiness from slavery within. Human potential
and creativity flourishes when there is liberty.

FREEDOM HAS A MORAL DIMENSION

The moral dimension belongs to the realm of human freedom. The act or conduct
that is not the result of free choice is without moral quality. Morality relates to what
we are accountable for. Freedom is not just about what we can do but also about
what we must do. It does not follow that just because we can do something so we
must do it.

The moral dimension refers to the concern for the good and happy life. Moral
philosophy claims an essential connection between goodness and happiness. The
moral dimension is concerned with defining ultimate goal of man or what constitutes
his happiness. The path to being happy is the way of goodness.

The moral dimension speaks to our sense of moral responsibility. The moral
dimension pertains to what freedom entails – the freedom to commit – and the limits
that the freedom of others imposes on our own. The moral dimension is about
developing the skills for sound decision making based on ethical principles.

BASIC FOUNDATIONS OF MORALITY (N.D.)

HARM/CARE: This is related to our long evolution as mammals with attachment
systems and an ability to feel (and dislike) the pain of others. This foundation
underlies virtues of kindness, gentleness, and nurturance. This foundation makes us
sensitive to signs of suffering and need. In order to maximize care and minimize
harm, we enact laws that protect the vulnerable. We punish people who are cruel
and we care for those in suffering.

FAIRNESS/RECIPROCITY: This is related to the evolutionary process of reciprocal

altruism. This foundation generates ideas of justice, rights, and autonomy. This
foundation leads us to seek out people who will be good collaborators in whatever
project we are pursuing. It also leads us to punish people who cheat the system.
People on both the right and the left believe in fairness, but they apply this
foundation in different ways. Haidt explains: ―On the left, fairness often implies
equality, but on the right it means proportionality – people should be rewarded in
proportion to what they contribute, even if that guarantees unequal outcomes.

IN-GROUP/LOYALTY: This is related to our long history as tribal creatures that are
able to form shifting coalitions. This foundation underlies virtues of patriotism and
self-sacrifice for the group. It is active anytime people feel that it‘s ―one for all, and

Page 32
 all for one.‖ We love the people on our team, and loyalty makes our team more
powerful and less susceptible to our failure. Likewise, we have a corresponding
hatred for traitors. Those who betray our ―team‖ for the other side are worse than
those who were already on the other side.

AUTHORITY/RESPECT: This is shaped by our long primate history of hierarchical

social interactions. This foundation underlies virtues of leadership and followership,
including deference to legitimate authority and respect for traditions. Authority plays
a role in our moral considerations because it protects order and fends off chaos.
―Everyone has a stake in supporting the existing order and in holding people
accountable for fulfilling the obligations of their station.

PURITY/SANCTITY: This is shaped by the psychology of disgust and

contamination. This foundation underlies religious notions of striving to live in an
elevated, less carnal, nobler way. It underlies the widespread idea that the body is a
temple which can be desecrated by immoral activities and contaminants (an idea not
unique to religious traditions). No matter the era, humans have always considered
certain things ―untouchable‖ for being dirty and polluted. The flipside is that we
want to protect whatever is hallowed and sacred, whether objects, ideals, or
institutions.

THE LIBERTY/OPPRESSION FOUNDATION: This foundation builds on

Authority/Subversion because we all recognize there is such a thing as legitimate
authority, but we don‘t want authoritarians crossing the line into tyranny. Oppression
is hated and liberty desired. It is liberty for the underdogs and liberty from intrusion.

CONCLUSION
Concluding reflection on freedom: Whether morality is subjective, objective or a
social construct, they all point to one thing: the individual is a choice-maker. A
believer makes a choice; and so with the non-believer; and members of society
make their own choices. The individual‘s freedom is essential to any levels of
morality. Hence, human freedom is the primal foundation of morality.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a

Page 33
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
Page 34
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group

Page 35
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 36
 A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the
students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)
Subject: ETHICS
Topic: ROLE OF CULTURE IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to:
 articulate the role of
OVERVIEW culture in moral
behavior;
Culture is a manner of looking at reality by a certain group of  evaluate the strengths/
people, in a certain place, and in a certain time in history. It weaknesses of cultural
consists of the way people relate to the world through basic relativism;
assumptions and images which would more or less give them  analyze crucial qualities
a coherent view of reality they experience (Claver, 1978). It of the Filipino moral
identity in their own
involves the following: a) material living (dress, housing and moral experiences;
architecture); b) way of behaving (customary manners and and,
conduct); c) way of speaking (language use); d) way of thinking  explain why universal
(thought processes); e) way of feeling (shared psychology); f) values are necessary
way of meaning (arts and symbols); g) way of believing, for human survival.
valuing and meaning (views of life and attitudes). Matsumoto
(2007) defines human culture as a unique meaning and
information system, shared by a group and transmitted across
generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of
survival, coordinate socially to achieve a viable existence,
transmit social behavior, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from
life. Since every culture is a carrier of a community‘s social practices and beliefs, the
moral behavior and values are also passed on from generation to the next.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
MORAL DUTY or simply duty is that which behooves us to do, either because it is
laid down in some moral code, or because it imposes itself through our moral
consciousness.

CULTURE’S ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

So, how does culture shape moral behavior? Within culture are moral codes that are
practiced through social behavior. Moral codes are a set of rules or guidelines that a
person or group follows in order to live a just and good life. Moral codes are heavily
dependent upon culture. This is because each culture has its own ideas of what is
considered right or wrong, and what is regarded as good or bad. Moral codes dictate
many aspects of our lives, from how we act with different age groups, to how we
dress, and even how we treat other people.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Culture may vary from one location to another, from one society to another, and from
a nation to another nation. And this becomes problematic when the ideas and
practices of right or wrong and good or bad of one ethnic group clashes or overlaps

Page 37
 with another even in a wider context of societies, nations and religions. This brings
us to the idea of cultural diversity and relativism. Cultural relativism claims that
ethical truths are relative-that the rightness of an action and the goodness of an
object depend on or consist in the attitude taken towards it by some individual or
group, and hence may vary from individual to individual or from group to group.
Ethical judgements have their origins in individual or cultural standards. It is the
principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the
viewpoint of that culture itself. An individual's beliefs and activities should be
understood by others from the perspective of that individual's own culture (Runes,
1983; Baldwin, 1986; Martin, 2007; De Guzman, 2018

The idea of cultural relativism is that the terms right and wrong are completely
dictated by the culture that they are being used in. A person‘s actions should be
looked at with all things taken into account, especially the religion and culture that
they grew up in. Supporters strongly believe that one‘s moral codes and beliefs of
right and wrong are influenced completely by the culture in which an individual is
raised. A better way to look at this would be that what is considered morally correct
in one culture, may be deemed wrong in another. It doubts if there truly is a universal
idea of right and wrong. In other words, the cultural lenses carry with them their own
biases of ethical behavior.

UNIVERSAL VALUES
Universal human values are those ideals that we believe should be privileged and
promoted in the lives of all human beings in spite of the differing cultures and
societies where we grew up. A value is one of our most important and enduring
beliefs, whether that be about a thing or a behavior. Even though some values may
be universal, they often arise from particular religious, socio-cultural and political
contexts (UNODC, 2018: 21).

Rachels (2018: 23) points out that there are some moral rules that all societies must
embrace because these rules are necessary for society to exist. The rules against
lying and murder are two examples. Telling the truth and valuing life are being
enforced across cultures although they are expressed differently and exceptions to
the rule cannot be denied. Human rights are also universal in character. The rights
enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights crafted by the United
Nations (UN) originated from debates among multicultural group of individual
philosophers, diplomats and politicians. Universal values arise from lived
experiences and their justifications from others form part of the discourses if humans
are to live in global harmony. They can be uncovered by different means including
scientific investigation, historical research, public debate and deliberation (UNODC,
2018: 22).

THE FILIPINO WAY

The Filipino culture is so rich and diverse that it has greatly transformed in time.
Although it is composed of diverse ethnolinguistic groups spread across the islands,
these cultural communities have somehow retained their indigenous moral values
and belief systems while consciously or unconsciously embracing Western lifestyles

Page 38
brought about by colonial subjugation for five centuries and the adverse effects of
globalization that followed. Our culture and history molded us to what we are now.

Unfortunately also, Filipinos are in deep cultural identity crisis. Many of us show little
appreciation for our culture. Our colonizers have been instrumental in making us
believe that our culture is inferior to theirs to the point that the more individuals look
closer to foreign or Caucasian features using chemicals and treatments, the more
they feel that their status is elevated thereby looking down on their fellow Filipinos.
With this colonial mentality that we imbibed aside from the proliferation of diverse
lifestyles brought about by rapid global changes, our ethical values continue to
disintegrate. This situation may seem negative but there is hope in every adversity.
As generally observed, Filipinos are resilient; they rise from the challenges like
bamboos that bend but do not break from the ravages of storms year round. We can
be proud of our identity if we can convince ourselves that the values of our culture
are the sources of our strength and willpower as a nation worthy of respect and
admiration like those of other cultures (Wostyn, et al., 2004: 110).

Page 39
rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
Page 40
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
Page 41
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 42
 A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the
students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)
INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)
At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to:
 explain the relationship
between moral
character and virtues;
Subject: ETHICS  justify why values are
Topic: MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES both caught and taught;
and
 distinguish character
OVERVIEW from reputation.
Striving for moral virtue rests upon an individual‘s moral
character. His character is important in moral choices because
he cannot simply separate his character from his choice of
actions. Every action carries with it an imprint or a stamp of his
character. For this reason, character affects seriously his
maturity in such a way that it determines the kind of moral
choices he makes and the kind of person he ought to be. Precisely, it is in character
formation that one will not regret in the end the virtuous life he has chosen. Good
character must be cultivated and brought to maturity so that somehow when he will
be confronted with moral decisions, he can determine seriously the right choices.
Character then, is not something bestowed by a higher being, neither a privilege to
be enjoyed, but it is a task to be fulfilled by constant struggle to do good. It demands
a habitual inner renewal of the person because it is from this that character is built.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
CHARLES DARWIN propelled the abondonement of God and revelation by
attempting to show that God was not even necessary in the creation of living things.

MORAL CHARACTERS
are dispositions of both the heart and mind to do virtuous acts. Max Scheler (2012)
would suggest that one lives in his acts, permeating every act 21with his peculiar
character. This means that an individual needs to evaluate each act he does if it
helps him become a better person or not. This is a challenge because the greatest
problem a person encounters is the fact that he becomes an alien to himself:
pretending to be someone whom he is really is not. It is always a choice to prefer
and affirm higher values through being careful with his actions and always pattern
them for the realization and actualization of his own character as aperson. What an
individual needs to strive for is to prove that principles should not be easily swayed
by street people‘s opinions, fake news, media tricks, propaganda and selfish
interests. Character is tested by a lot of moral struggles. One cannot simply change
decisions of personal sacrifice and toil for anything that will weaken his character

This is where the role of family and community comes into play. An African adage
would put it this way: ―it takes a village to raise a child.‖ Parents are directly

Page 43
 responsible for the moral upbringing of their children surrounded by different
institutions that take care of the welfare of everyone. This wider community of
persons is where virtue is introduced and formed. It is a task and a challenge for an
individual to grow, develop and mature in character.

THE INTERPLAY OF MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUE

The Greek word ―virtue means excellence. Socrates once noted that man should
aim to learn to live virtuously, and modern man is no exception: ―The unexamined
life is not worth living. All are encouraged to engage in a never ending task of doing
what is good. His pupil Plato highlights four virtues in particular, which were later
called cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Other important
virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-respect, good temper, and sincerity. In addition
to advocating good habits of character, we should also avoid acquiring bad
character traits, or vices, such as cowardice, insensibility, injustice and vanity.

Both Aristotle and Aquinas also believed that people have a desirable end goal or
purpose and that developing excellences of character (virtues) leads to human
happiness and good moral reasoning. Good is that which is done with good intention
and with the knowledge that the results would be good.

Going back to Aristotle, he used the term – “virtue” to express our moral obligations.
Virtue may be defined as any disposition of character or personality that an
individual desires in him or others. Virtues are means between deficiency and
excess, or vices. He warns that we should avoid these vices and focus on the mean,
or virtue. which ―is such as right reason declares it to be. In others, virtues are
those depositions of character which an individual considers to be good. Character
development guides actions. In order to be of good character, then, once one knows
the good, one must also desire it. The will must desire and incline itself to the good.
Our conscience guides us to judging right or wrong action but that needs training
and informing also. Conscience needs to know the good and to be listened to in
order for us to act according to it. To listen and to act both require dispositions,
desires, and tendencies ordered to the good (Mitchell, 2015).

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a

Page 44
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
Page 45
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group

Page 46
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 47
 A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the
students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)
OVERVIEW At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to:
Experience tells us that learning what is appropriate or  identify and explain
inappropriate, good or bad and right or wrong takes a briefly each stage of
progressive start from early childhood to adulthood. The moral development;
importance of parents and institutions of learning and and ,
 evaluate Kohlberg‘s
socializing are formative of moral development. Moral theory based on the
development refers to the process whereby an individual form critiques against his
a progressive sense of what is right and wrong, proper and theory.
improper. Human moral sense is commonly seen to involve a
movement from simple and finite definitions of right and wrong
to more complex ways of distinguishing right from wrong (Dorough, 2011). Piaget
and Kohlberg are two leading psychologists who theorized that our moral sense
develops progressively.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
‘MORAL SECULARISM’ submits that morals come not from ‘above’ but from men
themselves.

PIAGET‟S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget observed four stages in the child‘s development of moral understanding
of rules, based largely on his observation of children‘s games:

The first stage characterizes the sensorimotor period of development (under four
years) in which the child is still mastering motor and social skills and unconcerned
with morality. In the second stage (4-7) game playing is egocentric; children don‘t
understand rules very well, or they make them up as they go along. There is neither
a strong sense of cooperation nor of competition. They exhibit unconditional respect
for rules and submission to authority.

The third stage (7-11) is characterized by incipient cooperation. The child recognizes
that rules are arbitrary and can be changed with group consensus. Social
interactions become more formalized as regards rules of the game. The child learns
and understands both cooperative and competitive behavior. But one child‘s
understanding of rules may still differ from the next, thus mutual understanding still
tends to be incomplete. In the fourth stage (11-12) cooperation is more earnest and
the child comes to understand rules in a more legalistic fashion. It is the stage of
genuine cooperation in which the older child shows a kind of legalistic fascination
with the rules. He enjoys settling differences of opinion concerning the rules,
inventing new rules, and elaborating on them
Page 48
KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg admired Piaget‘s approach to studying children‘s conceptions of
morality but he went beyond those and proposed his own elaborate theory.

The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level.
In the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms
because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher).
This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment.

The second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right behavior means
acting in one's own best interests. The second level of moral thinking is that
generally found in society, hence the name "conventional." The first stage of this
level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the
approval of others. The second stage is one oriented to abiding by the law and
responding to the obligations of duty.

The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the
majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5) is an understanding of social mutuality and
a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The last stage (stage 6) is based on
respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience. While
Kohlberg always believed in the existence of Stage 6 and had some nominees for it,
he could never get enough subjects to define it, much less observe their longitudinal
movement to it.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one
stage at a time. That is, they could not "jump" stages. They could not, for example,
Page 49
 move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage without passing
through the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to a comprehension of a
moral rationale one stage above their own. Thus, according to Kohlberg, it was
important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion which would help
them to see the reasonableness of a "higher stage" morality and encourage their
development in that direction. The last comment refers to Kohlberg's moral
discussion approach. He saw this as one of the ways in which moral development
can be promoted through formal education. Note that Kohlberg believed, as did
Piaget, that most moral development occurs through social interaction. The
discussion approach is based on the insight that individuals develop as a result of
cognitive conflicts at their current stage.

CRITIQUES OF KOHLBERG‟S THEORY

There were a good number of psychologists who somehow did not agree with
Kohlberg's model and their arguments are valid. Vitz (1994) pointed out that this
model became popular for many years especially in education. In spite of that, the
model suffers from a remarkable number of grave weaknesses, many of which
constitute grounds for rejecting it. Despite Kohlberg's rebuttal of his critics, the
system has not recovered from the multiplicity and gravity of the critiques and at
present there is no convincing reason to accept Kohlberg's system. The weaknesses
in his model have become increasingly clear and, in spite of salvage attempts, it
appears to be receding as a focus of research and theoretical interest. To
summarize those critiques, they are the following:
1. The critique of a completely “good self”
2. The feminist critique
3. The moral relativity critique
4. The “no moral responsibility” critique
5. The critique of Kohlberg‘s atheism
6. The empathy and emotion critique: the rejection of Stage 1
7. The empirical critique: the inability to find various stages
8. Over-dependency on language: Critique of all stages
9. The methodological critique of the Kohlberg scale
10. Structure vs. content: the empirical critique
11. Structure vs. content: the theoretical critique
12. The ideological critique
13. The sexual morality critique
14. The narrative critique
15. The virtues critique
16. Recent philosophical critiques

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
Page 50
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
Page 51
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
Page 52
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS

Page 53
FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
As to the question on who makes the moral rules, the Christian and the theist turn
toward the Creator of the Universe. The secularist or atheist alternatively turns
toward himself

TOPIC 1: FEELINGS AND ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING

Can feelings of happiness, surprise, interest and joy affect our actions to do what is
good? While anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, sadness, or self-hostility greatly
influence our actions to do what is bad? Should these positive subjective feelings
matter when we decide to do the right thing? Should we suppress negative ones
instead as they might lead us to wrong decisions?

Feelings and intuitions or what we call as ―moral emotions (n.d.) play a major role
in most of the ethical decisions people make. Most people do not realize how much
their emotions direct their moral choices. Experts think it is impossible to make any
important moral judgments without emotions. They are regarded as instinctive and
trained response to moral dilemmas.

There are two related models in ethics that are exclusively based on feelings. The
first one is ethical subjectivism which holds that truth or falsity of ethical propositions
is dependent on the feelings, attitudes, or standards of a person or group of persons.
Since it is based only on feelings, it is biased and contradicts the common
understanding that morality is about objective facts. For example, a gay from the
parlor passes in front of a group of freshmen nearby and one of them smirked:
“homosexuality is wrong!” If the student could not even justify his moral judgment
and made that remark out of feelings, then he is both ignorant and biased. The
second is emotivism which is a naïve version of ethical subjectivism. This version
says that a moral belief is true if it is held with sincerity and conviction. To say that
an act is right, or a person is good, is merely to emote, just to express emotions.
This makes nonsense of beliefs. Is it not that a belief is something that is either true
or false, but not both? No one‘s feelings are more justified than another‘s, assuming
they are compatible with any relevant factual information (Martin, 2007: 5-6).

Feelings cannot be solely relied upon but reason and feelings may complement
each other. Feelings can fuel the accomplishment of goals. They motivate us to act
morally. Traditionally, ethical decision-making process has been understood as an
exclusively mental process; that our feelings have nothing to do with matters of right
or wrong and good or bad, precisely because our emotions are very unstable.
Although most existing researches emphasize the mental elements of
decisionmaking, there are evidences to support the idea that emotion is also a
necessary component leading to ethical decisions and ethical behavior. The arousal
of emotion influences moral reflection and ultimately moral behavior. Of course,
there are other factors also aside from feelings. Peer influence among college
students, for example, is a stronger determinant of ethical behavior than individual
affective reactions. There is a peer-pressure that an individual seems to be more
Page 54
 likely to engage in ethical behavior when his/her peers also behave ethically
(Bratton, 2004; De Guzman, et al., 2018).

Inner-directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often

motivate people to act ethically. Outer-directed negative emotions, on the other
hand, aim to discipline or punish. For example, people often direct anger, disgust, or
contempt at those who have acted unethically. This discourages others from
behaving the same way. Positive emotions like gratitude and admiration, which
people may feel when they see someone acting with compassion or kindness, can
prompt people to help others too. Emotions evoked by suffering, such as sympathy
and empathy, often lead people to act ethically toward others. Indeed, empathy is
the central moral emotion that most commonly motivates prosocial activity such as
altruism, cooperation, and generosity. So, while we may believe that our moral
decisions are influenced most by our philosophy or religious values, in truth our
emotions play a significant role in our ethical decision-making (Lerner, et al., 2014;
―Moral Emotions‖ (n.d.)).

TOPIC 2: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS MINIMUM

REQUIREMENTS FOR MORALITY
The Greek philosopher Aristotle regarded that human beings have a rational soul
that makes us different with that of animals and plants. Rationality (n.d.) is the
capability for logical thought with the ability to reason towards sound conclusions
based on facts and evidence, draw inferences from situations and circumstances,
and make sound well-reasoned judgments based on factual information. Plants and
animals are incapable of complex reasoning and introspection, much more so in
distinguishing good from bad and right from wrong. A person is called ―rational or
reasonable (Korsgaard, n.d.) when his beliefs and actions conform to the dictates of
those principles, or when he is subjectively guided by them. Reason is also identified
with the capacity that enables us to identify ―reasons, the particular considerations
that count in favor of belief or action. Since human beings are rational, they have
―freewill to strive for perfection‖ (n.d.). By achieving this fulfillment and well-
rounded development, they would somehow attain happiness. It follows that in order
to be ethical, an individual should decide on actions that properly express his
rationality.

Moral judgments must be backed by the best arguments or reasons out there, not
only good reasons or better judgments. Our decisions must be guided as much as
possible by reason. The morally right thing to do is always the thing best supported
by the arguments. Morality requires impartiality with regard to those moral agents
affected by a violation of a moral rule. Morality requires the impartial consideration of
each individual's interests. For example, being partial toward friends is not morally
allowed. Impartiality (fair-mindedness) is a principle of justice holding that decisions
should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, self-interest,
prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.
Other elements of impartiality are accuracy, fairness, balance, context, and no

Page 55
 conflicts or prejudgments. The respect for truth at all costs is necessary (Khatami,
2009; Rachels, 2018).

The minimum conception of morality is: Morality is the effort to guide one‘s conduct
by reason – that is, to do what there are the best reasons for doing – while giving
equal weight to the interest of each individual affected by one‘s decision (Rachels,
2018).

