Download the full version and explore a variety of ebooks

or textbooks at https://ebookultra.com

Building a web site for dummies David A. Crowder

_____ Tap the link below to start your download _____

https://ebookultra.com/download/building-a-web-site-for-
dummies-david-a-crowder/

Find ebooks or textbooks at ebookultra.com today!

We have selected some products that you may be interested in
Click the link to download now or visit ebookultra.com
for more options!.

Building a PC For Dummies 5th Edition Building a PC for

Dummies Mark L. Chambers

https://ebookultra.com/download/building-a-pc-for-dummies-5th-edition-
building-a-pc-for-dummies-mark-l-chambers/

Building web sites all in one for dummies 2nd Edition Doug
Sahlin

https://ebookultra.com/download/building-web-sites-all-in-one-for-
dummies-2nd-edition-doug-sahlin/

Creating Web Sites Bible 3rd edition Edition Crowder

https://ebookultra.com/download/creating-web-sites-bible-3rd-edition-
edition-crowder/

Site Seeing A Visual Approach to Web Usability 1st Edition

Luke Wroblewski

https://ebookultra.com/download/site-seeing-a-visual-approach-to-web-
usability-1st-edition-luke-wroblewski/
The Culturally Customized Web Site Customizing Web Sites
for the Global Marketplace 1st Edition Nitish Singh

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-culturally-customized-web-site-
customizing-web-sites-for-the-global-marketplace-1st-edition-nitish-
singh/

Web Marketing For Dummies 3rd Edition Jan Zimmerman

https://ebookultra.com/download/web-marketing-for-dummies-3rd-edition-
jan-zimmerman/

Building Better Boards 1st Edition David A. Nadler

https://ebookultra.com/download/building-better-boards-1st-edition-
david-a-nadler/

Web Site Design With the Patron in Mind A Step By Step

Guide for Libraries 1st Edition Susanna Davidsen Everyl
Yankee
https://ebookultra.com/download/web-site-design-with-the-patron-in-
mind-a-step-by-step-guide-for-libraries-1st-edition-susanna-davidsen-
everyl-yankee/

Customer Advisory Boards A Strategic Tool for Customer

Relationship Building David L Loudon

https://ebookultra.com/download/customer-advisory-boards-a-strategic-
tool-for-customer-relationship-building-david-l-loudon/
Building a web site for dummies David A. Crowder
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): David A. Crowder
ISBN(s): 9780470560938, 0470560932
Edition: Kindle
File Details: PDF, 9.28 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
 ™
g Easier! 4th Edition
Making Everythin

Build in g a
W e b Site

Learn to:
• Plan and design a great-looking Web site

• Work with HTML, CSS, and navigation

plans

• Collect and create content that

gets attention

• Take your site online and attract

visitors who come back

David A. Crowder
Author of Google Earth For Dummies
 Get More and Do More at Dummies.com®
Start with FREE Cheat Sheets
Cheat Sheets include
• Checklists
• Charts
• Common Instructions
• And Other Good Stuff!

To access the Cheat Sheet created specifically for this book, go to

www.dummies.com/cheatsheet/buildingawebsite

Get Smart at Dummies.com

Dummies.com makes your life easier with 1,000s
of answers on everything from removing wallpaper
to using the latest version of Windows.

Check out our

• Videos
• Illustrated Articles
• Step-by-Step Instructions

Plus, each month you can win valuable prizes by entering

our Dummies.com sweepstakes. *

Want a weekly dose of Dummies? Sign up for Newsletters on

• Digital Photography
• Microsoft Windows & Office
• Personal Finance & Investing
• Health & Wellness
• Computing, iPods & Cell Phones
• eBay
• Internet
• Food, Home & Garden

Find out “HOW” at Dummies.com

*Sweepstakes not currently available in all countries; visit Dummies.com for official rules.
Building a
Web Site
FOR