MODELS IN ETHICAL DECISION MAKING: There are several models of ethical

decision making and action. Powers and Vogel (1980) have identified six aspects
that affect and are included into moral reasoning and decision making: (1) moral
imagination; (2) moral identification; (3) moral evaluation; (4) tolerating moral
disagreement and ambiguity; (5) integration of moral competence with other
competencies; (6) a sense of moral obligation and moral motivation. Rest (1994)
proposes that moral decision-making involves four psychological processes: moral
sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation/intention, and moral character/action.

TOPIC 3: MORAL COURAGE

Reason in ethics is the application of critical analysis to specific events to determine
what is right or wrong and what people ought to do in a particular situation while will
is the faculty of the mind that chooses a desire among the different desires present.
Will is guided by reason, where, as determined by reason, action is performed
according to rational requirements. The best ethical decision which is argued in the
most rational way is still incomplete without its execution. That is why moral courage
is important and the will enables the person to act deliberately and courageously
(Gambrell, 2015; Rowan, 2015).

Osswald, S. et al. (2010) describes moral courage as a prosocial behavior with high
social costs and no (or rare) direct rewards for the person. There are situations that
demand a morally courageous intervention: instances of injustice happen, human
rights are violated, persons are treated unfairly and in a degrading manner, or nature
and cultural assets are in danger. These situations are about discrimination against
foreigners or other minorities, violence and aggression against weaker individuals,
sexual harassment or abuse, mobbing, or illegal business practices.

Lopez, O‘Byrne, and Petersen (2003) defined moral courage as ―the expression of
personal views and values in the face of dissension and rejection (p. 187) and
―when an individual stands up to someone with power over him or her (e.g., boss)
for the greater good (p. 187). Thus, often an imbalance of power exists with a
disadvantage on the side of the person who acts morally courageously. Moral
courage situations (compared with other situations that demand prosocial behavior)
are also characterized by a specific social constellation: There are not only one or
more victims but also one or more perpetrators who discriminate against the
victim(s) or act unfairly or threateningly, and the potential helper has to deal with the
perpetrators to act prosocially. Most of the social costs moral courage entails
emanate from the confrontation with the perpetrators.

Page 56
 Greitemeyer, Fischer, Kastenmueller, and Frey (2006) defined moral courage as
brave behavior accompanied by anger and indignation, which intends to enforce
societal and ethical norms without considering one‘s own social costs. Social costs
(i.e., negative social consequences) distinguish moral courage from other prosocial
behaviors.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
Page 57
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms

Page 58
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti

Page 59
 areas of ethical study.

REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: WESTERN ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES
Sub-topic: BASIC AREAS OF ETHICAL STUDY

OVERVIEW
The goal of Western Ethics is generally for individuals to achieve self-direction and
self-understanding which have direct impact on ethical decision making. Our
intangible decision making as to determine what is right or wrong permeates
everyday life. Ethical problems are often complex and novel; they present
themselves in unique contexts in which conflicting principles are at stake. Ethics
should concern all levels of life: acting properly as individuals, creating responsible
organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole more ethical.
The first part presents an overview of the fundamental ethical frameworks and
principles. It introduces frameworks for ethical thinking and decision-making. These
ethical frameworks and principles represent the viewpoints from which students may
seek guidance as they make moral decisions.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
“SELF-ABSORBED” attitude is that which is based on a whole new set of
assumptions about how we should adopt our values and the right of individuals to
construct their own values.

Page 60
 A framework is defined as a set of assumptions, concepts, values and practices that
constitutes a way of viewing reality (Framework, n.d.) We may understand basic
theories as frameworks in ethics as a system of rules, ideas, notions, theories, or
principles that assists man in his moral decisions and judgments.

In Ethics there are three major areas of study: meta-ethics, normative ethics, and
applied ethics. Under these major subject areas are various ethical theories as
frameworks.

NORMATIVE ETHICS
Normative ethics was regarded as that branch of ethical inquiry that considered
general ethical questions whose answers had some relatively direct bearing on
practice(Normative Ethical theories, 2020). In a sense, it is a search for an ideal
litmus test of proper behavior (Fieser, n.d.). Normative Ethics is concerned with the
standard and criteria by which we can judge man‘s actions to be morally right or
morally wrong. This was the prevalent form of ethics in philosophy until the end of
the 19th Century. It includes a consideration of the importance of human freedom,
and a discussion of the limits of a human‘s responsibility for moral decisions and for
the consequences of actions) (Ethics, 9)..

The crucial thesis of normative ethical ethics is that there is only one ultimate
principle or standard of moral conduct, whether it is a solitary law or a set of rules. It
stresses three elements: the person who performs the act (the agent), the act, and
the consequences of the act. Generally, there are three categories of normative
ethical theories: deontology, teleological ethics and virtue ethics.

DEONTOLOGY
Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in
autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties (Deontological Theories 2002). It
emphasizes the correlation between duty and morality of human acts.

In deontological ethics an action is considered morally good because of some

characteristic of the action itself, not because the product of the action is good.
Deontological ethics holds that at least some acts are morally obligatory regardless
of their consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics are such
expressions as ―Duty for duty‘s sake ―Virtue is its own reward,and ―Let justice
be done though the heavens fall. (Deontological ethics, n.d.)

Also called duty-based ethics, deontology is interested with what man does, not with
the consequences of his actions. It advises people to do the right thing because it is
the right thing to do and keep away from wrong things because they are wrong.
People are counseled to do the right thing, even if that produces more harm than
doing the wrong thing. People have a moral obligation to do the right thing, even if it
produces a bad result.

TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS

Page 61
 This theory of morality derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or
desirable as an end to be achieved (Teleological ethics, n.d.). It believes that the
rightness or wrongness of a human act is contingent on its outcome. Hence, a
human act is considered morally right if it produces a good outcome. Since the moral
goodness of a human act is dependent only on its results, the more good results a
human act produces, the better or more right that human act is. The results of a
human act generally eclipse all other considerations.

Every teleological moral theory locates morality in the outcomes of human actions.
Teleological ethical theorists contend that every human act is teleological in the
sense that man reasons about the means of realizing certain goals. Thus, all moral
conduct is goal-directed.

VIRTUE ETHICS
This is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue in
moral philosophy rather than either doing one‘s duty or acting in order to bring about
good consequences (Athanassoulis, N. n.d.). Therefore, the fundamental component
of moral behavior is the person‘s character rather than ethical duties and rules about
the acts themselves or consequences of particular actions. This moral theory is
character or person-based rather than action based because it places special
emphasis on the moral character of the person executing the act.

Virtue ethics is primarily concerned with traits of character that are essential to human
flourishing, not with the enumeration of duties. It falls somewhat outside the
traditional dichotomy between deontological ethics and consequentialism: It agrees
with consequentialism that the criterion of an action‘s being morally right or wrong
lies in its relation to an end that has intrinsic value, but more closely resembles
deontological ethics in its view that morally right actions are constitutive ofthe end
itself and not mere instrumental means to the end - (Virtue ethics, n.d.).

Virtue ethics is not only concern with the morality of individual acts, but it is also a
source of counsel as to the type of attributes and behaviors human beings should
realize. It does not just focus its attention on particular moral acts, rather more
concerned with the whole of a person's life. It believes that a moral being is
someone who lives virtuously, someone who possesses and actually applies the
virtues he has learned.

Watch your thoughts; they become words.

Watch your words, they become actions.
Watch your actions; they become habits.
Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
- Frank Outlaw

META-ETHICS
Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status, foundations,
and scope of moral values, properties, and words. (Meta-ethics, n.d.) It is an inquiry

Page 62
about the nature of ethical assertions, attitudes, and evaluations. Meta-ethics
belongs to the three branches of ethics considered as framework, the others being
normative ethics and applied ethics.

Garner and Rosen (1967), claimed that there are three kinds of meta-ethical
problems, or three general questions:
1. What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments? (moral semantics)
2. What is the nature of moral judgments? (moral ontology)
3. How may moral judgments be supported or defended? (moral epistemology)

The first meta-ethical problem or general question investigates the meaning of the
terms: good, bad, right and wrong. Question of the second kind inquires on the
universality or relativity of moral judgments. The third problem raises the question on
our ability to know if a human act is right or wrong, if at all. Garner and Rosen
(1967), argued that answers to the three basic questions are not unrelated, and
sometimes an answer to one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an
answer to another.

Meta-ethical theories are commonly categorized semantically as either cognitivism

or non-cognitivism; substantially as either universalism or relativism; and
epistemologically as empiricism, rationalism, or intuitionism.

Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-Cognitivism

a. Moral Cognitivism holds that moral statements do express beliefs and that they
are apt for truth and falsity (Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism, 2018). It
claims that ethical sentences convey propositions that are capable being true or
false. It also declares that right and wrong are matters of fact. Moral realism and
ethical subjectivism are the two most common forms of cognitivism.
 Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) is the position that ethical
sentences express propositions that refer to objective features of
the world, that is, features independent of subjective opinion
(Shafer-Landau,2015). It assumes that moral values are objectively
true and their truth does not depend or are independent of our
opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes of them.
 Ethical Subjectivism is the meta-ethical view which claims that the
truth or falsity of such propositions is ineliminably dependent on the
(actual or hypothetical) attitudes of people (Brandt ,1959). Contrary
to moral realism, ethical subjectivism argues that there are no
objective moral truths. The truth or falsity of ethical propositions is
dependent on our opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes
towards them. Ethical sentences are arbitrary because they do not
convey unchanging truths.

b. Moral Non-cognitivism holds the view that ethical statements lack truth value
which means they are neither true nor false. According to Garner and Rosen
(1967), non-cognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that moral judgments are
capable of being objectively true, because they describe some feature of the
Page 63
 world. If moral statements cannot be true, and if one cannot know something
45that is not true, non-cognitivism implies that moral knowledge is impossible
(Garner and Rosen,1967). Moral truths are not the type of truths that can be
known.
 Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that claims that ethical sentences
do not express propositions but emotional attitudes (Garner and
Rosen,1967). It assumes that the purpose of ethical propositions is
to convey emotions of approval or disapproval. To a certain degree
they are also imperatives meant to sway the frame of mind of other
people.

Moral Universalism versus Moral Relativism

a. Moral Universalism which is also called moral objectivism proposes that ethical
implications of an action is universally applicable to everybody, regardless of
circumstance. It believes that there is a universal moral system which applies to
anyone which transcends culture, nationality, race, religion, sexuality or other
distinguishing feature.
b. Moral Relativism is a philosophical position which believes that moral judgments
are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint (for instance, that of a
culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is uniquely privileged over all
others (Westacott, n.d.). Moral judgments differ from person to person and are all
equally valid and no one‘s belief of right and wrong is really better than any other.
There is no objective and ultimate standard of morality, so each moral judgment
about right and wrong is relative to a person‘s cultural, social, historical or
personal circumstances and preferences.

Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus Moral Intuitionism

a. Moral Empiricism is an ethical perspective which assumes that moral

knowledge is based on one‘s experiences and observations. It claims that moral
learning and knowledge is not possible without experience. This ethical view is
an extension of empiricism in epistemology that states that knowledge comes
only or primarily from sensory experience (Psillos and Curd, 2010). Empiricism
emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than
innate ideas or traditions (Forrest and Kaufmann, 2008). Other forms of moral
empiricism suggest that moral truths are reducible to matters about mans
judgments and beliefs or cultural practices and therefore are recognizable by
observation and experience of their practices.

b. Moral Rationalism is a view in meta-ethics (specifically the epistemology of

ethics) according to which moral principles are knowable a priori, by reason
alone (Capps and Pattinson, 2017). It considers reason as the main source
46and test of moral knowledge. Because of reason, certain moral truths exist and
that the intellect can directly grasp these truths.

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 c. Moral Intuitionism argued that moral truths are self-evident, that is, evident in
and of themselves and so can be known without the need of any proof or
reasoning. What is morally right or morally wrong is self-evident in nature and
cannot be known through human experience.
Intuitionism teaches three main things: (1) There are real objective moral
truths that are independent of human beings. (2) These are fundamental truths
that can't be broken down into parts or defined by reference to anything except
other moral truths. (3) Human beings can discover these truths by using their
minds in a particular, intuitive way (Intuitionism, n.d.).
The concepts of right and wrong and objective moral truths do exist and
culture does not change those. A fundamental moral truth is like any fundamental
truth and no one can't attempt to break it down any further because things that
are moral good are simply morally good. Man has the ability to intuitively know if
something is right or wrong.

Intuitionism does not mean that all moral decisions are reached by relying on
intuition. Intuition enables the discovery of the basic moral truths, and everyday
moral decisionmaking then involves thinking about the choices available and
making moral judgements in an ordinary sort of way. (Intuitionism, n.d.)

APPLIED ETHICS
Applied ethics, in a broad sense, refers to any use of philosophical methods critically
to examine practical moral decisions and to treat moral problems, practices, and
policies in the professions, technology, government, and the like (Applied ethics,
2020). As a problem-solving branch of ethics, it strives to find out the application of
moral knowledge into practice. In other words, it bridges ethical theory and practical
and feasible solutions. It has produced principle-based attitude toward ethical issues
which in many instances result in solutions to particular problems that are not
globally acceptable.

This discipline studies difficult moral questions and controversial moral issues that
human beings actually face in their lives like: abortion, euthanasia, death penalty,
suicide, cloning humans, vaccination, harassment, discrimination, gay or lesbian
relations, war tactics, animal rights, capital punishments or nuclear warand
environmental issues.

Some of the key areas of applied ethics are: bioethics, environmental ethics,
business ethics, sexual ethics, and social ethics.

 BIO-ETHICS: This is branch of applied ethics that studies the philosophical,

social, and legal issues arising in medicine and the life sciences (Chadwick, n.d.).
Bioethics devotes its time and attention in studying the moral controversies
brought about by advances in biology and medicine. It is concerned with
scientific advances that can alter the way we understand health and illness and,
ultimately, the way we live and die. It is multidisciplinary because it draws
contributions from many different academic disciplines or professional
specializations such as philosophy, theology, history, anthropology, law,
medicine, nursing, health policy, social work and the medical humanities. Issues
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 that are considered in bioethics include: cloning, surrogate motherhood, human
genetic engineering, genomics, stem cell research, organ donation and
transplantation, transplant trade, medical and genetic data privacy, cyber-attacks
against medical devices and systems, bio-hacking, biological differences based
on inequalities in wealth, bioterrorism, technological sexuality, assisted
reproductive technologies, ethical issues on brain imaging and testing,
nanotechnologies (using small particles to deliver medicine or other medical
treatments), and genetically modified food.

 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: This is the discipline in philosophy that studies the

moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of,
the environment and its non-human contents (Environmental ethics, 2015). It
deals with man‘s moral obligation to the preservation and care of the non-human
world. Environmental ethics rests on the principle that all life forms on earth have
the right to live. Human beings and nature are closely linked with each other
because they depend on one another for their existence. Owing to their
inseparable relationship, the guiding principles of man‘s life and his ethical values
should include it. By destroying the environment and its non-human contents,
man unjustly and immorally denies its right to live. The topics for debate in
environmental ethics include: global climate change, the depletion of natural
resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems, water and air pollution,
waterways, the use of fertilizers, animal experimentation, and endangered
species preservation.

 BUSINESS ETHICS: This can be understood as the study of the ethical

dimensions of productive organizations and commercial activities (Business
ethics, 2016). It is interested in the analyses of the ethical problems and
principles in the manufacture, supply, advertising, and selling of products and
services. Business ethics is beyond just a moral code of right and wrong in the
workplace. Over and above their obligation to the law, business organizations
must be conscious of the moral impact of their activities on customers,
employees, shareholders, communities and the environment in all aspects of
their operations. More than knowledge and experience in managing a business
the interests of the community are of paramount importance. There should be a
balance between the purpose of business, which is to make money and its
unwritten social responsibilities to its employees and society. Corporate
governance, employee rights, unions, insider trading, bribery, misleading
advertising, discrimination, corporate social responsibility, fiduciary
responsibilities, and even slavery are some of the controversial subjects
addressed in business ethics.

 SEXUAL ETHICS: This is commonly understood as the study of human sexuality

and sexual behavior. It seeks to investigate thoroughly moral behavior regarding
with whom people have sex and how they do so. It is an attempt to bring about a
comprehensive understanding of the moral conduct of interpersonal relationships
and sexual practices from social, cultural, religious, medical, legal and
philosophical perspectives. Sexual ethics explores topics such as procreation,
abortion, contraception, adultery, extramarital sex, sexual harassment, sexual
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 abuse, polyamory, seduction, flirting, prostitution, homosexuality, pornography,
masturbation, incest, rape, sadomasochism, bestiality, pedophilia, sexually
transmitted infections, genital modification and mutilation, teenage pregnancy,
celibacy, and marriage.

 SOCIAL ETHICS: This is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines, values,

behaviors and responsibilities people have toward themselves, each other, and
the world as a whole. The collection of social principles regulate relationships
within a society, specifically with regard to determining what is considered
morally right, just and noble. The rules which society judges acceptable are
expected to be followed because they are meant to guide people in their ethical
choices and values. Social ethics teaches what each person will and will not
tolerate from each other within society. To maintain social equilibrium, the
welfare of society as a whole must be placed ahead of the interests of any
individual. People in a society cannot do as they please. There are social norms
and laws that prescribe boundaries and encourage social responsibility. Social
ethics validates if people‘s decisions and actions cause harm to society or the
environment. Each person is responsible to act in manner that benefits his
society and not solely himself. Social ethics closely and thoroughly examines
problems such as: environmental pollution, global warming, antisocial behavior,
poverty, malnourishment, lack of access to food and clean water, access to clean
and affordable living, unemployment, homelessness, discrimination and violence,
drug abuse and many more.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.

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Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
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poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups

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- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 70
  identify the different
concepts in virtue
ethics;
 analyze the various
perspectives of virtue
ethics;
 ascribe the appropriate
virtues that befit a
certain individual; and
 explain how virtues
become values.

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: WESTERN ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES
Sub-topic: VIRTUE ETHICS

OVERVIEW
Virtue Ethics began in ancient Greek philosophy. Socrates was
thought to have facilitated its beginning and was subsequently developed
considerably by Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. Normative ethical philosophies
constitute virtue ethics which stresses being rather than doing. Morality, in virtue
ethics, originates from the character of the human person, instead of just a reflection
of the actions (or consequences thereof) of the human person. A virtue is generally
agreed to be a character trait, such as a habitual action or settled sentiment (Carr
and Steutel,1999). Virtue (arete in Greek) is a positive trait that renders a human
person good. A virtue is different from feelings, as claimed by Hursthouse(1999).

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
Nietzsche's philosophy provided the framework for Adolph Hitler’s tireless efforts to
obliterate the Jews and the weak of the world.

Virtue ethics addresses the question, ―What sort of person must I be to be an

excellent person? rather than ―What is my duty? Virtues are habitual, excellent
traits that are intentionally developed throughout one‘s life.

A virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency to do what is honest or

generous, nor is it to be helpfully specified as a desirable or ―morally valuable
character trait. It is, indeed a character trait—that is, a disposition which is well
entrenched in its possessor, something that, as we say ―goes all the way down‖,
unlike a habit such as being a tea-drinker—but the disposition in question, far from
being a single track disposition to do honest actions, or even honest actions for
certain reasons, is multi-track. It is concerned with many other actions as well, with
emotions and emotional reactions, choices, values, desires, perceptions, attitudes,
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 interests, expectations and sensibilities. To possess a virtue is to be a certain sort of
person with a certain complex mindset. (Hence the extreme recklessness of
attributing a virtue on the basis of a single action.)

SOCRATES’ ETHICS
Socrates, (born c. 470 BCE, Athens [Greece]—died 399 BCE, Athens), Greek
philosopher whose way of life, character, and thought exerted a profound influence
on ancient and modern philosophy.

Socrates was a widely recognized and controversial figure in his native Athens, so
much so that he was frequently mocked in the plays of comic dramatists. (The
Clouds of Aristophanes, produced in 423, is the best-known example.) Although
Socrates himself wrote nothing, he is depicted in conversation in compositions by a
small circle of his admirers—Plato and Xenophon first among them. He is portrayed
in these works as a man of great insight, integrity, self-mastery, and argumentative
skill. The impact of his life was all the greater because of the way in which it ended:
at age 70, he was brought to trial on a charge of impiety and sentenced to death by
poisoning (the poison probably being hemlock) by a jury of his fellow citizens.

Plato‘s Apology of Socrates purports to be the speech Socrates gave at his trial in
response to the accusations made against him (Greek “apologia” means
―”defense”). Its powerful advocacy of the examined life and its condemnation of
Athenian democracy have made it one of the central documents of Western thought
and culture. (adapted from Kraut,R., 2020)

SOCRATES’ MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on the pursuit of virtue
rather than the pursuit, for instance, of material wealth (Brickhouse and Smith,
1990). He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a
sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow
together as a populace (Nichols, 1987). As manifested in his actions, Socrates lived
up to his beliefs. Known for his strength of mind, which was beyond reproach, he
accepted his death sentence when many opined he would clearly run away from
Athens, as he believed he could not escape or oppose the desire of his community.

Socrates concentrated on human behavior and tried to discover what makes a

virtuous life. He thought that a virtuous life is the key to man‘s happiness. Virtue and
happiness are inextricably linked, such that it would be impossible to have one
without the other. The soul is the seat of knowledge and virtue.

This knowledge which leads to virtue must be discovered by man if he wants a

virtuous and happy life. Moreover, man must not only know the rules of right living,
he must also live them. Socrates concluded that true knowledge means wisdom

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 which, in turn, means virtue. For him, knowledge is virtue. Knowledge and virtue are
the same thing. To know what is good means to do what is good. This is the
connotation of the Socratic dictum: “Know yourself”. Socrates believed that the
most important characteristic a person must possess are virtues, foremost of which
are the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that ― “the
unexamined life is not worth living” [and] ethical virtue is the only thing that
matters.

PLATO’S ETHICS
Plato, (born 428/427 BCE, Athens, Greece - died 348/347, Athens), ancient Greek
philosopher, student of Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), teacher of Aristotle (384–322
BCE), and founder of the Academy, best known as the author of philosophical
54works of unparalleled influence. He is believed by some people to have been the
most outstanding philosopher to have ever lived.

Building on the demonstration by Socrates that those regarded as experts in ethical

matters did not have the understanding necessary for a good human life, Plato
introduced the idea that their mistakes were due to their not engaging properly with a
class of entities he called forms, chief examples of which were Justice, Beauty, and
Equality. Whereas other thinkers—and Plato himself in certain passages—used the
term without any precise technical force, Plato in the course of his career came to
devote specialized attention to these entities. As he conceived them, they were
accessible not to the senses but to the mind alone, and they were the most
important constituents of reality, underlying the existence of the sensible world and
giving it what intelligibility it has. In metaphysics Plato envisioned a systematic,
rational treatment of the forms and their interrelations, starting with the most
fundamental among them (the Good, or the One); in ethics and moral psychology he
developed the view that the good life requires not just a certain kind of knowledge
(as Socrates had suggested) but also habituation to healthy emotional responses
and therefore harmony between the three parts of the soul (according to Plato,
reason, spirit, and appetite). His works also contain discussions in aesthetics,
political philosophy, theology, cosmology, epistemology, and the philosophy of
language. His school fostered research not just in philosophy narrowly conceived but
in a wide range of endeavors that today would be called mathematical or scientific.
(adapted from Meinwald, C.C., 2020)

Plato‘s reasoning was based on his belief that there are two realms of reality: first is
the realm of Forms and the second realm is the world of Appearances.

PLATO’S MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Plato believed that the realm of Forms contains the essence of concepts and
objects, and even the essence of object‘s properties. He considered the world of
Forms to be the real world, though humans do not live in that world.

Central to Plato‘s philosophy is his Theory of Forms which states that there are two
distinct levels of reality which exist: the visible world (or the world of the senses) and

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 the intelligible world of Forms (or the abstract world of thought) that stands above
the visible world and gives it being. For example, we are able to identify a
courageous person because we have a general conception of Courage itself, and
we are able to identify the courage in a person only because we have this
conception of Courage in the abstract. In other words, the courageous people we
observe are courageous only because they participate in the more general Form of
Courage. This Form of Courage is itself invisible, eternal, and unchanging, unlike
courageous people in the visible world who grow old and lose their courage when
they die.

Plato also believed that there is a form for morality. He considered it as the highest
of all forms which he termed as the Form of Good. This Form of Good is a single
Form by virtue of which all good things are good. For him, those who grasp the
nature of the Good will always perform good actions while bad actions are results of
not understanding the true meaning of the Good. For man to be good it is his
responsibility to take care of himself by bringing back the rulership of reason. To
become good or virtuous, he must always follow the lead of reason, with passions
and appetites on a tight leash.

Plato maintained that the intellect should be sovereign, the will second, and the
emotions subject to intellect and will. The just person, whose life is ordered in this
way, is therefore the good person

ARISTOTLE’S ETHICS
Aristotle was known to be Plato‘s pupil. He regarded happiness as the goal of
human existence. Aristotle, born 384 BCE, Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece – died 322,
Chalcis, Euboea), ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest
intellectual figures of Western history. He was the author of a philosophical and
scientific system that became the framework and vehicle for both Christian
Scholasticism and medieval Islamic philosophy. Even after the intellectual
revolutions of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Enlightenment, Aristotelian
concepts remained embedded in Western thinking. (Adapted from Amadio, A. and
Kenny, A., n.d.)

ARISTOTLE’S MORAL PHILOSOPHY

For Aristotle, moral virtues are habits of action that conform to the golden mean, the
principle of moderation, and they must be flexible because of differences among
people and conditioning factors.

Aristotle‘s great contribution to ethics can be sourced from three different versions of
his moral philosophy: the less well known Eudemian Ethics (Ethica Eudemia),
Nicomachean Ethics (Ethika Nikomacheia) his best-known work on ethics, and
Great Ethics (Magna Moralia ). The first two works were said to be his notes for
lecturing, and the third was presumably the notes of his lectures made by 56one of
his students. The Nicomachean ethics was generally regarded by scholars as the
Ethics of Aristotle. The Eudemian ethics and Great Ethics have never been studied
by more than a handful of scholars.

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 TELOS: Aristotle believed that everything has a telos (Greek term for end,
purpose, or goal) In his teleological view, he raised the question to what end,
purpose or goal do different things aim constantly. The philosopher went as far
as saying that telos can encompass all forms of human activity (Baggini, 2016).
Aristotle explained that the telos of the blacksmith is the production of a sword,
while that of the swordsman's, which uses the weapon as a tool, is to kill or
incapacitate an enemy (Grayling, 2019). On the other hand, the telos of these
occupations are merely part of the purpose of a ruler, who must oversee the
direction and well-being of a state (Grayling, 2019). In arranging things in
classes, Aristotle categorized men as ―rational animals, which signifies that their
end, purpose or goal is rational. To put it simply, our responsibility is to bring into
reality our full potential as rational animals. If we are not fully rational, we are
distancing ourselves from our authentic essence.

 EUDAIMONIA: When Aristotle raised his question, ―what is the ultimate

purpose of human existence? He believed that an important goal should be to
pursue ―that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of
something else (Pursuit of Happiness, 2018). Aristotle thought that everything
has a purpose and, according to that purpose, man must decide whether things
are good or bad. He thought that the ultimate end and purpose of mankind is
Eudaimonia. Eudaimonia is often translated as happiness, however it was also
understood as welfare, flourishing, or well-being. Eudaimonia is believed to be
attained through the exercise of virtue, practical wisdom, and rationality. Aristotle
claimed that it is innate in man to seek happiness. The nature and purpose of
human action tend towards happiness, which Aristotle termed as eudaimonia
(Soccio, 2007).

 ARETE: The idea of virtue (arête) is of paramount importance to Aristotle‘s

philosophy of happiness. Arete fundamentally means "excellence" of any kind but
is also understood as "moral virtue‖. It is tied to the idea of man living up to his
full potential. It expresses a conscious striving towards being the best one can
be. Man is excellent when he demonstrates his unique telos or purpose. Since
rationality is man‘s unique, defining quality, he manifests arete (excellence) if he
correctly uses his reason, principally in relation with moral choice. Man‘s
happiness is the perfection of his essence. His happiness is contingent on the
exercise of his reason. The exercise of man‘s rationality is the supreme good.

 THE GOLDEN MEAN: Aristotle differentiated intellectual virtues from moral

virtues. The former are exercised in the process of thinking while the latter are
exercised through action. He thought that a moral virtue as a character trait
should be practiced habitually. A person who is gentle should be constantly
gentle, not just gentle occasionally. For a moral virtue to be deeply-rooted in
one‘s personality one must keep on exercising it so it becomes habitual. It must
be performed without fail or without any doubt or hesitation. Hence, to become
genuinely gentle one must keep doing gentleness until gentleness comes
naturally and effortlessly and becomes one‘s second nature. Aristotle believed
that every moral virtue is a mean which rests between two extremes states. The
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 golden mean or golden middle way is the desirable middle between two
extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency (Aristotle, 2004). Moral
goodness means a balance between these two extreme vices.

 PHRONESIS: Aristotle believed that to be virtuous one must find the mean of a
virtue, i.e., the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the
other of deficiency. Achieving this balance is arduous. To assist a person in his
search for the mean he must determine the proper path in a certain situation, and
according to Aristotle this requires phronesis. The Greek term phronesis is
commonly translated as prudence or practical wisdom. Phronesis guides man in
his deliberate moral choice in order to act rightly. It is of central importance in the
formation of virtuous character and in living a good life. Phronesis is not achieved
through formal education or training. It is not intellectual value gained by finishing
a degree in a school rather it is a moral and intellectual virtue rooted innately in
man. Phronesis or the natural ability to form sound judgments and decisions
throughout life can be acquired by anybody even without educational
background. A person acquires phronesis as he advances to maturity and moves
away from rules and subsequently permits him to adjust to a more autonomous,
person-centered and virtue-centered morality. Phronesis is the path to true
happiness and excellence.

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS’ ETHICS

St. Thomas Aquinas, Italian San Tommaso d‘Aquino, also called Aquinas, byname
Doctor Angelicus (Latin: ―Angelic Doctor), (born 1224/25, Roccasecca, near
Aquino, Terra di Lavoro, Kingdom of Sicily [Italy]—died March 7, 1274, Fossanova,
near Terracina, Latium, Papal States; canonized July 18, 1323; feast day January
28, formerly March 7), Italian Dominican theologian, the foremost medieval
Scholastic. He developed his own conclusions from Aristotelian premises, notably in
the metaphysics of personality, creation, and Providence. As a theologian, he was
responsible in his two masterpieces, the Summa theologiae and the Summa contra
gentiles, for the classical systematization of Latin theology, and, as a poet, he wrote
some of the most gravely beautiful eucharistic hymns in the church‘s 61liturgy. His
doctrinal system and the explanations and developments made by his followers are
known as Thomism. Although many modern Roman Catholic theologians do not find
St. Thomas altogether congenial, he is nevertheless recognized by the Roman
Catholic Church as its foremost Western philosopher and theologian. (adapted from
Chenu.M.D. (2019)

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AQUINAS’ MORAL PHILOSOPHY
LAWS: St. Thomas Aquinas‘ typology of laws is of paramount importance to his
moral philosophy. He defined law as an ordinance of reason for the common good,
promulgated by the one who is in charge of the community (ST, I-II, q. 90, a. 4). Law
is considered an ordinance of reason because it is in accordance with reason or
logic and not entirely in the will of the lawgiver. It is for the common good for the
reason that the purpose of law is the benefit of the community it binds, and not only
the welfare of the legislator or members of a legislative body. It is promulgated in
order that the law can be clearly recognized by or familiar to all people. It is enacted
by the one who is in charge of the community and not on the basis of random choice
or personal whim by just anybody. Aquinas proposed four kinds of law: eternal,
natural, human, and divine.

 Eternal law is described as nothing else than the type of Divine Wisdom, as
directing all actions and movements(ST, I-II, q. 93, a. 1). It is God's plan for
everyone and everything in the world. It isGod‘s will, not entirely understood by
men. Eternal law is God‘s governance of the universe as its supreme ruler.All
created creatures are subject to this eternal law which directs them to their
appointed end.

 Natural law is the rational creature‘s participation in the eternal law (ST I-II, q.
91, a. 2.). It is the sharing in the Eternal Law by intelligent creatures. The first
principle of the natural law is good is to be done and pursued, and evil avoided
(ST I-II, q. 94, a. 2.). Guided by reason, all menare bound to live their rational
nature. Through choice and reason man participates in the eternal law for his
direction and preservation. The natural law is universal since it includes all men
of every period of time.

 Human law is commonly interpreted as positive laws which are enacted and
enforced in human societies. Aquinas argued that human laws are only valid if
they conform to natural law. If a law is unjust, then it is not actually a law, but a
perversion of law (ST, I-II, q. 95, a.2). For a human law to be a true law it must
always be directed to the common good. Human law is an application of natural
law and cannot depart from the essence of the natural law. Since natural law is
too wide to present clearly defined rules, the human law‘s accurate rules of
behavior are generally assumed to spell out what the natural law instructs.

 Divine law is God‘s law as divulged in the scripture. It is shared to men through
revelation which is derived from eternal law. This biblical law which contains
divine commands is organized into two parts: Mosaic Law (Old Testament) and
New Law (New Testament). They exhort moral conduct and promise heavenly
reward.

In the hierarchy of law, Aquinas believed that human laws originated from natural
law which is a rational participation of man in the eternal law. For this reason,
eternal law is the highest, followed by natural law, and then human law.

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 ELEMENTS OF MORAL ACT: Aquinas analyzed human acts on the basis not only
of their agreement to the natural law but also of their elements. He proposed three
elements which combine to constitute the morality of any human act: the object, the
end and the circumstances. If any one of these elements is immoral, the entire
human act is rendered immoral. For a human act to be considered moral, all three
elements must be either morally good or at least morally neutral. If even one of the
three elements is morally bad, then the whole human act is deemed immoral. Simply
put, the object of a human act, is ―what the exterior action is about, according to
Aquinas (ST, I-II, q. 18, a. 6). The object of the human act is what one would see if
he were to witness the act itself. It is the action done or the act itself. One cannot
perform an act if one is not doing anything. The action done is the object of the act;
say, of studying, exercising, drinking, etc. The object of a human act may be
regarded as containing a further specification -e. g., studying in the library for the
final examination, exercising in the gym to stay in shape, drinking clean water. A
human act thus specified may, when considered in itself, be good, bad, or
indifferent; thus, to study in the library for the final examination is good in itself, to kill
oneself is bad in itself, and to eat fruit is in itself an indifferent act.

The end of a human act is what a person had in mind when he performed an act. It
indicates the intention or purpose of the person executing an act. This intention or
purpose can cause a morally good act either good or evil, and can cause a morally
neutral act either good or evil. A good end can never make a human act good if its
object is evil. If the object is evil, even if done with the best of intentions, one cannot
transform the human act into good.

HAPPINES AND VIRTUES: Aquinas argued that every human act is directed
towards ends. He claimed that man‘s final end is happiness. Every man seeks
happiness and is naturally bound to it. Hence, he is not free to choose or reject it.
However, not every man concur as to whether or where it is achieved. Aquinas
thought that man's true happiness does not consist of wealth, bodily pleasures,
fame, honor or in any created worldly good. Man will be unable to find the greatest
happiness in this life, because final happiness consists in a supernatural union with
God (ST, I-II, q. 2, a. 8). The final object of man's will can only be realized in God,
who is the origin of all good. No other good on earth can completely satisfy man with
the ultimate good he seeks. In the present life an imperfect happiness can be
attained by man by living a life according to reason. Aquinas held that perfect
happiness could only be achieved through a vision of God. This is possible because
God has infused in man the longing to know Him. Man has to purify his soul in order
to get a perfect knowledge of God. When man reaches this, every sadness or worry
will be replaced by a pure and everlasting happiness.

There are four moral (also called cardinal) virtues: prudence, justice, temperance, and
fortitude. Below is a short description of the four Aquinian moral virtues.
 Prudence is the virtue that disposes practical reason to discern our true good in
every circumstance and to choose the right means of achieving it.
 Justice is the moral virtue that consists in the constant and firm will to give their
due to God and neighbor

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  Temperance is the moral virtue that moderates the attraction of pleasures and
provides balance in the use of created goods.
 Fortitude is the moral virtue that ensures firmness in difficulties and constancy in
the pursuit of the good.

According to Aquinas virtues are called theological because they have God for their
object, both in so far as by them we are properly directed to Him, and because
they are infused into our souls by God alone, as also, finally, because we come
to know of them only by Divine revelation in the Sacred Scriptures (Delany,
1910). Through God‘s sanctifying grace, man receives the theological virtues
directly from Him. These virtues are faith, hope, and charity which ordain every
man to God who is his ultimate and supernatural end. They originate from God,
otherwise these virtues would fall short of the supernatural end.

The theological virtues permit man to take part in God‘s divine life. They establish
the foundation for man‘s moral life because they lead, direct, and provide life to
all other virtues. They are offered to man by God and it is up to him to determine
whether or not he wants to receive and apply them in his life. What follows are
brief definitions of the three theological virtues:
 Faith is the infused virtue, by which the intellect, by a movement of the will,
assents to the supernatural truths of Revelation, not on the motive of intrinsic
evidence, but on the sole ground of the infallible authority of God revealing
(Waldron,1912).
 Hope is defined as a Divinely infused virtue, acts upon the will, by which one
trusts, with confidence grounded on the Divine assistance, to attain life
everlasting (Waldron,1912).
 Charity is a divinely infused virtue, inclining the human will to cherish God for
his own sake above all things, and man for the sake of God (Waldron,1912).

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Page 79
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
Page 80
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups

Page 81
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

Page 82
 A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the
students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)
INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)

Subject: ETHICS At the end of the lesson the

Topic: WESTERN ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES students should be able to:
Sub-topic: IMMANUEL KANT AND RIGHT THEORY  define deontological
ethics;
 differentiate
OVERVIEW Hypothetical and
Categorical imperative;
Was there ever a time when you really desired to do something and
good but you were frustrated because the results didn‘t turn  apply Deontological
out to be well? Do not be in despair! For in this module, your Ethics to a situation.
efforts are surely appreciated and are therefore recognized.
The deontological ethics theory argues that the rightness and
wrongness of an action is determined basing from the intention
of the moral agent (the actor). However, this doesn‘t end here.
The next question would be, is it an acceptable action?
Immanuel Kant is very particular in addressing this question by
contending that one should always accord with the imperative that one should not do
an action unless it can become a universal act. He simply argues that one should
make sure that every time we act, it should be an acceptable action for everyone
including ourselves in case others will do it to us too. In one way or another, it is
likened to the golden rule which states that we should not do to others what we do
not want others do unto us.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
For the religious or supernatural ethicists, there is an inseparable connection
between Ethics and Religion.

IMMANUEL KANT’S DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS

The term Deontology comes from the Greek word, deon, which means, duty.
Deontologists believe that morality is a matter of duty. Man has the moral duties to
do things which is the right to do and moral duties not to do things which is wrong to
do. Whether something is right or wrong doesn‘t depend on its consequences.
Rather, an action is right or wrong in itself.

Most deontological theories recognize two classes of duties. First, there are general
duties we have towards anyone. These are mostly prohibitions, e.g. do not lie, do
not murder. But some may be positive, e.g. help people in need. Second, there are
duties we have because of our particular personal or social relationships. If you have
made a promise, you have a duty to keep it. If you are a parent, you have a duty to
provide for your children. And so on.

We each have duties regarding our own actions. I have a duty to keep my promises,
but I don‘t have a duty to make sure promises are kept. Deontology claims that we
should each be most concerned with complying with our duties, not attempting to

Page 83
 bring about the most good. In fact, all deontologists agree that there are times when
we should not maximize the good, because doing so would be to violate a duty.
Most deontologists also argue that we do not have a duty to maximize the good, only
a duty to do something for people in need. As this illustrates, many deontologists
think our duties are quite limited. While there are a number of things we may not do,
we are otherwise free to act as we please.

ACTIONS AND INTENTIONS

Deontology says that certain types of action are right or wrong. How do we
distinguish types of action? For example, a person may kill someone else. A
conventional description of the action is killing‘. But not all killings‘ are the same type
of action, morally speaking. If the person intended to kill someone, i.e. that is what
they wanted to bring about, that is very different than if the killing was accidental or if
the person was only intending to defend themselves against an attack.

Actions are the result of choices, and so should be understood in terms of choices.
Choices are made for reasons, and with a purpose in mind. These considerations
determine what the action performed actually is. So deontology argues that we do
not know what type of action an action is unless we know the intention. We should
judge whether an action is right or wrong by the agent‘s intention.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE METAPHYSICS OF MORALS

To understand Kant‘s moral philosophy, we need to explain a couple of terms and
assumptions. First, Kant believed that, whenever we make decisions, we act on a
maxim. Maxims are Kant‘s version of intentions. They are our personal principles
that guide our decisions, e.g. ‗to have as much fun as possible‘, ‗to marry only
someone I truly love‘. All our decisions have some maxim or other behind them.
Second, morality is a set of principles that are the same for everyone and that apply
to everyone. Third, Kant talks of our ability to make choices and decisions as ‗the
will‘. He assumes that our wills are rational, that is we can make choices on the
basis of reasons. We do not act only on instinct. We can act on choice, and we can
consider what to choose using reasoning.

Kant argues that the fundamental principle of morality is this: “Act only on that
maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law”. Why does he come to this conclusion?

 THE GOOD WILL: Kant begins his argument by reflecting on whether anything is
morally good without qualification‘. He argues that only the good will’ is. Anything
else can either be bad or contribute to what is bad. For instance, intelligence and
self-control are good – but they can enable someone to do clever or difficult bad
things, if that is what they choose. Power can be good, but it depends on what
use we put it to. Nor is happiness good without qualification. If someone is made
happy by hurting others, their happiness is morally bad. So we evaluate
happiness by morality. Having a morally good will is a precondition to deserving
happiness. Kant then makes a second claim. What is good about the good will is
not what it achieves. It doesn‘t derive its goodness from successfully producing

Page 84
 some good result. Rather, it is good in itself‘. If someone tries their hardest to do
what is morally right but they don‘t succeed, then we should still praise their
efforts as morally good.

 DUTY: What is our conception of the morally good will? Kant argues that to have
a good will is to be motivated by duty. This is best understood by examples.
Suppose a shop- keeper sells his goods at a fixed price, giving the correct
change, and acting honestly in this way. Of course, this is the morally right thing
to do. But this doesn‘t show that he has a good will, since acting like this is just in
his self-interest. So we can act in accordance with duty, but without being
motivated by duty. Kant controversially claims that this applies just as much to
doing good things for other people when that is what we want to do and enjoy
doing. Doing good things for others is right and should be praised and
encouraged, but these actions don‘t necessarily have moral worth. If someone
was to do something good for others even when they didn‘t want to, but just
because they believe that it is the morally right thing to do, that would show that
they have a good will. So to have a good will is to do one‘s duty (what is morally
right) because it is one‘s duty (because it is morally right).

HYPOTHETICAL AND CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES

An imperative‘ is just a command. Hypothetical Imperatives‘ are statements about
what you ought to do, on the assumption of some desire or goal. They specify a
means to an end. So if you want to see the show, you ought to get to the theatre at
least 15 minutes early is a hypothetical imperative. In this example, the assumed
desire or goal is explicit: the imperative is presented as a conditional, with the desire
described in the antecedent (you want to see the show), and the command in the
consequent (get to the theatre at least 15 minutes early). But hypothetical
imperatives can leave the assumed desire or goal implicit, e.g. Eat at least five
portions of fruit and vegetables a day (if you want to stay healthy). Hypothetical
Imperatives can be avoided by simply giving up the assumed desire or goal.

This is not true of morality, we usually think. Moral duties are not hypothetical. They
are what we ought to do, full stop. They are your duty regardless of what you want.
They are categorical. Kant has also argued that moral duties aren‘t a means to
some further end, because what makes an action good is that it is willed by the good
will. All categorical imperatives – our moral duties – are derived from one, the
Categorical Imperative: Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same
time will that it should become a universal law‘. How are categorical imperatives
possible? Why is there something that we ought to do, regardless of what we want?
Kant argues that moral duties depend just on our being rational. We need to
understand further just what this means.