DUMmIES
‰

4TH EDITION
Building a
Web Site
FOR

DUMmIES
‰

4TH EDITION

by David A. Crowder
Building a Web Site For Dummies®, 4th Edition
Published by
Wiley Publishing, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774
www.wiley.com
Copyright © 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permit-
ted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written
permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the
Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600.
Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://
www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Trademarks: Wiley, the Wiley Publishing logo, For Dummies, the Dummies Man logo, A Reference for the
Rest of Us!, The Dummies Way, Dummies Daily, The Fun and Easy Way, Dummies.com, Making Everything
Easier, and related trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/
or its affiliates in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Wiley Publishing, Inc., is not associated
with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: THE PUBLISHER AND THE AUTHOR MAKE NO

REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF
THE CONTENTS OF THIS WORK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITH-
OUT LIMITATION WARRANTIES OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. NO WARRANTY MAY BE
CREATED OR EXTENDED BY SALES OR PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS. THE ADVICE AND STRATEGIES
CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR EVERY SITUATION. THIS WORK IS SOLD WITH THE
UNDERSTANDING THAT THE PUBLISHER IS NOT ENGAGED IN RENDERING LEGAL, ACCOUNTING, OR
OTHER PROFESSIONAL SERVICES. IF PROFESSIONAL ASSISTANCE IS REQUIRED, THE SERVICES OF
A COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL PERSON SHOULD BE SOUGHT. NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR THE
AUTHOR SHALL BE LIABLE FOR DAMAGES ARISING HEREFROM. THE FACT THAT AN ORGANIZA-
TION OR WEBSITE IS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK AS A CITATION AND/OR A POTENTIAL SOURCE
OF FURTHER INFORMATION DOES NOT MEAN THAT THE AUTHOR OR THE PUBLISHER ENDORSES
THE INFORMATION THE ORGANIZATION OR WEBSITE MAY PROVIDE OR RECOMMENDATIONS IT
MAY MAKE. FURTHER, READERS SHOULD BE AWARE THAT INTERNET WEBSITES LISTED IN THIS
WORK MAY HAVE CHANGED OR DISAPPEARED BETWEEN WHEN THIS WORK WAS WRITTEN AND
WHEN IT IS READ.

For general information on our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care
Department within the U.S. at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993, or fax 317-572-4002.
For technical support, please visit www.wiley.com/techsupport.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may
not be available in electronic books.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010926852
ISBN: 978-0-470-56093-8
Manufactured in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
About the Author
David A. Crowder has authored or coauthored nearly 30 books on subjects
ranging from computers to historical mysteries, including popular bestsellers
such as Sherlock Holmes For Dummies, Building a Web Site For Dummies and
CliffsNotes Getting on the Internet. He was selling hypertext systems back in
the days when you had to explain to people what the word meant. He’s been
involved in the online community since its inception and is the recipient of
several awards for his work, including NetGuide Magazine’s Gold Site Award.

He is the son of a teacher and a college president, and his dedication to

spreading knowledge, especially about the computer revolution, goes beyond
his writing. He also founded three Internet mailing lists (discussion groups),
JavaScript Talk, Java Talk, and Delphi Talk, all of which were sold to Ziff-
Davis. One of his most treasured memories is the message he received from
an old-timer on one of those lists who said that he had never seen such a free
and open exchange of information since the days when computers were built
by hobbyists in home workshops.

When he isn’t writing, he spends his time with his wife Angela, wandering
through villages in the Andes or frolicking in the Caribbean surf.
Dedication
For Angela. Eres mi sol, nena, eres mi luna.