THE TWO TESTS

There are two different ways in which we could fail to be able to will our maxim to
become a universal law.

Page 85
 1. Contradiction in Conception – refers to the situation in which everyone acted
on that maxim is somehow self-contradictory. We saw an example of this in the
case of making a false promise, above. Another example: suppose you want a
gift to take to a party, but you can‘t afford it, so you steal it from the shop. Your
maxim is something like: To steal something I want if I can‘t afford it‘. This can
only be the right thing to do if everyone could do it. However, if we could all just
help ourselves to whatever we wanted, the idea of owning things would
disappear. Now, by definition, you can‘t steal something unless it belongs to
someone else. Stealing presupposes that people own things. But people can
only own things if they don‘t all go around helping themselves whenever they
want. So it is logically impossible for everyone to steal things. And so stealing is
wrong! (at least stealing just because one wants something).

2. Contradiction in Will - this is more difficult to understand. The maxim is not

Self-contradictory, but we cannot rationally will it. Consider a refusal to help other
people, ever. It is logically possible to universalize the maxim not to help others
in need‘. The world would not be a pleasant place, but this is beside the point.
Kant does not claim that an action is wrong because we wouldn‘t like the
consequences if everyone did it (many philosophers and students have
misinterpreted Kant on this point). His test is whether we can rationally will that
our maxim be a universal law. Kant argues that we cannot will that no one ever
help anyone else. How so?

 A will, by definition, wills its ends (goals).

 As we said above, to truly will the ends, one must will the necessary means.
 Therefore, we cannot will a situation in which it would be impossible for us to
achieve our ends.
 It is possible that the only available means to our ends, in some situations,
involves the help of others.
 We cannot therefore will that this possibility is denied to us.
 Therefore, we cannot will a situation in which no one ever helps anyone else.
To do so is to cease to will the necessary means to one‘s ends, which is
effectively to cease to will any ends at all. This contradicts the very act of
willing.

MORALITY AND REASON

Kant argued that it is not just morally wrong to disobey the Categorical Imperative, it
is also irrational. As the tests show, disobeying the Categorical Imperative involves a
self-contradiction. Through the Categorical Imperative, reason both determines what
our duties are and gives us the means to discover them. Furthermore, we intuitively
think that morality applies to all and only rational beings, not just human beings. In
Douglas Adams‘ The Hitchhiker‘s Guide to the Galaxy, Arthur Dent protests to the
Vogons, aliens who are going to destroy the Earth, that what they are doing is
immoral. But morality doesn‘t apply to beings that cannot make rational choices,
such as dogs and cats (pets misbehave, they don‘t act morally wrongly).

Page 86
 With this link, we can explain the nature of morality in terms of the nature of reason.
Morality is universal, the same for everyone; so is reason, says Kant. Morality and
rationality are categorical; the demands to be rational and moral don‘t stop applying
to you even if you don‘t care about them. Neither morality nor rationality depend on
what we want.

THE SECOND FORMULATION OF THE CATEGORICAL

IMPERATIVE
Kant gives a second formulation of the Categorical Imperative, known as the
Formula of Humanity: ‗Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in
your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always
at the same time as an end‘. Why does he say this, and what does it mean?

Let us return to the idea of the good will. Only the good will is good without
qualification. Another way of saying this is that it is the only thing of unconditional
value. Everything else that is valuable depends, in some way, on the good will. For
instance, intelligence is valuable for all sorts of purposes. In other words, it is
valuable as a means to an end. Its value, then, depends on the value of its end.
What gives its end value? We do, says Kant. Something is only an end if it is
adopted by a will. It is our adopting something as an end that gives it value. Because
I have desires and purposes, various things in the world are valuable to me.

So far, value is subjective. However, this does not apply to other people (or rational
beings generally). Your value is not simply your value to me as a means in relation
to some purpose or desire I have. It is not even your value to you (you might have
very low self-esteem, and wrongly underestimate your value). We have intrinsic
worth‘, which Kant identifies as dignity.

What gives us this dignity is our rational will. The will has unconditional value as the
thing which gives value to everything else. So in the second formulation above, by
humanity, Kant means our ability to rationally determine which ends to adopt and
pursue.

Kant says that because people are ends in themselves, we must always treat them
as such, and never simply as a means. Note that he does not say we cannot use
people as a means, but that we can‘t use them only as a means. We rely on other
people in many ways as means to achieve our own ends, e.g. people serving me in
a shop are a means to getting what I want to buy. What is important, says Kant, is
that I also respect them as an end.

To treat someone simply as a means, and not also as an end, is to treat the person
in a way that undermines their power of making a rational choice themselves. It
means, first, that we should appeal to other people‘s reason in discussing with them
what to do, rather than manipulate them in ways that they are unaware of. Coercing
someone, lying to them, stealing from them, all involve not allowing them to make an
informed choice. If they are involved in our action in any way, they need to be able to
agree (or refuse) to adopt our end as their own.
Page 87
 Second, treating someone as an end also means leaving them free to pursue the
ends that they adopt. The value of what people choose to do lies in their ability to
choose it, not just in what they have chosen. So, we should refrain from harming or
hindering them. This is to respect their rationality. Third, someone‘s being an end in
themselves means that they are an end for others. We should adopt their ends as
our own. What this means is that we should help them pursue their ends, just as we
pursue our own ends. In other words, the second formulation requires that we help
other people. This should be one of our ends in life.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar

Page 88
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
Page 89
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
Page 90
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: EASTERN ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

OVERVIEW
In Eastern traditions, philosophy, religion, and daily life dimensions are interlaced.
Any philosophical claims are always directed towards a spiritual goal, the attainment
of well-being and guidelines for human conduct in daily life experiences. Nooteboom
(n.d.) observed some deep commonality of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism:
there seems to be a sense of underlying unity, of the spiritual and the material, of

Page 91
 substance and change, of thought and action, of knowledge and morality, of self and
other. Dy (n.d.) identifies common themes in eastern tradition, namely: religious
thought is imbedded with ethical underpinnings; manifestation of love and
compassion; knitted personal cultivation and social responsibility; pursuit for
enlightenment; and, harmony with oneself, with others, with nature and with a
Transcendent. The ethical element is one of the most important parts because of the
way they teach what is right and wrong. The ethical attitudes such as love,
compassion and brotherhood are exemplary because they continually influence all
Asians at the backdrop of a highly consumeristic and materialistic western lifestyle.
Students are encouraged to compare with a critical mind one tradition over other
traditions for a deeper appreciation of their ethical claims.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?
Friederich Nietzsche aimed to highlight the ethical implications of Darwinism; his
"superman" concept transformed man into the maker of his own destiny, and Man
became the measure of all things. As his "madman" said, “God is dead!”

HINDUISM
Hinduism, comes from the Persian word hindu (Sanskrit sindhu), literally means
―river. It means ―of the Indus Valley or simply ―Indian. Hindus call their religion
sanatamadharma, ―eternal religion or ―eternal truth.

Hinduism dates back over 5,000 years. The Indians themselves call their faith
eternal teaching or law – dharma. Hinduism unites many different religious beliefs
and different philosophical schools. Buddhism is considered one of unorthodox
schools of Hinduism. India has a very distinctive phenomenon of inclusivism, i.e.
when other traditions, world outlooks are integrated into an already existing one. For
example, Buddhism in India was overcome by incorporating and integrating this
doctrine into the tree of Vedanta philosophy. It was declared that Gautama Buddha
is the ninth avatar of Hindu god Vishnu who came down to the world with heretic
teaching in order to bring together all heretics and, thus, protect them from a karmic
burden growing heavy.

SUMMARY NOTE
Hinduism embraces a great diversity of beliefs, a fact that can be initially confusing
to westerners accustomed to creeds, confessions, and carefully-worded belief
statements. One can believe a wide variety of things about God, the universe and
the path to liberation and still be considered a Hindu.

This attitude towards religious belief has made Hinduism one of the more open-
minded religions when it comes to evaluating other faiths. Probably the most well-
known Hindu saying about religion is: Truth is one; sages call it by different names.

However, there are some beliefs common to nearly all forms of Hinduism that can be
identified, and these basic beliefs are generally regarded as boundaries outside of
which lies either heresy or non-Hindu religion. These fundamental Hindu beliefs
Page 92
 include: the authority of the Vedas (the oldest Indian sacred texts) and the
Brahmans (priests); the existence of an enduring soul that transmigrates from one
body to another at death (reincarnation); and the law of karma that determines one‘s
destiny both in this life and the next.

Note that a specific belief about God or gods is not considered one of the essentials,
which is a major difference between Hinduism and strictly monotheistic religions like
Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Sikhism. Most Hindus are devoted followers of one
of the principal gods Shiva, Vishnu or Shakti, and often others besides, yet all these
are regarded as manifestations of a single Reality.

The ultimate goal of all Hindus is release (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth
(samsara). For those of a devotional bent, this means being in God‘s presence,
while those of a philosophical persuasion look forward to uniting with God as a drop
of rain merges with the sea.

BUDDHISM
The Buddhist tradition has been formed in the Hindu environment and has adopted
many concepts (karma, samsāra), though it has rejected (ātman) or changed the
meaning of some of them. It did not recognize the worship of castes, one or many
gods, the Sanskrit language and sacredness of the Vedas, as well as importance of
sacrificial rites. The main goal remained the same as in the Hindu tradition – to
liberate oneself from the cycle of rebirth through cognition. On this path, the
significance of the teacher decreased and personal ―efforts became more
important.

Buddhism is considered to be founded by Siddhartha Gautama born around 560 BC

in a noble family. The child was foretold to become either a ruler, or a wanderer,
therefore, he was raised in a closed palace. Grown-up Siddhartha got married and
had a son. Once he saw three forms of suffering (a feeble old man, a disabled
person suffering from pain and the funeral procession), he left his house and
travelled away. Together with teachers and followers he exercised austerity, yoga.
However, he quickly realized that external austerity is not enough if a person still
continues to cling to life. Having left his friends and followers, Siddhartha started
meditating. It is said that after 35 years of mediation under a tree Siddhartha
Gautama achieved enlightenment and became Buddha (the awakened one, ―the
enlightened one), i.e. he achieved nirvāna. Buddhists believe that there were many
Buddhas before and after Gautama. Siddhartha could achieve complete nirvāna,
though he refused it and began to teach people the Four Noble Truths which he
realized during enlightenment. This is how the Samgha community was created.
Numerous legends and stories were created about life and death of Buddha. Of
course, having turned 80, he got sick and died.

KARMA (“activity”, “destiny”, “consequence”, “duties”): Buddhism adopted from

Hinduism the concept of karma as the principle of universe formation, as the
universal cause-and-effect principle. Any being is formed due to various reasons and
conditions, and at the same time affects the future as the active force. Of course,

Page 93
 laws of karma apply only to the matter, though to absolutely all forms of it. Dharma-
kāya – the Absolute, the principle of Oneness in which all differences and causalities
disappear, it is above the law of karma, though, manifested in the phenomenal
world, it cannot avoid it.

The ethics of the eightfold path:

1. right knowledge/view;
2. right attitude/intention;
3. right speech;
4. right action;
5. right livelihood;
6. right goal/effort;
7. right thinking/mindfulness (sammā sati) and
8. right meditation (sammā samādhi)

SUFFERING prevails in the Four Noble Truths, whose understanding lead Buddha
to enlightenment: 1) life is suffering; 2) suffering has a cause; it is attachment,
ignorance and desire; 3) suffering has an end – it is nirvāna; 4) there is an eightfold
path to overcome suffering.

Suffering or torment has three aspects: 1) daily suffering– all forms of suffering
(illness, death, separation, disappointment, etc.); 2) suffering of changes, which
comes from the transience, impermanence of all objects and things; 3) suffering of
conditional states, which indicates that what we consider to be an individual is a
combination of constantly changing psychophysical forces – five skandhas.
Skandhas themselves are also often identified with suffering, as torment comes from
the belief that “Self” is self-reliant, independent. Thus, liberation from suffering is
also understanding that there is neither a liberator, nor liberation, as a specific result
of actions.

CONFUCIANISM
Confucian ethics focuses on reciprocity (the golden rule) and the innateness of the
four great virtues: humaneness, righteousness (or justice), propriety and wisdom.
The structure of human relationships particularly the family provides an idealized
model for all other relationships. Confucius (n.d.) fought against the concept of a
feudal society, seeking a way to structure the society so that the positions of
responsibility were occupied by the ―superior moral man‖: A revolutionary idea,
both in his and our times.

In Confucianism, both the man and the society in which he lives are a small part of
the universe. The universe is immersed in an order, in a harmony. Any attempt to
break this harmony creates troubles.

Confucius was married, in accordance with Chinese custom, at nineteen and

accepted public employment as a keeper of stores and later as superintendent of
parks and herds. At twenty-two, however, he commenced his life-work as a teacher,
Page 94
 and gradually a group of students, eager to be instructed in the classics and in
conduct and government, gathered about him

A final ancient (Shang Dynasty) influence that shaped Confucian thought is ancestor
worship. Under Confucian influence, primitive rituals of ancestor worship, however,
evolve into the central Confucian virtue of Filial Piety: respect for ancestors, parents,
and elders generally. More specifically, within the context of the broad principles of
Li and the prime virtue of Ren, the ideal Confucian person (Jun-zi) is further defined
in terms of idealized social relationships that include a ―natural hierarchy that is
part of (all) social relations.

The Five Basic Relationships

DAOISM
Daoism is the most important tradition forming Chinese cultural, religious and
philosophical life along with Confucianism and Buddhism. One of the main features
of Daoism is polymorphism, i.e. being made of many elements or fundamentals.
Daoism is also attributed folk superstitions, ancient religious practices, various
mysterious practices, psychophysical training practices, and the idea of the
comprehensive and connecting Oneness. As a result, Daoism is often incorrectly
interpreted when trying to discern its philosophical and religious parts, or – even
worse – when trying to oppose those parts.
These traditions have existed since the very first Confucian and Daoist sages as the
opposition, though not as struggling but as complementary forces. Confucianism put
more emphasis on the social life, and Daoism accentuated the orientation of an
individual to himself/herself; Confucianism valued ethics, Daoism –search for the
deepest wisdom; it was important to have the ritualized and personal relationship
with the highest being for Confucianism and Daoism, respectively; Confucianism
makes the clear differentiation between good and bad, Daoism emphasizes the
relation between positive and negative poles; Confucianism calls for changing
yourself and the world, Daoism promotes inaction. However, Daoism, like
Confucianism, was characterized by attention to a person, the spiritual self-
development seeking the spiritual ideal, the orientation to a particular life, rather than
to abstract reflections, and the overall perception of being.

Daoist philosophy is distinguished by the nature other than that of the main
ideologies of that time, including Confucianism. According to B. Watson, it is, as a

Page 95
 matter of fact, mystical philosophy whose essence is not defined in any way. Other
ideologies suggested to follow certain norms, to create a certain model of self or the
world, and the main idea of Daoism was to get liberated from the world, first – from
ideas which became clichés, what is good and what is bad, what is life and what is
death.

DÀO (the first meaning is “way”): Only in Daoism that this concept acquired a
comprehensive nature and began to stand for eternal being, the basis of any being,
and the eternal order of being. Dào was used in three ways. Two last meanings
were used in Chinese philosophy for a long time. Only the first meaning was new
and important and became the centre of the whole Daoist philosophy.

YĪN AND YÁNG: The dialectical nature of all things is usually expressed by the
relationship between yīn and yáng, harmony of the sky and the earth, a male and a
female, darkness and light, right and left. Yīn and yang aspects exist in everything
and every person. If a person emphasizes and develops only some qualities, there is
no more harmony and it destroys the person (these days, it is more often said by
psychologists than philosophers).

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels

Page 96
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,

Page 97
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be

Page 98
 another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes
there are few
important panhuman
similariti
REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: ETHICS
Topic: ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN, ETHICS AND GLOBALIZATION

OVERVIEW
Ethics through thick and thin is the concluding part of this course, yet interestingly, it
also challenges the philosophical minds of the students with this question: how may
the discourses of ethics from the previous chapters help us students engage ethical
dilemmas on a global landscape with all its ramifications from consumerist
capitalism, neoliberalism, individualism, religious fundamentalism and fanaticism,
and terrorism? The ethical decisions and courses of action that we take points back
to the moral compass that we have embraced in this course.

FOCUS ON ETHICS
DID YOU KNOW THAT?

Page 99
 Karl Marx subscribed to Feuerbach's claim that God was merely a human invention.
Marx’s ideas provided a foundation upon which Lenin and Stalin were able to build a
society around the power ethics of political rationalism.

GLOBALIZATION
Globalization is not a single concept that can be defined with certainty. Different
interpretations of the term reflect different perspectives rooted in different positions,
attitudes and benefits derived from it.

Kenichi Ohmae (1992) defined it as ―the onset of a borderless world‖. Roland

Robertson (1992) referred to it as ―the compression of the world and the
intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole‖. Arjun Appadurai (1996)
posited globalization as ―a world of things‘ that have different speeds, axes, points
of origin and termination, and varied relationships to institutional structures in
different regions, nations, or societies‖.

The abundance of definition is clearly an indicator of varying opinions, discourses

and debates and no single definition can put an actual claim to it. This only shows
that globalization is indeed multifaceted, multidisciplinary and complex. It is also an
evolutionary and fluid process.

GLOBALIZATION AND IT’S DIMENSIONS

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION refers to the mobility of people, capital, technology,

goods and services internationally. It is also about how integrated countries are in
the global economy and how different countries and regions become more
economically interdependent with one another. Economic globalization is also about
globalization of production and trade of goods, financial and capital markets,
technology and communication, organizational regimes and institutions, enterprises
and corporations, and labor.

POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION is primarily concerned with growth and expansion of

global political system and its institutions. The creation and continued existence of
the United Nations is a classic example of this. Valentine Moghadam (2005) outlined
key trends towards this expansion: multilateralism, emergence of transnational state
apparatus and the emergence of international non-governmental organizations that
would provide oversight functions to national governments.

James (2006) defined CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION as the ―transmission of

ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and
intensify social relations and expansion of social relations is not merely observed on
the material level for it also involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge
with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities‖.

SOCIOLOGICAL GLOBALIZATION: Albrow and King (1990) defined globalization

from the sociological perspective as, all those processes by which the people of the
world are incorporated into a single world society.

Page 100
 GLOBALIZATION AND IT’S DISCONTENTS

GLOBALIZATION AND INEQUALITY: Though globalization, particularly economic

globalization, has its rewards, countries derive unequal benefits from it, and as a
result tends to widen the divide between the poor countries of the ―South and the
richer countries of the ―North. Countries deeply engaged in globalization have
reported widening income gaps as measured by their Gini coefficient ratios.

GLOBALIZATION, LABOR CONDITIONS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: By being

first and foremost concerned with free trade and dismantling of barriers to trade,
proponents of globalization according to critics, tend to overlook the process of how
goods and products are made.

GLOBALIZATION AND DEMOCRACY: It is a well-established view by many that

globalization encourages democratic institutions which promote democracy. As the
global market relies on capitalist democratic values, it is inevitable that organizations
that reinforce these values are rewarded- they can expand into countries with other
forms of government and promote these ideals.

ROLE OF ETHICS IN GLOBALIZATION

As the effects of globalization increases, ethics must itself become globalized.
Ethical principles have crossed many boundaries and have indeed became
globalized. Cultural differences and the advancement of technology have changed
ethical beliefs and traditions. There should be globalization of ethical principles
despite diverse ethical beliefs and cultural differences.

Ethics cannot be separated from globalization. The great changes which

globalization has brought about to different cultural systems necessitates changes in
the philosophical field of Ethics. Ethics‘ traditional manner of explaining good and
evil and how to lead a good and happy life in order to guide us in the right direction,
needs to be reconstructed. Without this adaptation, Ethics will be regarded as
obsolete and futile and unable to adjust to new conditions introduced by
globalization.

In his work, The Imperative of Responsibility: In search of an Ethics for the

Technological Age, Hans Jonas (1984), indicated that traditional ethics has been
based on ―simultaneousness, directness, and reciprocality. In traditional ethics, the
range of human action and therefore responsibility was narrowly circumscribed.

This implies that traditional ethics had concentrated only on presence in the spatio-
temporal sense of the word. Traditional ethics has confined itself on beings who live
in the present or in the here and now. However, globalization, with its advanced
technologies, has decreased to a great degree the separation among people in
terms of distance and time. In the process, it also torn down the structure of the
ethics of presence. In a globalized world where different people connect through
Page 101
 121highly developed system of communication, distant and absent individuals can
possibly be located near another. Hence, a person‘s decisions and actions can
possibly affect anybody residing on the other side of the globe.

What could be the reason for the limitation of the premises of traditional ethics?
According to Jonas (1984), when the conventional concept of ethics was developed,
the power of human action was not so great that it could destroy the world. When
the force of scientific technology exceeds the scale imagined by previous ethics, we
have no choice but to widen the scope of responsibility as new conditions might
require. The measure of responsibility must correspond with that of power.

To effect its transformation into a new ethics, a global ethics, traditional ethics must
respond to the challenges and issues that globalization brings. It must rethink its
principles vis-à-vis the sophistication of the new world. It must consider, in its revisit,
the future world and future generations or those who are not yet existing. It must
also consider not only men but all living organisms together with their environment.

PLURALISM IN RELATION TO GLOBALIZATION AND ETHICS

Pluralism is an idea used in many different ways. In its general sense, it refers to the
theory that there is more than one basic principle. Pluralism, also known as the
―doctrine of multiplicity‖ suggests differences in concepts, world views, discourses,
viewpoints etc. and that they differ widely from subject area to subject area.
Pluralism is an interpretation of social diversity. It can be rendered as a political,
cultural, social, or philosophical stance. Any kind of pluralism makes at the very least
an empirical thesis about irreducible diversity. Yet each of these kinds of pluralism
pivots around different types of conflict – including ethical values, social or cultural
practices, epistemological worldviews, ideologies, and/or political interests – and
each accounts for these clashes from a different angle and with different
implications.

THE ETHICAL CHALLENGES OF MILLENNIALS

The idea of "social generations" was introduced in the 19th century. Social
generations are groups of people who were born in the same date range, share
similar cultural experiences, and have been shaped by significant events or societal
trends while coming of age. Prior to this concept, ―generation‖ had generally
referred to family relationships. Howe & Strauss (as cited by Jenkins, 2017) define a
social generation as the aggregate of all people born over a span of roughly twenty
years or about the length of one phase of life: childhood, young adulthood, midlife,
and old age.

Millennials simply refers to the generation who came of age during the 2000
millennium. In 1993, Advertising Age was credited with creating the term
―Generation Y. Howe & Strauss used the term ―Millennials" because the members
of the generation did not want to be associated with their predecessors, Gen X.
Soon after, Advertising Age conceded that Millennials was a better name and

Page 102
 insisted that "Generation Y” was only a placeholder until more was discovered about
them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MILLENIALS/IGENS
Millenials are born from 1977-1994 or 1981-2000. There other names are
Generation Y, Gen Y, iGen, Generation Next, Echo Boomers, 24/7‘s, etc. They live
in merged families and they are coddled kids. Their education is incredibly
expensive and they value individuality. They are ambitious, have the tenacity and
entrepreneurial mindset and always look forward to what‘s next. The tables below
give an overview of their peculiarities.

IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE TO MILLENNIALS

SECULARISM comes from the word secular, meaning of this world. People are
encouraged to take an interest in this world and not in any place with religious sense
such as heaven or hell. It is broadly defined as freedom from religion as well as
freedom of religion. Secularism seeks to interpret life on principles taken solely from
the material world, without recourse to religion. It shifts the focus from religion to
other temporal and this- worldly‘ things with emphasis on nature, reason, science,
technology and development (Secularism, n.d.).

HUMANISM advocates the value, freedom, and independence of human beings. Its
slogan is that all human beings are born with moral value, and have a responsibility
to help one another live better lives. It emphasizes reason and science over
scripture (religious texts) and tradition, and also believes that human beings are
flawed but capable of improvement. It also tries to discover the truths about the
universe and humanity‘s place within it. Type of humanism: Secular and Religious
INDIVIDUALISM: One typical characteristic of millennials is that they value
individuality. They follow their own ideas and feelings about many things, rather than
conform to the standards of society. This reflects in their moral preferences as
something ―personal, subjective, based on feelings, and non-transferrable to
others‖ (De Guzman et al., 2018). This depicts an individual who is self-absorbed
and only thinks for his own interest. It points to egoism which holds that choosing
one‘s own good is in accordance with morality: it is always moral to promote one‘s
own good.

HUMANISM AND THE MILLENNIALS

Millennials are highly exposed in a multicultural and digital environment and at the
same time fashioning this environment to work to their advantage. They do not just
swallow what their older generations considered as wisdom but they are also ever
critical and choosy of the knowledge and information that works for them. The idea
of humanism is very enticing to their imagination because it places self-well-being,
interests, and happiness as worth striving to their tastes. Hence, they create their
own set of ethics. While it is true that they are tolerant of religious undertakings, their
switch on/off attitude coupled with experimentation of jumping from one western
church to another while being exposed also to eastern spirituality, agnostic ideas,
quantum physics and science fiction, it is their way of finding their unique way of
Page 103
 being human. They are constantly barraged by nauseating perspectives on politics,
race, economics, gender, spirituality and even morality.

The millennials‘ exposure to the internet allowed them to breathe diversity in all its
form and hence their unlimited imagination and creativity led them also to create and
recreate their own values. This does not mean, however, that they are naïve in just
seeking their own happiness and interests as the crux of their moral decision making
because they openly let others do the same also.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMANISM

Humanism has a deep influence on modern culture. For example, we often object to
something by saying it‘s ―a violation of human rights. The idea of human rights is a
humanistic because it emphasizes the worth that is within each individual person.
The non-humanist approach would be to say that the behavior was wrong because it
was ―against God‘s law or ―contrary to tradition. These types of arguments still
exist in the modern world, but they‘re much less common than they used to be
because humanism is so popular.

Some religious people criticize secular humanism because they see it as taking the
place of God. From this point of view, only God has natural value, and morality can
only come from loving God and obeying the scriptures. Of course, religious
humanists would object to this. They would say that loving God and obeying the
scriptures is the same as respecting human rights and valuing individual lives.

THE ROLE OF RELIGIONS IN ETHICS

More than that, the tension between the religious old ways of life and the modern
fashion styles and behavior brought the idea of religious fundamentalism into action
in all facets of society, may it be economic, social or political. It placed peoples‘ lives
in danger and the millennials became all the more confused as to what it can offer to
them. This is just one situation we all find ourselves hanging into: the impact of
religion in our ethical lives.

Ethics studies human behavior and ideal ways of being. As a philosophical

discipline, it is a systematic approach to understanding, analyzing, and
distinguishing matters of right and wrong, good and bad, and admirable and
deplorable as they relate to the well-being of and the relationships among human
beings.

RELIGION is defined as ―people‘s beliefs and opinions concerning the existence,

nature, and worship of a deity or deities, and divine involvement in the universe and
human life. (religion, n.d.). Referring to the sacred engagement with that which is
believed to be a spiritual reality, religion denotes the belief in, or the worship of, a
god (or gods) and the worship or service to God or the supernatural. The term
supernatural‘ means ―whatever transcends the powers of nature or human agency
(religion, n.d.). The term ‗religion‘is sometimes used interchangeably with faith,‘
creed,‘ belief system,‘ or conviction.‘

Page 104
 A religion is also viewed as an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems and
worldviews that relate humanity to an order of existence. Many religions possess
sacred scriptures, narratives, or sacred accounts that aim to explain the origin, and
meaning of life and the universe. From the religions‘ beliefs about the cosmos, and
human nature, adherents usually draw religious laws, an ideal way of living, and
detailed rules or ethical or moral conduct (De Guzman, 2018). Religion can typically
be seen as involving various dimensions – myth (or sacred narrative), doctrine,
ritual, social and institutional expression, experience and ethics. For many people,
ethics may be the most important part of religion because of the way it teaches
wisdom as to what is right and wrong. Even secular beliefs have ethical dimension
(Smart and Hecht, 1982).

Some submit that the difference between religion and ethics is about the disparity
between revelation and reason. In some measure, religion is based on the idea that
God (or some deity) reveals insights about life and its meaning. These divine
insights are compiled in texts (the Bible, the Torah, the Koran, etc.) and introduced
as revelation. The role of philosophers is to accurately try to define and promote
ethical concepts based upon logic and reason. A religious person on the other hand,
follows his or her code of conduct because he believes that it is proper behavior and
reaction to the varying challenges and circumstances which arise during the course
of life.

From a strictly humanistic perspective, ethics, on the other hand, is based on the
tenets of reason. That is, anything that is not rationally provable cannot be deemed
justifiable. This definition of ethics, however, does not necessarily exclude religion or
a belief in God, for it is also subject to ethical discernment. Indeed, many ethicists
emphasize the relationship, not the difference between ethics and religion. (De
Guzman, 2018).

RELIGION AND FUNDAMENTALISM

FUNDAMENTALISM is a tendency among certain groups, mainly religious groups,
that is characterized by strict literal adherence and interpretation of certain
scriptures, dogmas and ideologies. Fundamentalism is also marked by promotion of
dichotomies and divisions among those who adhere and those who do not,
maintaining a sense and an environment of in-group and out-group distinctions
(Hunsberger 1992) and which advocates impose a return to a previous ideal for
those members who strayed. Fundamentalists put much emphasis on purity and
homogeneous belief, thus, diversity of opinion or interpretation is often discouraged,
rejected outright or severely sanctioned. This intolerance to contrary and opposing
views make fundamentalism a perjorative term that often made synonymous with
extremism, fanaticism and radicalism.

The term RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM is used to denote an action of a group

which is highly prejudiced by religious orthodoxy. Fundamentalist movement
predominantly emerges from an urban society and disseminates a set of rules in

Page 105
 regard to formation of societal structure, human behavior and behavior towards
other. Almond, Sivan and Appleby (2003) defines religious fundamentalism as a
discernible pattern of religious militancy by which self-styled 'true believers' attempt
to arrest the erosion of religious identity, fortify the borders of the religious
community, and create viable alternatives to secular institutions and behaviors.
Religious fundamentalists believe that their existence is in a state of serious
confusion due to identity crisis. This crisis then leads to contradiction and a series of
contradictions leads to conflicts. This is further intensified by the growing
differentiation in the society.

RELIGIONS’ ROLE IN ETHICS

Can we be ethical without being religious? According to Steven Mintz (2012), a
longstanding debate has been whether ethics plays a role in religion. Most religions
have an ethical component. Ethics encompasses right conduct and good life. It is
significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong. It
also deals with ideas such as right, good and duty and these concepts have always
been discussed since ancient times until today (Smart, N. & Hecht, R. D., 1982).

A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is simply
satisfying, which is held by many philosophers to be more important than traditional
moral codes. The ancient Greeks called it eudaimonia or happiness. The ancient
Greeks believed happiness was brought about by living one‘s life in accordance with
virtue – positive traits of character. Virtue in the highest sense, in an adult who has
been brought up well, will not just involve good personal habits such as courage and
temperance, but also friendship and justice and intellectual virtue. The essence of
virtue is in the wholeness of the person brought about by integrity.

If religion has a role in moral decision-making, then what should be that role? In
America, for many individuals, their religion is a centrally defining characteristic of
who they are, such that they would be nearly incapable of making ethical decisions
independently of their religious beliefs. Further, some of our most basic moral
sentiments are directly connected to religious ideology. For example, most people
agree that things like murder and adultery are always wrong, regardless of
circumstances.

The link between religion and ethics seems obvious (Tittle and Wlech, 1983; Weaver
and Agle, 2002). Religions, through the values they embody, often build the basis for
what is considered right and wrong (Turner, 1997). Religion produces both formal
and informal norms and provides people with a freedom/constraint duality by
prescribing behaviors within some acceptable boundaries (Fararo and Skvoretz,
1986).

The link between religion and morality is best illustrated by the Golden Rule. Virtually
all of the world‘s great religions contain in their religious texts some version of the
Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would wish them do unto you”. In other
words, we should treat others the way we would want to be treated. This is the basic
ethic that guides all religions. If we do so, happiness will ensue.

Page 106
ETHICS, FUNDAMENTALISM AND GLOBAL TERRORISM
Like globalization, there are various different definitions of terrorism, with no
universal agreement about it. Terrorism is therefore a loaded term and concept. It is
often used to imply something that is "morally wrong". Different countries have used
the term to justify crackdown on opposing views hence branding of groups and
individuals, often through legislation and government enactments, are often abused
but one thing is very clear: When terrorism is perpetrated by the nation state or
dominant political actors within the state, it is not considered terrorism by the state or
government conducting it, making legality largely a problematic issue (Teichman,
1989).

The United Nations has condemned terrorist acts since 1994 and came up with a
political description of terrorism: ―Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a
state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for
political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations
of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature
that may be invoked to justify them.

In addition, most scholars, organizations and states agree that terroristic acts are
characterized by:
 The use of violence or of the threat of violence in the pursuit of political, religious,
ideological or social objectives,
 Acts committed by non-state actors (or by undercover personnel serving on the
behalf of their respective governments),
 Acts reaching more than the immediate target victims and also directed at targets
consisting of a larger spectrum of society,
 Both mala prohibita (crime that is made illegal by legislation) and mala in se
(crime that is inherently immoral or wrong).

TRENDS IN GLOBAL TERRORISM

Clarke (2020) predicted that geopolitical realignments, emerging technologies, and
demographic shifts will all contribute to different manifestations of ideologically and
politically motivated violence. Much of this will continue to have a transnational
dimension, with once seemingly parochial challenges made even more complex as a
result of the globalization of violence. The threat posed by transnational terrorism in
the coming years thus presents a complex mosaic.

Since 9/11, defensive counterterrorism tactics have prevented another largescale,

foreign-born terrorist attack on U.S. soil. However, since 9/11, offensive
counterterrorism tactics have been largely counterproductive, often creating more
challenges than they solve. Today, there are nearly four times as many jihadist
militants as there were on 9/11, signaling that the Global War on Terror has
unintentionally produced more terrorists than it has removed (Thrall, 2017).

Page 107
 One of the most concerning trends in global terrorism is the proliferation of violent
white supremacy extremist organizations and other groups motivated by various
forms of right-wing extremism.

Today, terrorist organizations are transforming into global networks as they build
international alliances that enable their organizations to share resources and
withstand counterterrorism pressure. Foreign fighters are dispersing across the
globe and have the potential to form new terrorist groups, strengthen existing ones,
or carry out lethal attacks of their own. Terrorists around the world are also pursuing
offensive cyber weapons capable of crippling critical infrastructure. Furthermore, the
Global War on Terror will soon enter its third decade, yet the international
community is no closer to defeating twenty-first-century terrorist organizations.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
Page 108
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
Page 109
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
Page 110
 REFERENCE/S
Foundations of Moral Valuation by Oscar G. Bulaong, Mark Joseph T. Calano, Albert M.
Lagliva, Michael Ner E. Mariano, Jesus Deogracias Z. Principe

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Topic: HISTORY OF PEACE EDUCATION
Sub-topic: CONCEPT OF PEACE AND VIOLENCE

OVERVIEW
Over the past many years, peace workers have increasingly challenge this
conventional view of peace and have declared that peace is not simply a lack of war
or non-violence, PEACE means eradication of all facets of injustices (Cheng and
Kurtz, 1998). There is a consensus that we need to have a comprehensive view of
peace if we are to move toward a genuine peace culture. This chapter will discuss
the concept of peace and violence towards the idea of peace education or peace
studies.

FOCUS ON PEACE
DEFINING PEACE
Peace is not the absence of war, nor is it the opposite of war. Defining peace as the
absence of war brings peace down to a meaningless, passive, incomplete and far-
fetched vision. The spectrum of peace is much bigger, because the spectrum of
violence is much bigger than that of war. However, peace is also not the absence of
violence, it is the opposite of violence.

TOWARD A HOLISTIC CONCEPT OF PEACE AND VIOLENCE

Johan Galtung explains that PEACE is the absence of violence, not only personal or
direct but also structural or indirect. The manifestations of structural violence are the

Page 111
highly uneven distribution of wealth and resources as well as the uneven distribution
of power over the distribution of said resources.

Peace is both the absence of personal/direct violence and the presence of social
justice. For brevity, Galtung prefers the formulations of “ABSENCE OF VIOLENCE”
and the “PRESENCE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE”, thinking of the former as one that is
not positively defined condition and has called it negative peace, whereas the latter
is a positively defined condition (egalitarian distribution of power and resources) has
called it POSITIVE PEACE.

Indeed, peace researchers and educators now seem satisfied to split the concept of
peace into two, stating the meaning of peace can be captured by the idea of a
negative and positive peace.

NEGATIVE PEACE refers to the absence of war or physical/direct violence while

POSITIVE PEACE refers to the present of just and non-exploitative relationships as
well as human and ecological well-being, such that the root causes of conflict
diminished.

The non-exploitative relationship not only refer to relationship between humans but
also to those between humans and nature. Peace with nature is considered as the
foundation for positive peace.

Page 112
THE HISTORY OF PEACE EDUCATION
Peace education can be defined simply as ―the process of teaching people about
the threats of violence and strategies for peace, and may take place inside or
outside a classroom (Harris, 2008, p. 15). With this broad definition, the history of
peace education is arguably as old as human history, as cultures throughout the
world have learned - and then taught the next generation - how to live peacefully
with others. Diverse religious and philosophical traditions have been a rich and
influential source of peace learning, even though people have also promoted
violence in the names of these traditions.
Page 113
Peace education in its modern form, however, has its roots in academia and the field
of peace studies. Peace education scholar Ian Harris describes this modern peace
movement as beginning in nineteenth century Europe with many intellectual efforts
to learn about violent conflict, evolving into socialist political thought, and spreading
to the United States and elsewhere before World War I. Scholars then began to
study war and started trying to educate the public about its dangers. More and more
people tried to persuade each other and their governments to use mediation instead
of war to solve international conflicts. For example, influenced by the progressive
ideas of the American educational theorist John Dewey, many teachers across the
United States began using progressive education to teach their students about our
common humanity in order to promote peaceful social progress (Harris, 2008, p. 16-
17).

In the early 1900s, women became an especially active part of this modern peace
education movement. At this time, peace educators began campaigning for social
justice, arguing that poverty and inequality were causes of war. These campaigns
were often led by women.

MARIA MONTESSORI is one example of an influential mid-20th century theorist

who found new connections between peace and education. She linked teaching
methodology to peace-building, hoping to help the next generation avoid the
violence of authoritarianism. Other peace educators at that time, such as Herbert
Read, began encouraging the use of art and students' creativity to promote peace,
while others, such as Paulo Freire, focused on training students for critical analysis
and reform of society.

International organizations, including various United Nations bodies, as well as many

nongovernmental organizations, have been growing in influence and importance
since the end of World War I, and have contributed greatly to the movement to
achieve global peace. Although the League of Nations failed, the establishment of
the United Nations achieved new levels of global cooperation, norms, and ideals.
The Charter of the United Nations has since served as inspiration for the
development of peace education, as educators aspired to help in the global effort to
―save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, to reaffirm faith in the
dignity and worth of men and Women, to establish conditions under which justice
and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of
international law can be maintained, and ―to promote social progress and better
standards of life in larger freedom (United Nations, 1945). With this mandate, the
study and promotion of sustainable peace through education began to take on new
urgency and sophistication to achieve these universal ideals.

Peace studies became a more serious academic subject soon after World War II.
The threat of nuclear war throughout the Cold War encouraged many scholars to
devote their studies to creating a sustainable peace. Since the 1980s in particular,
peace education scholarship has developed in many directions. Some have
emphasized minimizing masculine aggression, domestic violence, and militarism;

Page 114
others have sought to foster empathy and care in students; and many have argued
that critical thinking and democratic pedagogy are vital.

With the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), created in 1989, peace
education and human rights education took on new importance, as this type of
education came to be seen as a fundamental right that all children should have. As
UNICEF scholar Susan Fountain writes, it is significant that the framers of the CRC
viewed the promotion of understanding, peace and tolerance through education as a
fundamental right of all children, not an optional extra-curricular activity. International
organizations of all types, along with local teachers and communities, felt renewed
pressure to provide peace education to all students as part of their core studies; this
provision became an explicit duty for everyone in society, and especially for those
involved in formal education.

Since the 1990s, peace education scholarship from around the world has provided
an even greater variety of perspectives on the practice and its goals. In documenting
the implementation of peace education, scholars have found varying degrees of
emphasis on positive or negative peace*, on local or global peace, and subordinate
or dominant status of students. Scholars have argued that the context of the peace
education program has become one of the most important factors in shaping the
form it takes. In other words, the content and emphasis of a given peace education
program depends to a large extent on where it is taught. Some programs focus
primarily on positive peace, while others may address negative peace.

Thus, peace education has evolved to emphasize local peace potentials and local
traditions of conflict transformation. Teachers and others have shaped their
programs to address the needs and goals of their communities. For example, some
scholars have suggested ubuntu - an ethical philosophy of southern Africa that
roughly translates to ― “I am because you are” - as a helpful component of peace
education in parts of Africa.

The history of peace education, therefore, has various roots and has developed on
various paths; nonetheless, every instance of peace education can be seen as part
of a larger movement toward the creation of a more peaceful world.

Despite their differences in local context, peace education teachers have much in
common. Many peace educators seek to promote some combination of the following
ideals: human rights and the rights of the child, social justice and the minimization of
structural violence, critical analysis and transformation of violent concepts and
institutions, non-violent interpersonal and inter-communal conflict resolution,
universal empathy, global familiarity, and peaceful coexistence with the environment.
Around the world, teachers have drawn upon the work and research of international
activists, scholars, and each other for ideas. At the same time, these peace
educators' work continues to inspire further work and study concerning new
possibilities for peace education.

Thus, the trend in recent history appears to be one of moving toward an expanding
informal network of activists, scholars, teachers, and others that draw on each
Page 115
 other's work to improve their understanding and promotion of peace. New
participants join the movement every day, and peace education continues to evolve
in its theory and in its practice.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
Page 116
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
Page 117
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Peace Education Teachers Without Borders. Instructors: Stephanie Knoxx Cubbon et. al.
Compiled by Demola Akinyoade

Page 118
Fountain, S. (1999). Peace Education in UNICEF. New York: UNICEF. Retrieved from
www.unicef.org/girlseducation/files/PeaceEducation.pdf

Harris, I. (2008). "History of Peace Education" in Monisha Bajaj, ed., Encyclopedia of Peace
Education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2008) Retrieved from
(http://www.tc.edu/centers/epe/PDF%20articles/Harris_ch2_22feb08.pdf )

Murithi, T. (2009). "An African Perspective on Peace Education: Ubuntu Lessons in

Reconciliation," International Review of Education (55), p. 221-233. United Nations. (1945).
Preamble of the UN Charter. Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/peace/frame2.html

Salomon, G. (2002). "The Nature of Peace Education: Not All Programs Are Created Equal" in
Nevo & Salomon, eds., Peace Education: the concept principles, and practices around the
world, New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, p. 3-13.

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Page 119
PEACE EDUCATION
As explained by Abebe, Gbesso, & Nyawalo (2006); peace education is a unifying
and comprehensive concept that seeks to promote a holistic view of education.
However, its relevance is inextricably part of and is highly dependent on contextual
specificity. UNESCO literature states that Peace Education is more effective and
meaningful when adopted according to the social and cultural context and the needs
of a country. It should be enriched by its cultural and spiritual values together with
the universal human values. It should also be globally relevant. Given such a
framework, it is hard to find a universally accepted definition. As such, Peace
Education is characterized by its many definitions (p. 14).

JOHN DEWEY
One of the key thinkers of the field, John Dewey (1923), defined peace education as
a curriculum … which will make it more difficult for the flames of hatred and
suspicion to sweep over this country in the future, which indeed will make this
impossible, because when children’s minds are in the formative period we shall have
fixed in them through the medium of the schools, feelings of respect and friendliness
for the other nations and peoples of the world (p. 516).