Author’s Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Steven Hayes, Christopher Morris, Barry Childs-Helton,
and James Russell, my fine editors, who were there for me every step of the
way. Sometimes the relationship between writers and editors is smooth as
silk, and sometimes it’s tempestuous, but it always results in a better book
through the give-and-take of the writing/editing process — and I’m grateful
for the critiques and contributions of all the members of the Wiley team.
All helped to make this the best book we could put together for you. And
they’re just the tip of the iceberg: About a zillion people work their tails off
anonymously and behind the scenes at Wiley to bring you the finest books
they can possibly produce. My hat is off to all of them, from the top editors
to the humblest laborer on the loading dock. Last, but by no means least,
I’d like to say how much I appreciate all the hard work done by my literary
agent, Robert G. Diforio, without whose help I would be lost in the intricacies
of the publishing world.
Publisher’s Acknowledgments
We’re proud of this book; please send us your comments through our online registration form
located at http://dummies.custhelp.com. For other comments, please contact our Customer
Care Department within the U.S. at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993, or fax 317-
572-4002.
Some of the people who helped bring this book to market include the following:

Acquisitions, Editorial, and Composition Services

Media Development Project Coordinator: Katherine Crocker
Senior Project Editor: Christopher Morris Layout and Graphics: Claudia Bell,
(Previous Edition: Jean Rogers) Ashley Chamberlain, Christin Swinford
Executive Editor: Steven Hayes Proofreaders: Laura Bowman, Lindsay Littrell
Senior Copy Editor: Barry Childs-Helton Indexer: Steve Rath
Technical Editor: James Russell Special Help: Anne Sullivan
Editorial Manager: Kevin Kirschner
Media Development Project Manager:
Laura Moss-Hollister
Media Development Assistant Project
Manager: Jenny Swisher
Media Development Associate Producers:
Angela Denny, Josh Frank, Marilyn Hummel,
Shawn Patrick
Editorial Assistant: Amanda Graham
Sr. Editorial Assistant: Cherie Case
Cartoons: Rich Tennant
(www.the5thwave.com)

Publishing and Editorial for Technology Dummies

Richard Swadley, Vice President and Executive Group Publisher
Andy Cummings, Vice President and Publisher
Mary Bednarek, Executive Acquisitions Director
Mary C. Corder, Editorial Director
Publishing for Consumer Dummies
Diane Graves Steele, Vice President and Publisher
Composition Services
Debbie Stailey, Director of Composition Services
 Contents at a Glance
Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Building Your First Web Site .............................. 7
Chapter 1: Planning for Good Site Design ....................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Creating a Web Page with Basic HTML Tags............................................. 17
Chapter 3: Arranging Your Text with Tables and Other Advanced Tags ................. 31
Chapter 4: Working with WYSIWYG .............................................................................. 47
Chapter 5: Letting the World In: Choosing a Host and Domain Name ...................... 59

Part II: Building Better Web Pages ............................. 71

Chapter 6: Using Cascading Style Sheets...................................................................... 73
Chapter 7: Adding Images ............................................................................................... 95
Chapter 8: Adding Forms .............................................................................................. 117

Part III: Adding Frills and Fancy Stuff ...................... 145

Chapter 9: Exploring JavaScript and DHTML ............................................................. 147
Chapter 10: Adding Image-Based Buttons and Image Maps ..................................... 169
Chapter 11: Web Sights and Sounds ............................................................................ 183
Chapter 12: Adding a Blog ............................................................................................ 199

Part IV: Making Money ............................................ 211

Chapter 13: Attracting an Audience: Publicizing Your Site ...................................... 213
Chapter 14: Designing for Internet Commerce........................................................... 231
Chapter 15: Checking Out Online Payment Methods ................................................ 253

Part V: The Part of Tens ........................................... 273

Chapter 16: Ten Great Web Sites to Get Advice ........................................................ 275
Chapter 17: Ten Fabulous Tools for E-Commerce ..................................................... 285
Chapter 18: Ten More Great Add-Ins ........................................................................... 297

Glossary .................................................................. 307

Index ...................................................................... 325
 Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................. 1
About This Book .............................................................................................. 1
How to Use This Book ..................................................................................... 1
Foolish Assumptions ....................................................................................... 2
Conventions Used in This Book ..................................................................... 2
How This Book Is Organized .......................................................................... 3
Part I: Building Your First Web Site ..................................................... 3
Part II: Building Better Web Pages ....................................................... 3
Part III: Adding Frills and Fancy Stuff .................................................. 3
Part IV: Making Money .......................................................................... 4
Part V: The Part of Tens ........................................................................ 4
Icons Used in This Book ................................................................................. 4
Where to Go from Here ................................................................................... 5