Dewey's emphasis, developed in the midst of two World Wars, was on a sense of
world patriotism and peaceful internationalism that would eliminate the horrific wars
of his time, and his definition reflects that globalist theory.

UNITED NATION
The United Nations, even in its earliest years, voiced similar support for peace
education as a catalyst for international respect and human rights, as described in its
Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Education shall be directed to the full
development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities
of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace (United Nations General
Assembly, 1948, p. 6).

SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND ACTION

More recently, numerous definitions focus on peace education as the development
of skills that empower students to tackle real-world issues and thus actively create
peace in the world.

According to Fountain (1999), Peace education in UNICEF refers to the process of

promoting the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed to bring about
behaviour changes that will enable children, youth and adults to prevent conflict and
violence, both overt and structural; to resolve conflict peacefully; and to create the
conditions conducive to peace, whether at an intrapersonal, interpersonal,

Page 120
 intergroup, national or international level (p. 1).

Peace Education is process of developing knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors and

values that enable learners to:
 Identify and understand sources of local and global issues and acquire positive
and appropriate sensitivities to these problems
 Resolve conflicts and to attain justice in a non-violent way
 Live by universal standards of human rights and equity by appreciating cultural
diversity, respect for the earth and for each other (p. 14).

EDUCATION ABOUT PEACE AND FOR PEACE

Other definitions emphasize the difference between learning about peace and
learning for peace, thus incorporating both background knowledge and practical
skills.
Peace Education means to learn about and to learn for peace. Learning about peace
means obtaining knowledge and understanding of what contributes to peace, what
damages it, what leads to war, what does 'peace' mean on each level anyway, what
is my role in it, and how are the different levels connected? Learning for peace
means learning the skills, attitudes and values that one needs in order to contribute
to peace and help maintain it. For example, this means learning to deal with conflicts
without the recourse to violence, learning to think creatively, learning to apply the
methods of active non-violence or learning to deal with cultural differences in a
constructive way (Space for Peace, 2010).

Peace education can be defined as: the transmission of knowledge about

requirements of, the obstacles to, and possibilities for achieving and maintaining
peace; training in skills for interpreting the knowledge; and the development of
reflective and participatory capacities for applying the knowledge to overcome
problems and achieve possibilities (Reardon, 2000, p. 399)

SCOPE
Definitions can also differ in the level and scope of their focus, as some concentrate
on the impacts of peace education on individuals, while others emphasize its impact
on the world as a whole.

Peace education is holistic. It embraces the physical, emotional, intellectual, and

social growth of children within a framework deeply rooted in traditional human
values. It is based on philosophy that teaches love, compassion, trust, fairness, co-
operation and reverence for the human family and all life on our beautiful planet
(Schmidt and Friedman, 1988, as cited in Abebe et. al., 2006, p. 14).

Peace education is an attempt to respond to problems of conflict and violence on

scales ranging from the global and national to the local and personal. It is about
exploring ways of creating more just and sustainable futures (R. D. Laing, I978, as
cited in Abebe, et. al., 2006, p. 14).

UNICEF
Page 121
 As a final note, below is UNICEF's detailed outline of the many factors that peace
education must take into account and incorporate. Schooling and other educational
experiences that reflect UNICEF's approach to peace education should:

 Function as 'zones of peace', where children are safe from conflict in the
community;
 Uphold children‘s basic rights as enumerated in the CRC (Convention on the
Rights of the Child);
 Develop a climate, within the school or other learning environment, that models
peaceful and rights-respectful behavior in the relationships between all members
of the school community: teachers, administrators, other staff, parents and
children;
 Demonstrate the principles of equality and non-discrimination in administrative
policies and practices;
 Draw on the knowledge of peace-building that already exists in the community,
including means of dealing with conflict that are effective, non-violent, and rooted
in the local culture;
 Handle conflicts - whether between children or between children and adults - in a
non-violent manner that respects the rights and dignity of all involved;
 Integrate an understanding of peace, human rights, social justice and global
issues throughout the curriculum whenever possible;
 Provide a forum for the explicit discussion of values of peace and social justice;
 Use teaching and learning methods that promote participation, cooperation,
problem-solving and respect for differences;
 Allow opportunities for children to put peace-making into practice, both in the
educational setting and in the wider community;
 Provide opportunities for continuous reflection and professional development of
all educators in relation to issues of peace, justice and rights (Fountain, 1999, p.
5-6).

CONCLUSION
The definitions above provide a general sampling of those available and utilized in
the field of peace education today. Peace education is a holistic, interdisciplinary
field that seeks to promote knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes for peace.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Page 122
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
Page 123
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group

Page 124
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
Abebe, T.T., Gbesso, A., & Nyawalo, P.A. (2006). Peace Education in Africa. Addis Ababa:
University for Peace. Retrieved from http://www.africa.upeace.org/documents/reports/Peace
%20Education,%20FinalReport.pdf

Dewey, J. (1923). The Schools as a Means of Developing a Social Consciousness and Social
Ideals in Children. Journal of Social Forces I.

Fountain, S. (1999). Peace Education in UNICEF. New York: UNICEF. Retrieved from
http://www.unicef.org/girlseducation/files/PeaceEducation.pdf

Reardon, B. (2000). Peace Education: A Review and a Projection. In B. Moon, M. Ben-Peretz &
S. Brown (Eds.), Routledge International Companion to Education. London: Taylor & Francis. p.
397-425.

Space for Peace. (2010). Peace Education: A Working Definition. Retrieved from
http://www.spaceforpeace.net/pe.phtml

United Nations General Assembly. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Page 125
 INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)

At the end of the lesson the

students should be able to:
 Define the key terms of
negative peace,
positive peace,
structural violence and
cultural violence; and,
A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the  Discuss the relevance
students of Northeastern College of these terms to peace
(Second Semester) education and the
broader field of peace
studies.

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Topic: NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PEACE

OVERVIEW
Is peace the absence of war, or is it more than that? Peace is
sometimes equated with the absence of war. But think about a
country today that is not at war. Would you describe that
country as being peaceful? Are there still problems of physical
violence? Are there issues of social inequality, injustice, or
discrimination? Most likely, the answer is yes. These are the
issues that renowned peace scholar Johan Galtung was trying to address when he
developed the concepts of negative and positive peace. Johan Galtung is one of the
main theorists in peace and conflict studies. He introduced the concepts of negative
peace, positive peace, structural violence, and many other key concepts. Galtung
has written numerous books and journal publications, and is the founder of
Transcend International, a network of organizations working in peace research,
education, action and media. Galtung's ideas have been highly influential in the field
of peace education.

FOCUS ON PEACE
DEFINING PEACE
Peace, in the sense of the absence of war, is of little value to someone who is dying
of hunger or cold. It will not remove the pain of torture inflicted on a prisoner of
conscience. It does not comfort those who have lost their loved ones in floods
caused by senseless deforestation in a neighboring country. Peace can only last
where human rights are respected, where people are fed, and where individuals and
nations are free. - The XIVth Dalai Lama

Negative peace is the absence of violence. In order to create negative peace, we

must look for ways to reduce and eliminate violence. A cease-fire would be an
example of an action for negative peace.

Positive peace is the presence of social justice and equality, and the absence of
structural or indirect violence. It is characterized by the presence of harmonious
social relations and the ―integration of human society (Galtung, 1964). In order to
further understand positive peace, it is important to understand structural violence.
Page 126
Structural violence, or indirect violence, is the result of social structures or
institutions that prevent people from meeting their basic needs and accessing their
basic human rights. Assefa describes this as ―killing people without the use of the
gun‖ (1993: 3). For example, hunger can be the result of structural violence, as
economic and social systems may prevent people from being able to access
adequate food supplies, particularly in societies where there are rich people with

excess food supplies, and especially when public resources are diverted to other
areas, such as military spending. Another example would be institutionalized racism
or sexism.

Cultural violence refers to any aspect of culture which can be used to justify
structural violence. Language, religion, ideology, and science are examples of parts
of a culture that may mask structural violence, and even make it seem natural or
right.

It is important to note that peace, whether negative or positive, does not necessarily
mean the absence of conflict. Conflict itself is not an inherently negative occurrence,
as through conflict, positive change and transformation may occur. What is important
Page 127
 is that conflict is handled nonviolently and constructively. Turay and English (2008)
express this idea clearly by saying, ―conflict is a fact of life and a reality for all of us.
How we deal with it is how we embody our understanding of peace and justice.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PEACE EDUCATION

Peace education must distinguish between these different aspects of peace, and
include both aspects in order to educate for a holistic conception of peace. In peace
education, disarmament education and nonviolent conflict resolution education are
forms of education for negative peace, as these forms of education seek to directly
end or prevent violence and the use of force and weapons. However, disarmament
education also goes beyond negative peace by promoting values for positive peace,
and by exploring areas of structural violence relating to militarism, for example.
Education for human rights, multiculturalism, social justice, ecological sustainability,
and inner peace are examples of peace education for positive peace.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
Page 128
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies

Page 129
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time

Page 130
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
 Assefa, H. (1993). Peace and reconciliation as a paradigm: A philosophy of peace and
its implications on conflict, governance, and economic growth in Africa. Nairobi, Kenya:
Nairobi Peace Initiative.

 Galtung, Johan. 1964. An Editorial. Journal of Peace Research, 1(1), p. 1-4.

 Grewel, B.S. (2003). Johan Galtung: Negative and Positive Peace. School of Social
Science, Auckland University of Technology. Retrieved from
http://www.activeforpeace.org/no/fred/Positive_Negative_Peace.pdf

 Turay, T.M., & English, L.M. (2008). Towards a global culture of peace: A transformative
model of peace education. Journal of Transformative Education, 6(4), p. 286-301.
Available at: http://jtd.sagepub.com/content/6/4/286.full.pdf+html

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Page 131
 You must be the change you wish to see in the world. - Mahatma Gandhi

TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING
According to leading theorist Jack Mezirow (1997), transformative learning occurs
when individuals change their frames of reference by critically reflecting on their
assumptions and beliefs and consciously implementing plans that bring about new
ways of defining their worlds. This can happen through critical thinking, which
teachers can encourage through dialogue and questioning, and through more
creative, emotional processes such as artistic activities. There is no single mode of
transformative learning, and as different students learn best in different ways, it is
best for teachers to use varied approaches to encourage perspective transformation.

Transformative learning is absolutely critical to the process of peace education. If we

consider peace education as a practice for transforming society from a culture of war
to a culture of peace, then it is implicit that our current worldview is embedded in the
culture of war. Our knowledge, behaviors, and actions are influenced by this
worldview, and must change in order to shift towards a culture of peace. Therefore,
transformative learning is a necessary part of peace education.

Transformative learning is important for all involved, including teachers, for teachers
need to internalize these concepts themselves in order to be able to effectively
convey them to their students. To paraphrase the famous quote from Gandhi, we
must be the change that we want to see in the world, and therefore, teachers must
be the change that they want to see in their students.

The studies and research on peace education do not often concentrate on

transformation (Turay and English, 2008). However, this element is important, as
peace education ―has been implicitly linked to transforming worldviews and to
conscientization, which is expressly transformative and socially related (Turay and
English, 2008: 289). Thus, the transformative element in peace education deserves
explicit attention and recognition (see section 3.3 on Paulo Freire for more on
conscientization).

Page 132
TRANSFORMATIVE MODEL OF PEACE EDUCATION

Turay and English (2008) proposed a new Transformative Model of Peace

Education (TMPE), which includes five elements: Diversity, Participatory Learning,
Globalized Perspectives, Indigenous Knowing and Spiritual Underpinnings.

Five Elements:

DIVERSITY: According to Turay and English, an effective model of peace education

celebrates diversity and difference, and at the same time, acknowledges that core
values such as respect, honor, and dialogue are universal. By engaging participants
in a critical self-reflective process, the diversity element seeks to transform their
worldviews about what constitutes diversity and what constitutes peace.

PARTICIPATORY LEARNING: The guiding principle of participatory learning is that

learners know what they need to learn and how they need to learn it. It is a process
that includes the transformation of both the educator and the learners, and values
the lived experience of all participants. Through the participatory learning process,
community members name the problem, analyze its root causes, view the issue from
a variety of perspectives, strategize options for addressing the root causes, and only
then move to solutions.

Page 133
 GLOBALIZED PERSPECTIVES: Incorporating globalized perspectives requires the
teacher and learners to ‖negotiate the tension between the global and the local and
to stress the larger sociocultural and economic sphere of which the participants are
a part (p. 295). The teacher should promote the ability to work across cultures, as
well as the ability to see the linkages between immediate and so-called removed
circumstances. An example of this is exploring how mass consumerism and gross
consumption of oil contribute to conflicts.

INDIGENOUS KNOWING: The indigenous knowing aspect of the model demands

that the model be contextualized to the location where it is enacted. One important
aspect is acknowledging that participants may have fluency in indigenous languages
and ways of life that are not considered in many international standards of literacy.
The transformative model, therefore, must be contextualized in the participants‘
location.

In this context, spirituality is the search for meaning in life. Many people have
religious and spiritual beliefs and values that are central to how they deal with
conflict, and we need to acknowledge and incorporate these ideas into how we
educate for peace. Furthermore, peace, like spirituality, should be a thread that runs
across the whole of education – classroom, recreation, and one-on-one interactions.

IMPLEMENTING THE TRANSFORMATIVE MODEL OF PEACE

EDUCATION
The following are the key principles for implementing the Transformative Model of
Peace Education (Turay and English, 2008):

Phase 1: Beginning with the participants: Assume that learners have knowledge
and experience, and that their local context is a teaching tool that must be integrated
into the educational experience.

Phase 2: Movement to emphasis on family and peace: Peace educators

gradually guide students from the personal to the family, local community, national,
and global levels.

Phase 3: Movement to focus on the community or organizational perspective:

Define community, which can be a source of difficulty for some participants.
Phase 4: Movement to the global sphere: Explore the connections from the global
to the personal and vice versa.

The Transformative Model for Peace Education is thus a practical model for peace
education as transformative practice, and can be used as a framework to guide
classroom learning.

TRANSFORMATIVE PRACTICE FOR PEACE EDUCATORS

Effective peace educators understand that they themselves must begin the process
of transformation in their own lives before engaging their students in this practice.
Peace educators should develop a regular practice of personal reflection, and must
Page 134
 employ critical thinking in their own lives in order to help students develop critical
thinking skills. It is important to note that this transformation is a long-term process
and need not happen overnight. Peace educators should constantly be seeking
transformation, constantly questioning their personal assumptions and beliefs, and
encourage their students to do the same.

The pedagogies used for peace education must therefore be pedagogies that
promote transformation through critical thinking, reflection and action. Paolo Freire
was influential in the development of peace education pedagogy, advocating for
dialogue and critical reflection as tools for transformation. As noted above,
transformative learning can occur on a more cognitive, rational level, or more artistic,
emotional level, and thus pedagogies incorporating both modes of learning should
be applied.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
Page 135
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
Page 136
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
Page 137
 in nonviolent resistance
movements;
 Understand the
relevance of
nonviolence to peace
education; and,
 Understand ways to
apply nonviolence in
REFERENCE/S the classroom.
 Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice. In P. Cranton (Ed.)
Transformative Learning In Action: Insights from Practice. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education. No.74.San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. p. 41-50.
 O'Sullivan, E. (1999). Transformative Learning: Educational Vision for the 21st Century.
New York: St Martin's Press.
 Turay, M. and English, L. M. 2008. Toward a Global Culture of Peace: A Transformative
Model of Peace Education. Journal of Transformative Education, 2(286).

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Page 138
 ORGANIZED SOCIAL WORK: Finally, engagement in civil disobedience had to be
complemented by engagement in organized social work, which ensured broad social
support. Notably, all of Gandhi's principles of Satyagraha are tactical, pragmatic
principles. All of these have a direct application when attempting to create positive
change.

MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

Martin Luther King Jr. was a clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the civil
rights movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. As King was
deeply influenced by Gandhi's work, the principles of Satyagraha are evident in his
political activism. His fundamentals principles of nonviolence proceed in a parallel
fashion to Gandhi's. According to Moses (1997), these are King's propositions of
nonviolence:

1. Even though nonviolence is ordinarily portrayed as cowardly, it is not. Nonviolent

action and a willingness to suffer, rather than inflict suffering, requires a greater
amount of courage.
2. The nonviolence protester does not seek to disgrace his opponent, but to seek his
understanding and friendship. The most efficient change occurs when both sides
work towards one goal.
3. Nonviolence is directed towards evil, not towards those people committing the
evil. Working against those people committing the evil only serves to further polarize
the opposition and works against cooperation.
4. Nonviolent resistance is a willingness to accept suffering without retaliating. This
is parallel to Gandhi's proposition of accepting consequences. By accepting physical
suffering, the nonviolent resistor actualizes the suffering an oppressor regularly
inflicts. This is fundamental to changing popular opinion and removing support from
an oppressor.
5. God is always on the side of Truth. This is both a moral and tactical concept. To
engage in a social transformation for reasons which are truthful will provide a solid
moral basis and popular support will be more easily garnered.
6. Nonviolent resistance prevents physical and emotional harm, and replaces hate
with love. A continued influx of love will eventually erode societal institutions and
practices which embody hate, anger, and violence.

GENE SHARP
Gene Sharp, a leading theorist in the field of nonviolent change, mentions a number
of practical considerations of nonviolence. Several significant conclusions about the
viability of nonviolence emerge from his work.

Sharp classifies methods of nonviolent change into two distinct categories. He states
that there are Acts of Omission, in which the protester omits an actions which he/she
would normally perform. This includes boycotts and strikes. When the protester
commits an act that he/she would not normally perform, such as a protest, these are
Acts of Commission. Sharp mentions that the most pragmatic course of action is to
pursue a method of change which combines these two forms (Sharp, 2005a, p.249-
250).

Page 139
 Sharp also discusses three possible outcomes from nonviolent change. Sharp
classifies these as:
 Conversion, in which the authority or base of oppression has come to a
new point of view due to the nonviolent protest, and social change is
actualized;
 Accommodation, which is an intermediary conclusion, in which the
authority has not lost his power or changed their mind, yet concedes to a
degree to the demands of the nonviolent protesters; and,
 Nonviolent Coercion, which is a method of change in which the authority's
base of power has been removed and no longer possesses the means to
enforce an oppressive environment (Sharp, 2005b, p. 254).

According to Sharp, one of these outcomes must be met in order for nonviolent
change to have been achieved. If one of these conclusions has not been reached,
then nonviolent change has not occurred.

NONVIOLENCE IN PEDAGOGY
Promoting nonviolence in pedagogy is done through the promotion of nonviolent
behaviors. According to Ian Harris (2003), there are a number of ways in which
educators may achieve this goal:
 Set up the classroom in a way that is respectful of all interests, concerns
and needs. This can be a constructive process in which the students
assist in the creation of their own constitution for the class.
 Use effective group technique which allows them to practice nonviolence.
Allow students the opportunity to analyze their local situations and provide
real, pragmatic responses to them – let them determine what behaviors,
attitudes, or situations are unfair in their own community.
 Allow the students, cooperatively and in groups, to come up with a
nonviolent solution to the problems they have identified.
 Allow for discourse on moral reasoning and explore argumentation. Allow
the students to examine situation in which moral principles are involved -
for example, the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or the escalation of
the arms race. Let the students determine which moral principles, if any,
were used in these situations.
 Allow the student to explore all points of view for any topic. For example,
in a history class this might be carried out by analyzing several primary
documents detailing the struggles of oppositional sides, as well as several
articles detailing world opinion. Exploring different perspectives allows for
the student to have the most complete worldview. This teaches that the
world is neither wholly wonderful nor wholly violent. Furthermore, it
reinforces the idea that the world is beset by serious problems, yet allows
for the serious proposal of nonviolent methods of change (p. 212-217).

Ultimately, educators have a civic duty to promote nonviolence as a viable method of

social change. The rich history of positive nonviolent change worldwide
demonstrates that nonviolence is emerging as the most successful method of

Page 140
 societal change in the 21st century. Educators must utilize nonviolence in the
classroom to ensure that this trend continues.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians

Page 141
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms

Page 142
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
 Gandhi, M. K. (2005). On Satyagraha. In R. Holmes & B. Gan, (Eds.) Nonviolence in
Theory and Practice. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press.
 Gorsevski, E. (2004). Peaceful Persuasion. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Page 143
  Harris, I. and Morrison, M. (2003). Peace Education. North Carolina: McFarland and
Company.
 Holmes, R. and Gan, B. (Eds.). (2005). Nonviolence in Theory and Practice. Long
Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press.
 Mandela, N. (1964). I am prepared to Die. Retrieved from
http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/mandela.htm
 Moses, Greg. (1997). Revolution of conscience: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the
philosophy of nonviolence. New York: Guilford Press.
 Orosco, J.-A. (2008). Cesar Chavez and the Common Sense of Nonviolence.
Alburquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
 Sharp, G. (2005a). Nonviolent Action: An Active Technique of Struggle. In R. Holmes &
B. Gan, (Eds.) Nonviolence in Theory and Practice. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland
Press. p. 247-253.
 Sharp, G. (2005b). The Technique of Nonviolent Action. In R. Holmes & B. Gan, (Eds.)
Nonviolence in Theory and Practice. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press. p. 253-256.

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Page 144
 War is not inherent in human beings. We learn war and we learn peace. The culture
of peace is something which is learned, just as violence is learned and war culture is
learned. - Elise Boulding

WHAT IS THE CULTURE OF WAR?

The culture of war is more than just a nation being at war; it is the physical and
structural violence that permeates every aspect of culture, including language,
interpersonal relationships, power dynamics and one's relationship with nature. The
culture of war manifests itself in a myriad of ways, and is often deeply entrenched in
beliefs that can make it seem ―normal or ―natural. However, as culture is a human
construct, the culture of war is human-made, and as such, can be equally
dismantled and replaced with a culture of peace.

The following table (Adams, 2005) contrasts the culture of war and culture of peace.

Page 145
DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE OF PEACE
According to Adams (2005): A culture of peace is an integral approach to preventing
violence and violent conflicts, and an alternative to the culture of war and violence
based on education for peace, the promotion of sustainable economic and social
development, respect for human rights, equality between women and men,
democratic participation, tolerance, the free flow of information and disarmament.

Another definition by Adams (1995) states that ―a culture of peace consists of

values, attitudes, behaviors and ways of life based on nonviolence, respect for
human rights, intercultural understanding, tolerance and solidarity, sharing and free
flow of information and the full participation of women (p.16). A culture of peace
includes eliminating violence, but goes beyond this through promoting human rights,
multiculturalism, solidarity, respect, and environmental stewardship from local to
global levels.

A culture of peace is a process, rather than an end point, and a vision of moving all
aspects of society towards peacefulness. It is not static, but rather dynamic, always
changing based on how a community changes (Adams, 2009). When thinking of a
culture of peace, it is useful to think of a spectrum, with a culture of war at one end
and culture of peace at the other, and a multitude of possibilities and combinations in
between.

We often talk about cultivating or promoting a culture of peace, as if it were

something that is in constant, continuous development. This process does not mean
that there will not be conflict. Diverse communities encounter conflict, and it is not
the conflict itself that is negative, as conflict can create tension that leads to creative
solutions that actually improve our lives; it is when we handle conflict violently that it
becomes problematic. Thus, a culture of peace is a constantly evolving process of
nonviolence and justice, in contrast to the current culture of war in which violence
and injustice are pervasive.

It is important to note that there is not a singular concept of culture of peace, and the
definition of a culture of peace must make room for cultural plurality. Groff and
Smoker (1996) discuss the existence of different definitions for ―culture and
―peace, and how both of these terms independently can be hard to define.
According to Brenes (2004), the values and principles of a culture of peace ―can be
expressed in diverse ways in different cultures (p. 79). Wessells (1994) notes that
―it would be culturally insensitive to prescribe an exact meaning of 'culture of
peace'― (p. 6). A culture of peace will perhaps look differently in each school or
community, but will have universal overarching principles as outlined in the models
below.

CULTURE OF PEACE FRAMEWORKS

A number of different frameworks have been developed to define a culture of peace,
including the UNESCO framework, Toh & Cawagas's flower model (2002), and the
Integral Model for Peace Education (Brenes, 2004). In order to fully define a culture
of peace, it may be necessary to combine different aspects of these models, and

Page 146
 depending on the context, some of these frameworks may be more relevant or
useful. A combination of different frameworks is ideal for developing a concept of
culture of peace for a particular context or setting. These frameworks are holistic and
comprehensive, and have many overlapping and complementary components.

UNESCO
According to the Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace, the United Nations
defines a culture of peace as ―a set of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and
ways of life that reject violence and prevent conflicts by tackling their root causes to
solve problems through dialogue and negotiation among individuals, groups and
nations‖ (UNESCO, 2010). The UNESCO model is the most universally recognized
and incorporates many aspects of a culture of peace.

The UN General Assembly (1999) declared action in the following areas necessary
to transition to a culture of peace and nonviolence:
1. A culture of peace through education;
2. Democratic participation;
3. Human rights;
4. Sustainable development;
5. Equality between men and women;
6. Advancing understanding, tolerance and solidarity;
7. Supporting participatory communication and the free flow of information
and knowledge, and
8. Promoting international peace and security.

The UNESCO framework uses an international lens, and thus is very applicable at
the global level and for international contexts. However, it can also be used at the
local or institutional level. For example, ―international peace and security could be
translated as ―local peace and security, and local issues could be assessed and
monitored. The UNESCO model lacks a personal conception of peace, such as
inner peace/personal peace.

FLOWER MODEL
The flower-shaped culture of peace model was developed by Virginia Cawagas and
Swee-Hin Toh (2002). Toh was the recipient of the UNESCO Prize for Peace
Education in 2000. This model has ―educating for a culture of peace‖ at the center,
and six petals for: 1) dismantling the culture of war; 2) promoting human rights and
responsibilities; 3) living with justice and compassion; 4) building cultural respect,
reconciliation and solidarity; 5) living in harmony with the earth, and 6) cultivating
inner peace.

Page 147
This model offers several notable contributions. First is the area of dismantling a
culture of war, which most closely corresponds to promoting international peace and
security in the UNESCO model. Ideally, in a culture of peace, international security
would be equated with total disarmament. The flower model goes farther by
explaining that real international peace and security will require dismantling the
culture of war, ranging from disarmament at an international level, to nonviolent
conflict resolution at micro levels, such as in communities and schools, as well as
promoting attitudes and values of nonviolence. This petal includes disarmament
education.

Secondly, the idea of ―living in harmony with the earth relates to ―sustainable
social and economic development, but goes deeper by highlighting the need for a
harmonious relationship with the environment. The word ―development‖ has very
different connotations and definitions, and the growth centered approach to
development is arguably the source of much environmental degradation. While
these two themes imply similar ideas, the flower model emphasizes the need to live
in a way that is not only sustainable, but in union with the natural world.

Finally, the inclusion of inner peace as a component to a culture of peace is an

important addition of this model. The petal of inner peace is not in the UNESCO
framework, and is a notable omission. The UNESCO framework touches on
interpersonal relations, between people, but not intrapersonal relations, within one‘s
self.

Page 148
INTEGRAL MODEL
Another model is the Integral Model for Peace Education, developed by the
University for Peace and Central American governments during the first phase of the
Culture of Peace and Democracy Program, from 1994 to 1996 (Brenes, 2004). The
Integral Model is a mandala-shaped, person-centered framework, which
incorporates the contexts of peace with oneself, with others, and with nature, at
ethical, mental, emotional and action levels (Brenes, 2004, p. 83).

This model also emphasizes the importance of personal or inner peace, with respect
to the body, heart and mind, and also includes more public spheres, and explicitly
includes political and social participation, democratic participation, and a culture of
democracy. Its approach to ecological peace is similar to that of the Flower Model
(Toh & Cawagas, 2002), although it is more explicit in its definition because it
explains that peace with nature encompasses ecological consciousness,
biodiversity, and natural balance. Another interesting component of this model is that
it explicitly includes health, which is unique to this model.

The Integral Model includes principles from the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (1948) and the Earth Charter (1997), and takes an ecological sustainability-
focused approach to a culture of peace. According to the Earth Charter preamble
(1997), at this critical moment in Earth's history, ―we must join together to bring
forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human
rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace.‖ The Earth Charter contains sixteen
principles, guided by the following themes: respect and care for the community of
life, ecological integrity, social and economic justice, and democracy, nonviolence
and peace. Each of the sixteen themes is elaborated with more specific actions for
how the principle translates into action. In the Earth Charter, the principle of
Page 149
 universal responsibility goes beyond our relationship one another to include future
generations and the biosphere (Brenes, 2004). The Earth Charter is also an
excellent resource for Environmental Education (see Unit 2, Section 8).

CULTURE OF PEACE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS: FROM THE

INDIVIDUAL TO THE HOUSEHOLD TO THE WORLD
While the UNESCO model takes an international approach, the Flower and Integral
models incorporate personal peace or inner peace as critical components of a
culture of peace. As the world is made up of billions of individuals, each individual
can develop personal peace practices to create a sense of inner peace, which will
then expand into their personal relationships and community, and out to the wider
world. Equally, conditions at the global level have impacts on individuals. Thus,
when thinking about a culture of peace, we need to consider both the micro (self)
and macro (global) levels.

As individuals, we can develop personal peace and move beyond ourselves into our
wider social circles. Since our global family is a collection and coalition of many
smaller families, we must remember that in attempting to establish a global culture of
peace, we need to establish a culture of peace at the family level, which can expand
into a community culture of peace and eventually into a global culture of peace. The
family unit varies culturally, from small nuclear families to extended families. A family
culture of peace would mean having peaceful relationships with one's parents,
siblings, spouses, children, and other relatives.

In creating a culture of peace, we need to establish values, attitudes, knowledge and

actions at all levels of human relationships, starting with one's relationship to
oneself, and extending to the family and wider community. In this way, all people will
be able to learn the way of living in peace from their family, and will acquire the
necessary values, knowledge and skills to be able to live in peace with other
members of the wider society.

It should be noted that a culture of peace can be promoted at all levels at all times,
and does not need to happen in a linear fashion. From the individual to the family
level, peace extends outward into the local community. Local communities can
develop initiatives to create a local culture of peace. This they can then extend
beyond, regionally and to the world.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a

Page 150
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
Page 151
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
Page 152
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
 Adams, D. (1995). UNESCO and a Culture of Peace: Promoting a Global Movement.
Original edition out of print. Retrieved from
http://www.culture-of-peace.info/monograph/page1.html
 Adams, D. (2005). Definition of Culture of Peace. Retrieved from: http://www.culture-
ofpeace.info/copoj/definition.html
 Adams, D. (2009). World Peace Through the Town Hall. Self-published. Retrieved from
http://www.culture-of-peace.info/books/worldpeace.html
 Brenes-Castro, A. (2004). An Integral Model of Peace Education. In A.L. Wenden (Ed.),
Educating for a Culture of Social and Ecological Peace. Albany: State University of New
York Press. p. 77-98.
 Earth Charter. (1997). Retrieved from
http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content/pages/Read-theCharter.html
 Groff, L. & Smoker, P. (1996) Creating global/local cultures of peace. In UNESCO (Ed.)
From a culture of violence to a culture of peace. Paris: UNESCO. p. 103-127.
 Toh, S.H. & Cawagas, V.F. (2002). A Holistic Understanding of a Culture of Peace.
Presented at the APCEIU Expert Consultation on EIU, Fiji.
 Wessels, M. (1994). The Role of Peace Education in a Culture of Peace: A Social-
Psychological Analysis. Peace Education Miniprints No. 65. Malmo, Sweden: School of
Education.
Page 153
 Distinguish between
education for peace
and education about
peace; and,
 Understand the key
principles of the
 Education
UN General Assembly. (1948). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved For Peace
from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ (EFP) program.
 UN General Assembly (1999). A/RES/53/243: Declaration and Programme of Action on
a Culture of Peace. Retrieved from
http://www3.unesco.org/iycp/uk/uk_sum_cp.htm
 UNESCO. (2010). Culture of Peace: What is it? Retrieved from:
 http://www3.unesco.org/iycp/uk/uk_sum_cp.htm

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Topic: EDUCATION FOR PEACE

OVERVIEW
Let's use an analogy: If we think of peace education as farming, then education for
peace would be like tilling the field, fertilizing it with rich organic nutrients, and
watering it so that the seeds can grow. It is preparing the seedbed. Education about
peace would be the seeds, which can sprout and thrive on this well-prepared land.
Education for peace is preparing the minds and hearts of learners through attitudes
and perceptions, and education about peace is the knowledge that learners need to
create a peaceful world. Any field can be education for and about peace, depending
on how the field is approached. Most fields of peace education use both
approaches. Human rights education is education about peace when it addresses
the knowledge of human rights documents, instruments, and the legal system.
However, part of human rights education is also developing the attitudes to cultivate
a sense of universal human dignity, and this would be education for peace. In the
subsequent sections in this unit, we will look at the knowledge, skills, values, and
attitudes for different fields of peace education.

FOCUS ON PEACE
We must inoculate our children against militarism, by educating them in the spirit of
pacifism... Our schoolbooks glorify war and conceal its horrors. They indoctrinate
children with hatred. I would teach peace rather than war, love rather than hate.
- Albert Einstein

EDUCATION FOR AND ABOUT PEACE

Page 154
Education for peace and education about peace are two main approaches to peace
education, and all peace education fields can be defined by one or both of these
approaches.

Education for peace answers the question, ―What skills, attitudes and knowledge
do we need to develop to create peace? According to Reardon (1999), education for
peace is ―education to create some of the preconditions for the achievement of
peace‖ (p. 8). Education for peace involves developing values, skills and attitudes
that are conducive to building peace. Peace education fields that would be
considered part of education for peace include: international education (or global
education, world studies), multicultural education, and environmental education.

For example, multicultural education involves developing attitudes, perspectives and

knowledge that are necessary for people from different cultures to interact with each
other on positive and constructive terms (Reardon, 1999). These attitudes and
perceptions are prerequisites to having positive interactions. If, through multicultural
education, a learner develops an attitude of openness and respect for other cultures,
then later, when learning about another culture, the learner is more likely to
approach the culture with an attitude of respect and openness, rather than fear or
discrimination.

Education about peace answers the question ―What is peace? According to

Reardon (1999), education about peace is ―education for the development and
practice of institutions and processes that comprise a peaceful social order (p. 8).
These approaches include conflict resolution education, human rights education,
and traditional peace studies (which tends to deal with nonviolence and the abolition
of war), all of which are concerned with avoiding, reducing, or eliminating violence.
Education about peace emphasizes knowledge and skills of peacemaking, and for
this reason Reardon calls it ―essential peace education‖ (p. 13). Without this
knowledge, peace cannot be pursued or achieved.

EDUCATION FOR PEACE (EFP) PROGRAM: BOSNIA &

HERZEGOVINA
Education for Peace (EFP) also refers to a specific program designed by faculty at
Landegg International University in Switzerland. This program was initially
implemented in primary and secondary schools in post-war Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The key principles of the EFP program are:
 Training and support of teachers and staff;
 Integration of peace principles into every subject, every day;
 Cultivation of student creativity by encouraging students to express
themselves in varied ways;
 Involvement of the community-at-large through regional peace events
(Clarke-Habibi, 2005).

The goal of this program was to create a personal and collective worldview
transformation for the students and the greater community, and to promote a culture
of peace in a region that was deeply traumatized by years of civil war. According to

Page 155
 Clarke-Habibi (2005), the effects were profound and involved transformation on all
fronts, including enhancement of teaching and learning practices, intercommunity
relationships, the initiation of a culture of healing, increased political will for program
expansion, and the creation of local-international bonds. The EFP program is a great
example of a holistic peace education program that included the entire community.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
Page 156
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms

Page 157
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti reference/s
 Clarke-Habibi, S. (2005). Transforming Worldviews: The Case for Education for Peace in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Transformative Education, 3(1). P. 33-56.
 Reardon, B. A. (1999). Peace Euducation: A Review and Projection. Peace Education
Reports: Department of Educational and Psychological Research. School of Education,
Malmo University. August, No. 17.
 Reardon, B. A. & Cabezudo, A. (2002). Book 2: Sample Learning Units. Learning to
Abolish War: Teaching Toward a Culture of Peace. New York: Hague Appeal for Peace.
Page 158
 INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)
A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the
students of Northeastern College At the end of the lesson the
(Second Semester) students should be able to:
 Define critical
pedagogy and critical
peace education;
 Describe the key
Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES principles of critical
Topic: CRITICAL PEACE EDUCATION pedagogy and critical
peace education; and,
 Understand different
OVERVIEW ways to apply critical
Critical peace education is the result of applying critical pedagogy and critical
peace education in
pedagogy to the issues that concern the development or classroom.
degradation of peace. These issues are often seen as the
spheres of foreign and domestic policy, the decisions
concerning societal institutions – any of which have an impact
on the society, most notably schools, and the power dynamics
within the country and outside of it. The lofty goal for such
pedagogy is to create ―a citizenry capable of genuine public
thinking, political judgment, and social action‖, as American
political theorist Benjamin Barber (1984) has stated. It aims to
build a population that can independently analyze their
situation, and prevent situations of physical or structural violence, while
simultaneously promoting equality, respect, sustainability, and other elements of
positive peace. Ultimately, the goal of critical peace education is to create a student
that is empowered with both the skills and desire to engage in his/her local society
and transform it into a more peaceful one. To this end, as educators we must stress
two relevant aspects of critical peace education: the ways in which societies can
degrade into violence, and the creation of the critical consciousness, or the ability to
independently analyze a situation and develop unique, local solutions. Through
critical peace education, educators seek to empower students with critical
knowledge and the desire to act so that they might independently evaluate societal
institutions and transform society through this process.

FOCUS ON PEACE
He who asks a question is a fool for five minutes; he who does not ask a question
remains a fool forever. - Chinese Proverb
No problem can be solved by the same consciousness that created it. We need to
see the world anew. - Albert Einstein

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Critical peace education and critical pedagogy are based upon a number of
assumptions, such as:
 There is an inherent link between critical empowerment and social action.
 Critical empowerment consists of two tenets: understanding the dialectic
process and the courage to use that process on local issues.

Page 159
  Critical empowerment only assumes relevance when local issues are
examined and studied.
 Critical discussion of local and global issues is necessary for social
progress

There are a few fundamental assumptions regarding critical peace education which
define the field, separate from critical pedagogy. These are:
 To engage in social transformation, we must focus a critical lens upon
societal institutions, domestic and foreign policy, and local and global
power dynamics.
 Educators must emphasize multiple perspectives, which the students may
use to critically analyze their local situation.
 As the citizenry must be capable of understanding and accepting the
failings of their social institutions, critical peace education should involve a
critique of present society in order to create positive change towards
peace.

From this theoretical framework, we can understand that critical peace education is
an application of critical pedagogy to the issues that concern the development or
degradation of peace. The difference between critical peace education and critical
pedagogy is one of concentration.

CRITICAL PEDAGOGY
DEFINITION: Any discussion of critical peace education cannot be divorced from
critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy is the method in which educators prepare their
students to assess, evaluate, and challenge conventional beliefs or norms through
rational critique. The pedagogy contains two inherent methods: educators must
develop the skills for the student to rationally assess any idea, and educators must
also demonstrate to the student the relationship between empowerment and social
transformation. Critical pedagogy has been broadly defined by critical pedagogue Ira
Shor (1992) as:

Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface meaning,
first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés,
received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes,
social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action, event, object,
process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or
discourse (p. 129).

Thus, critical pedagogy involves more than just criticizing society. It is also
understanding why things are the way they are, how they came to be, and what can
be done to change them.

RELEVANCE: Critical pedagogy is relevant because of the inherent link between

the empowerment of the students and the task of social transformation. The impact
of a critically empowered citizenry would be massive. Providing students with the
skills to formulate critical and analytical thought as well as the values to engage and

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 transform their local society has benefits anywhere. Social transformation can occur
with any action - it may be the creation of a local gym for impoverished youth or
action within a local government. However, critical pedagogy involves a process in
which the actor finds cause or motivation through analytical thought, and then uses
this thought to inform her actions. This relates to Freire's concept of praxis, through
which learners constantly move between theory and practice by using analytical
thought to guide their actions, then returning to analytical thought for reflection and
to inform further action.

APPLICATION: The application of critical pedagogy should be informed by the local

situation. Instead of creating global content, educational scholars emphasize that to
cultivate critical consciousness in students, educators must help students analyze
their local situation. Educators must extrapolate local beliefs, theories, stories,
experiences and histories and allow the students the safety to assess beliefs that
might be central to their culture (Giroux, 1988, 1989). There can be no untouchable
subject in the development of critical consciousness – all topics must be up for
debate.

The ability to create such an environment in the classroom is dependent upon local
issues. However, educators have developed a few methods in which critical thought
is emphasized. A tool that must be used in any classroom where critical
consciousness is the goal is the dialectic process, in which thesis and antithesis
come together to create a modified conclusion. To apply a theoretical concept such
as this in the classroom, educators must first provide the student with a belief or
philosophy that is generally accepted by their local culture.

CRITICAL PEACE EDUCATION

Critical peace education is the result of applying critical pedagogy to realms and
issues that concern the development or degradation of peace. Although the
scholarly discourse in the field has not been widespread, several notable scholars
have contributed to the theory. The work of Paulo Freire, as discussed in an earlier
section, was influential in the development of critical pedagogy for peace education.
The theoretical framework has been discussed by only a few – notably Christoph
Wulf in the early 1970s and, more recently, Lourdes Diaz Soto. The impact of this
theoretical framework, however, has been demonstrated by the works of Carl Mirra
and Ken Montgomery, both of whom take critical peace education perspectives in
their work, turning the ideas proposed into specific critiques which may be used as
examples for critical pedagogues everywhere.

CHRISTOPH WULF
Christoph Wulf is a seminal figure in critical peace education. Wulf's theory revolves
around tracing the roots of violence back to the original cause. At the time of Wulf's
writing in the 1970s, more attention was regularly paid to the direct causes of
violence, rather than an indepth examination of societal institutions that can lead to
structural violence. Wulf demonstrated the timeless principle of interdependence;
that is to say, all things are with cause. The concepts central to Wulf's work were

Page 161
 structural violence, organized peacelessnesss, and participation (Bajaj, 2008, p.
137-138).

There are a number of themes that emerge in Wulf's work that became central
tenets of peace education - most notably that social and economic justice are
necessary for comprehensive peace. This principle emphasizes that local power
dynamics, such as excessive discrepancies in power, tend to lead to negative peace
or structural violence.
Wulf attempted to draw attention to the conditions in which peace deteriorates into
violence. He has stated that ―critical peace education stems from an explicit
understanding of peace education as a criticism of society (Bajaj, 2008, p. 138)
Critical peace educators must foster in their students the ability to question and
criticize their structural institutions and power dynamics in their contexts: local,
regional, and global. We must be able to look back and see with clarity what has
created violence in other societies, and we must ask if these conditions exist in our
own society.

Two critical components of this education are now apparent: student comprehension
of societal institutions and how power imbalances can create structural violence, and
the creation of a critical consciousness in our students. The former is achieved
through research, and the latter through critical pedagogy. This summation of these
two becomes Critical Peace Education.

LOURDES DIAZ SOTO

Lourdes Diaz Soto revived critical peace education in her 2005 work, Power and
Voice In Research With Children. It should be noted that while Diaz Soto uses the
same phrasing as Wulf, their ideas of what constitutes critical peace education vary.
Diaz Soto defines her goal within the United States' domestic sphere, yet her
principles of what should constitute critical peace education may be transferred
globally. Diaz Soto (2005) defines that critical peace education should:
 Ensure that issues of power are central to collaborative dialogues.
 Recognize the need to pursue spiritual aspects of questions.
 Allow Friere's transformative pedagogy to guide the need for
consciousness raising.
 Move beyond European colonizing lens while recognizing the need
for a decolonizing lens.
 Realize the need for inclusivity, thereby driving us beyond identity
politics.
 Implement needed community actions projects with a Participatory
Action Research/feminist lens.
 Reach our Dreamspace for social justice with equitable economic
distribution.
 Rely on Love as an inclusive alternative paradigm in solidarity
transcending existing conditions and reality (p. 96).

These principles provide a number of considerations for critical peace educators,

which they may demonstrate to their students so that the students might understand

Page 162
 possible lenses of critique. Through this critique, questions arise, and answers are
explored. Students and educators then have a framework of concepts that allow for
in-depth analysis of complex topics – perhaps the most significant aspect of critical
peace education.

BEST PRACTICES
This critical perspective is what educators must focus on in critical peace education.
Specific cases must be tailored for the local context; in the case of history, it must be
the local narratives that are challenged so the criticisms assume a relevance to the
students (Giroux, 1989, p. 146-150).

It may also empower students when a local widespread belief is challenged and
critically analyzed. This can be done through a direct in-class examination of such a
belief, when the instructor presents the belief and invites the students to work
through specific case studies in groups. The instructor will ask the students to distill
a narrative of whether or not the actions in the material provided support the belief.
The critical process is then realized in the student.

However, such a process should not be used when attempting to create a critical
peace consciousness, as the nature of the directed readings will necessarily lead
towards the inclusion of the instructor's bias (Giroux, 1989, 138). The creation of a
critical consciousness focused around peace demands that educators strike a
balance between providing students with independence and focusing on issues that
are key to peace. This is most effectively done by the introduction of a topic and all
relevant resources, and then asking the students to research the topic in depth to
arrive at their own point of view. The instructor should be indirectly involved only in
the second stage, by directing the student towards resources concerning the issues
selected by the student. It is absolutely essential that teachers do not provide a
personal inclination towards one side or the other. The classroom must be a safe
environment in which the student is allowed to come to any conclusion – even one
the instructor disagrees with.

As instructors, we must be conscious of the political nature of critically addressing

social issues. Though critical pedagogy does not necessitate difference from the
status quo, often it materializes as such. However, Henry Giroux has noted that
schools never exist as apolitical institutions; instead, through a series of funding,
grants, teachings, and supported curriculum, often schools represent truth as the
narrative of the dominant class. Instead of attempting an impossible apolitical
perspective, critical educators attempt to demonstrate the inherent multisided nature
of all situations, narratives, explanations, and truths. If students realize critical
consciousness, then both sides should be examined (Giroux, 1989, p. 138-141).

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
Page 163
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
Page 164
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
Page 165
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
 Bajaj, M. (2008). Critical Peace Education. In M. Bajaj, (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Peace
Education. New York: Colombia Teacher's College.
 Barber, B. (1984). Strong Democracy: Participating Politics for a New Age. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
 Buxton, L. (1985). Mathematics for Everyone. New York: Schocken Books
 Diaz-Soto, L. 2005. How can we teach peace when we are so outraged? A call for
critical peace education. Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education. Fall-Winter, p.
91-96.
 Giroux, H. (1988). Schooling and the struggle for public life: Critical pedagogy in the
modern age. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
 Giroux, H. (1989). Schooling as a Form of Cultural Politics: Toward a Pedagogy of and
for ADifference. In H. Giroux
COURSE STUDY GUIDE and P. McLaren,
prepared for the (Eds.), Critical Pedagogy, the State, and
Cultural Struggle. Albany: State University
students of Northeastern College of New York
(Second Semester)

Page 166
 INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOMES (ILOS)
Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES
Topic: HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to:
 Define Human Rights
OVERVIEW Education (HRE);
 Describe the key
Since HRE seeks to promote justice, it involves examining principles of human
existing power imbalances and inequalities and seeking to rights education;
address these through action. HRE, like all of peace education,  Understand the key
is greatly influenced by the work of Paulo Freire and his documents related to
human rights
pedagogies for ending the cycle of oppression. Freire's education; and,
pedagogies are used widely in HRE. Exercises such as Power  Understand ways to
Mapping (explained below) can be used to examine power integrate human rights
relations and find the source of imbalance, and windows of education in the
opportunity for action. HRE emphasizes the reciprocal classroom
relationship between rights and responsibilities. We all have
rights, and we also have the responsibility to exercise our own
rights, as well as protect and promote the rights of others.

FOCUS ON PEACE
If you want peace, work for justice. - Pope Paul VI (1897-1978)

WHAT IS HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION?

According to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human
Rights Education is defined as: Training, dissemination, and information efforts
aimed at the building of a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of
knowledge and skills and the molding of attitudes directed to:
 the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
 the full development of the human personality and the sense of dignity
 the promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender equality, and friendship
among all nations,
 indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic
groups
 the enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free society.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and related international

conventions and treaties form the foundation of Human Rights Education (HRE).
HRE seeks to promote knowledge of the rights within these treaties, ways to
promote rights, and the mechanisms for handling rights violations. Learning about
human rights is largely cognitive, and includes human rights history, documents, and
implementation mechanisms (Flowers, 2000).

Page 167
 HRE is more than just understanding rights, however. As mentioned above, HRE is
education for the full human development and participation of all members of
society. Reardon (1999) explains that the HRE field seeks to
 develop the general acceptance of human dignity as a fundamental
principle to be observed throughout society;
 assure that all people are aware that they are endowed with rights that are
universal, integral, and irrevocable, and;
 demonstrate the connection between human rights issues to a broad
range of social problems (p. 15).

Therefore, human rights education is both education for and about human rights.
When HRE is education for human rights, it promotes understanding and embraces
the principles of human equality and dignity and the commitment to respect and
protect the rights of all people (Flowers, 2000). This requires values such as
understanding, tolerance, equality, and friendship. The objectives of education for
human rights are more personal and include values clarification, attitude change,
development of solidarity, and the skills for advocacy and action (Flowers, 2000).
HRE is education about human rights when students are learning about the human
rights treaties, mechanisms, terminology, and institutions.

HUMAN RIGHTS DOCUMENTS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES

Human rights documents and basic principles are the key component of knowledge
development in HRE.

UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (UDHR)

The UDHR is the primary document of human rights education. It was adopted by
the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 in the aftermath of the horrible human
rights violations and atrocities that took place during World War II. It is important for
peace educators to be familiar with this document and apply it practically to HRE.

According to Nancy Flowers (1999), the foundational principles of the UDHR include:
 Equality- Article 1 of the UDHR proclaims that ―all human beings are
born free and equal in dignity and right.
 Universality - Human rights are universal; they are based on certain
moral and ethical values that are shared by all regions of the world.
Governments and communities have the responsibility to recognize and
uphold them. However, this does not mean that human rights cannot
change or that they are experienced in the same way by all people.
 Nondiscrimination - Human rights apply equally to all people, regardless
of any aspect of their identity or role.
 Indivisibility - Human rights should be addressed as an indivisible body,
including civil, political, social, economic, cultural and collective rights.
 Interdependence - Human rights are connected, much like petals of one
flower, or beads on one necklace. The rights of one person are connected
to the rights of others. Violation of one right detracts from other rights.
Conversely, promotion of one right supports other rights.

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  Responsibility - responsibility falls upon governments and individuals.
Governments have the responsibility to respect and protect the human
rights of all citizens. Individuals also have the responsibility to uphold
human rights, and to hold violators accountable (including governments
and other institutions).

THE CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD (CRC)

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is the key human rights document,
in addition to the UDHR, that explicitly outlines the rights of children (UN General
Assembly, 1989). While the UDHR equally applies to children, children remain one
of the most vulnerable groups in terms of rights violations. This is why a convention
that explicitly states their rights was necessary. It is important for peace educators to
be familiar with the complete text of this convention

The Convention on the Rights of the Child can be divided into 3 categories: survival
and development rights, protection rights, and participation rights. Survival and
development rights ensure access to the resources, skills and contributions
necessary for the full development of the child. Protection rights include protection
from all forms of abuse, neglect, and cruelty. Participation rights protect children's
right to free speech and right to participate in matters affecting their social, cultural,
religious, political, and economic life.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child is an important tool in human rights
education. It is very important for children to know and understand their own rights,
and to begin to develop a sense of responsibility for the rights of others.
.
EDUCATION AS A HUMAN RIGHT
Education itself is a human right. The human right of education has three aspects:
access, quality, and a respectful learning environment (UNESCO, 2007). First and
foremost, everyone has the right to access education. Furthermore, everyone has a
right to quality education, which includes a broad, inclusive, relevant curriculum and
a healthy, child-friendly learning environment (UNESCO, 2007). Additionally, all
learners have the right to respect in the learning environment. Using these principles
and the other human rights principles as a framework for education is called the
human rights-based approach to education. The goal of the human rights-based
approach is ―to assure every child a quality education that respects and promotes
her or his right to dignity and optimum development‖ (UNESCO, 2007, p.1).

rpreted message -
manliness is being a

Page 169
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
Page 170
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms
- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
Page 171
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
 Flowers, N., (Ed.). (1999). Human Rights Here & Now: Celebrating the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. Minneapolis: Human Rights Educators' Network of
Amnesty Intarnaional USA, Human Rights Resource Center, Stanley Foundation.
Retrieved from
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Default.htm
 Flowers, N. et. al. (2000). The Human Rights Education Handbook. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Human Rights Resource Center. Retrieved from
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/hreduseries/hrhandbook/toc.html
 Reardon, B. A. (1999). Peace Euducation: A Review and Projection. Peace Education
Reports: Department of Educational and Psychological Research. School of Education,
Malmo University. August, No. 17.
 Reardon, B. A. & Cabezudo, A. (2002). Book 2: Sample Learning Units. Learning to
Abolish War: Teaching Toward a Culture of Peace. New York: Hague Appeal for Peace.
 UN General Assembly. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/InternationalLaw.aspx
 UN General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved from
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm

Page 172
  UNESCO. (2007). A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education For All. New York:
UNESCO. Retrieved from: http://www.hrea.org/erc/Library/display_doc.php?url=http%3A
%2F%2Funesdoc.

A COURSE STUDY GUIDE prepared for the

students of Northeastern College
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

Topic: GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION

OVERVIEW
Education for global citizenship has become increasingly important as the world has
become more interconnected through globalization. However, this does not mean
that education to promote global citizens is a new phenomenon that is inherently
linked to the globalized world. The belief behind this education is that education
which promotes nationalism or patriotism to a specific country is limiting, and can
even be a source of conflict (see earlier section on John Dewey). Rather, children
and adults should learn how to become citizens of the world. Global citizenship
education incorporates element such as environmental sustainability and social
justice (Andrzejewski & Alessio, 1999), with skills such as nonviolent conflict
resolution and critical awareness and respect, to shape students to be well-rounded
and conscientious citizens of the world. This means that students will be able to
understand the impacts of legislation and actions on populations around the world

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 and want to work for change that promotes the greatest good for everyone, not
simply for those of their nation.

FOCUS ON PEACE
I have no country to fight for: my country is the earth, and I am a citizen of the world.
- Eugene V. Debs
My country is the world; my countrymen are mankind. - William Lloyd Garrison

KEY THEORISTS
JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952): One of the most important theorists in the area of
education to promote global citizenship is John Dewey. John Dewey's plan for
Peace Education was a result of the destruction that he saw during World War I,
which he believed to be caused by rampant nationalism. Therefore, Dewey
proposed an education that was designed to teach people to be global citizens
rather than citizens of a specific nation. The traditional pedagogies that Dewey
applied throughout his educational philosophy are important in his theory for
educating global citizens as well. Please see the earlier section on John Dewey for
more on his educational philosophy.

TSUNESABURO MAKIGUCHI (1871-1944): Makiguchi was also influential in

developing a philosophy for global citizenship combined with education. Makiguchi
was a Japanese citizen who was influenced by the period of modernization in Japan.
He was a geography teacher and created Soka Gakkai, which is today the largest
lay Buddhist organization in Japan and has 12 million members worldwide. He
strongly believed that religion and education should serve to create happiness in the
human population and therefore should serve the needs of human beings.

CORE IDEAS
Global citizenship encompasses a multitude of ideas that span a large amount of
ground. Oxfam has provided a comprehensive framework that outlines the
knowledge, skills, and values/attitudes that global citizenship practices and
ideologies promote. The aspects of each of these areas come from the Oxfam
definition and are supplemented by information from other curricula.

From an educational psychology perspective, each of these areas has their own
importance. Currently, many teachers follow a method which combines teaching
knowledge and skills. Knowledge is important so that students have a contextual
knowledge to use and understand the skills. However, without relevant skills
students will not be able to use their knowledge in a meaningful and impactful way.
Finally, moral education is incredibly important from an educational psychology
perspective. Students need to learn and practice important values to ensure that
they are able to transfer these ideas in future situations (Woolfolk, 2007).

Knowledge: In Global Citizenship Education, students should develop knowledge in

the following areas in order to have a greater understanding of what it means to be a
citizen of the world.
Page 174
 Social Justice: Social Justice is defined as promoting fairness, equality, and
solidarity in an effort to create an egalitarian world. When focusing on this area
students should develop understanding of inequalities that persist around the world,
and what can be done to work towards equality. The extent to which they
understand this is somewhat dependent on their developmental level. According to
Oxfam, social injustice is most directly linked to issues of income inequalities and
poverty. However, social injustice is also linked to power relations, which may
connect to poverty, and are not exclusively tied with wealth. Issues of social justice
are good examples of the interconnected nature of the world.

Diversity: Ideas about diversity relate to the recognition of the fact that there are
similarities and differences between all people. Furthermore, understanding diversity
requires the examination of prejudice and discrimination, how to combat these
issues, and how students can ensure they live a life that is deeply committed to
diversity throughout the world.

Globalization and interdependence: Globalization and interdependence refer to

the phenomena in which the world is becoming increasingly and more rapidly
interconnected. While many debate whether or not these are new phenomena, it is
certainly an important one in present day. This interconnectedness impacts
numerous aspects of life, such as economics, culture, politics, technology, and
linguistics. This interconnectedness also means that the world is interdependent.
One manner in which this interdependence can be seen is via the number of
countries who have been impacted by the economic collapse of 2008 that started in
the United States. Education about this area looks at general power relations
between various countries and specifically focuses on economic relations. The goal
is to teach students about the various connections throughout the world and their
impact on justice.

Sustainable development: Sustainable development refers to meeting the needs of

present generations, while preserving the environment to ensure the needs of future
generations can also be met (Brudtland Commission, 1987). While sustainability can
also refer to promoting sustainable relations around the world, this idea is
incorporated into the other categories that have been explained. Therefore, students
who learn about sustainable development focus on learning about living things and
the relationships between humans and nature and, therefore, how humans can lead
sustainable lifestyles.

Peace and conflict studies: The field of peace and conflict studies aims to teach
students about past conflicts, how they have been addressed, and how to resolve
conflicts peacefully. Through this field, students are also taught the skills of peace
building and conflict resolution and are encouraged to think through the various,
complex realities that exist and complicate conflict resolution.

SKILLS
In Global Citizenship Education, the following skills should be promoted:

Page 175
Critical thinking: Critical thinking involves learning how to listen and ask questions.
Students use these skills to then understand different viewpoints and biases that are
present in everything they encounter. They then use these skills to critically evaluate
issues that are important and multi-faceted. This skill is important to Paulo Freire,
who believed that we must look critically at what is presented to us to see the
influence of power relations. This skill is also important in the theory of Tsunesaburo
Makiguchi, who believed that people needed to be educated global citizens to not
blindly follow abusive governments.

Debating: Debating effectively requires the ability to express a view and to support
that view with evidence. After students have mastered this skill, they can then move
into participating in political processes, since they are now able to articulate their
opinions and beliefs clearly. Since being a global citizen requires participation in
political processes, this is a key skill that is required for meaningful and effective
participation.

Challenging injustice and inequality: In order to challenge injustice and inequality,

students need to be able to recognize unfairness and the factors that perpetuate it.
Once students are able to recognize the existence of inequality, then they must learn
how to work to change it. Much like effective debating, this skill is key in order for
students to become active participants. Therefore, students must learn not only what
injustice is, but also what they can do about it so they can truly be active members of
the global community.

Respect: As a global citizen, one must develop respect, not only for people, but also
for all things that are part of this earth. Students must first learn how to care for
others and other things. When this has been mastered students must begin to think
from the perspective of someone else. Finally, students should develop a personal
lifestyle that emphasizes sustainability. Sustainability is typically, in today‘s world,
thought of as an environmental concept. However, here the term is used to
encompass all aspects of life. Students also must ensure that their relationships are
sustainable, by ensuring that peaceful, nonviolent relations are an aspect of
everything they do. Students should develop skills to live in a way that is respectful
to all life on the planet.

Cooperation and conflict resolution: Cooperation and conflict resolution are

necessary skills for students to solve problems in peaceful ways. Students start by
learning about cooperation through sharing and how to include others in decisions.
They prepare to accept the decisions of the majority even if they do not agree with
what has been decided. Later, students should learn how to negotiate, mediate and
resolve conflict peacefully.

Values/Attitudes: Global Citizenship Education explicitly seeks to promote the

following values and attitudes:

Identity and self-esteem: Identity and self-esteem are necessary building blocks for
open-mindedness and compassion. Only students who have a sense of personal
worth and value will have the capacity to have the open mind that is needed for
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 global citizenship. In Global Citizenship Education, teachers should allow students to
explore the different facets of their identity, such as gender, race, ethnicity,
nationality, and abilities. In understanding that their own identity is made up of many
different facets, they will be less likely to perpetuate stereotypes, or create a sense
of ―us vs. them that is often a source of conflict, as they will have a better
understanding that each person belongs to many different groups in society.

Empathy: Empathy is learned gradually by first focusing on concern for those they
intimately know, and moving this outward to concern for all people around the world.
This leads to a sense of the common humanity that unites us all. By cultivating this
sense of empathy for those around the world, students will be effective global
citizens.

Belief that everyone can make a difference: Without the belief that everyone can
make a difference students will simply become disenchanted by what they have
learned in the other areas, and may feel disempowered to take action. Therefore,
students need to believe that they can do something to change what they have
learned about. To achieve this, students must learn to make mistakes and recover
from them. They must also learn that all actions have consequences. They should
also learn to take a position on global issues, and finally take action based on their
beliefs and opinions.

IDEAS IN PRACTICE
Teaching Global Citizenship at Various Developmental Levels: As with any
educational practice it is important to make sure that the developmental levels of
your students are understood and respected. Education for global citizenship is
appropriate for all developmental levels. The Oxfam curriculum defines the following
age groups: younger than five, 5-7, 7-11, 11-14, 14-16 and 16+. Within each
developmental level, as defined by age, students learn different concepts. For
example, in the category ―Belief that everyone can make a difference, students
who are younger than 5 learn about making mistakes. It is not until students are
older that they are considered ready to learn to take positions of global issues and
act on these beliefs.

Teaching Controversial Issues: Many of the issues presented when teaching

education for global citizenship will be controversial. This is essential, since students
need to learn how to navigate in the real world and to build their own opinions.
However, teaching controversial issues is not easy. Before teaching a controversial
issue, you should address several considerations. First, as a teacher you must
always be prepared for a controversial discussion to arise, even if you yourself do
not believe the issue to be controversial. You should have some classroom
guidelines that establish respect and positive conversations for all circumstances.
Second, as a teacher you need to decide what role you wish to take.

There are various roles you can play, such as presenting your own opinion,
presenting all options or being the devil‘s advocate. Therefore, you need to be
prepared to adjust your role to the present situation. Finally, teachers need to ensure

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 that they avoid didacticism and telling their students what is right or wrong. Activities
that open up discussion, such as the use of photos, or that promote the skills
necessary for informed discussion, are good choices to ensure that all students can
share their opinions.
.

rpreted message -
manliness is being a
positive part of the home
team, and a
Mastercard can get you
there.
Objective or Interpretive
World Views: Sorting Out
the Labels
- Glenn - social scientist
who works objectively
- scientist/objective scholar
- Marty - rhetorical critic of
interpretive study
- Not always rhetoricians
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- Humanists - study what
it’s like to be another
person in a specific time
and place
- Postmodern
communication theorist call
themselves -
hermeneuticists,
poststructuralists,
deconstructivists,
phenomenologist, cultural
studies
researchers, social action
theorists
- Usually involve a combo of
these terms

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- Interpretive analysis -
scholarship concerned with
meaning
- Interpretive scholars,
interpreters = whole group
- Rhetoricians, humanists,
postmodernists, critical
scholars = subgroups
- Humanistic scholarship -
study of what it’s like to be
another person in a specific
time
and place; assumes there
are few important
panhuman similariti
REFERENCE/S
 Andrzejewski, J., and Alessio, J. (1999). Education for Global Citizenship and Social
Responsibility. Progressive Perspectives. The University of Vermont, Spring 1999.
Retrieved from http://www.uvm.edu/~dewey/monographs/glomono.html

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  Understand different
ways to integrate
gender into classroom
practice; and,
 Develop specific lesson
plans that focus on
gender.
 Brundtland Commission. (1987). Our Common Future. Retrieved from
http://worldinbalance.net/intagreements/1987-brundtland.php
 Ikeda, D. (1996). Thoughts on Education for Global Citizenship. Speech delivered at the
Teachers College of Columba University. Retrieved from
http://www.daisakuikeda.org/sub/resources/works/lect/lect-08.html
 Latham, A. A. (2003). Liberal Education for Global Citizenship: Renewing Macalester’s
Traditions of Public Scholarship and Civic Learning‖.‖ Project Pericles. Macalester
College, Feb. Retrieved from http://www.macalester.edu/pericles/discussionpaper.pdf
 Oxfam. (2006). Education for Global Citizenship: A Guide for Schools. Oxfam Education.
Oxfam GB. Retrieved from http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/gc/
 Price, J. (2003). Get Global! A skills-based approach to active global citizenship.
ActionAid, CAFOD, Christian Aid, Oxfam, Save the Children, and the Department for
International Development. Retrieved from
http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/get_global/files/section_one_get_global_st
eps_english.pdf
 Soka AGakkai
COURSE International
STUDY GUIDE(2010). Tsunesaburo
prepared for the Makiguchi. N.p., n.d. Retrieved from
students of Northeastern College
http://www.tmakiguchi.org
(Second Semester)

Subject: PEACE EDUCATION/STUDIES

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