Part I: Building Your First Web Site ............................... 7

Chapter 1: Planning for Good Site Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Drafting a Plan .................................................................................................. 9
What do you want to accomplish? .................................................... 10
Who do you want to reach? ................................................................ 10
Keeping your site fresh ....................................................................... 11
User-generated content....................................................................... 12
Designing the Look of Your Site................................................................... 12
Appealing to your audience................................................................ 12
Avoiding clutter ................................................................................... 13
Achieving Usability .............................................................................. 14
The Big Rules for Planning Your Site .......................................................... 15
Online Sources for Web Design ................................................................... 16

Chapter 2: Creating a Web Page with Basic HTML Tags . . . . . . . . . . .17

Tagging Along with HTML ............................................................................ 17
Getting Wordy ................................................................................................ 19
Paragraphs ............................................................................................ 19
Headings................................................................................................ 20
Fonts ...................................................................................................... 22
Lines ...................................................................................................... 23
Using Color ..................................................................................................... 25
Creating Links ................................................................................................ 26
xii Building a Web Site For Dummies, 4th Edition

Picturing It: Using Images ............................................................................. 26

Images ................................................................................................... 27
Background images ............................................................................. 28
Putting It All Together................................................................................... 29
Online Sources for Web Page Building ....................................................... 30

Chapter 3: Arranging Your Text with Tables and

Other Advanced Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Creating Tables .............................................................................................. 31
Defining rows and columns ................................................................ 32
Setting table dimensions ..................................................................... 32
Defining cell sizes................................................................................. 33
Padding and spacing cells .................................................................. 35
Spanning rows and columns............................................................... 38
Playing with alignments ...................................................................... 40
Using Frames and Framesets ....................................................................... 42
Building pages with frames and framesets ....................................... 42
Adding borders and margins to frames ............................................ 44
Online Sources for Tables and Frames ....................................................... 46

Chapter 4: Working with WYSIWYG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Creating the Basic Page in CoffeeCup ......................................................... 48
Setting the page properties ................................................................ 48
Working with text and links ................................................................ 50
Adding images ...................................................................................... 53
Switching views .................................................................................... 54
Working with Website Projects ................................................................... 55
Online Sources for WYSIWYG ...................................................................... 57

Chapter 5: Letting the World In: Choosing a Host and Domain Name . . .59
Going Live: Choosing a Host ........................................................................ 60
ISPs ........................................................................................................ 60
Virtual servers ...................................................................................... 60
Dedicated servers ................................................................................ 61
Finding your match.............................................................................. 62
Keeping It Cheap: Free Web-Site Providers ................................................ 63
Getting Your Own Domain Name................................................................. 64
Picking a name ..................................................................................... 66
Finding a registrar................................................................................ 67
Online Sources for Web Hosting and Domain Registration ..................... 68
 Table of Contents xiii
Part II: Building Better Web Pages .............................. 71
Chapter 6: Using Cascading Style Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Merging CSS and HTML................................................................................. 74
Selectors, Classes, and IDs ........................................................................... 76
Using classes ........................................................................................ 77
Using IDs ............................................................................................... 78
Redefining Elements ...................................................................................... 78
Contextual Selectors ..................................................................................... 80
Going Beyond the Basics .............................................................................. 81
CSS colors ............................................................................................. 81
Borders.................................................................................................. 82
CSS and WYSIWYG......................................................................................... 83
Layers .............................................................................................................. 89
Absolute positioning ........................................................................... 90
Relative positioning ............................................................................. 91
Online Sources for CSS.................................................................................. 92

Chapter 7: Adding Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

Getting Graphics — for Free!........................................................................ 95
Heeding copyrights and credits ......................................................... 95
Creating your own images .................................................................. 96
Differentiating among graphics file formats ..................................... 97
Putting Your Graphics on a Diet with GIFWorks ....................................... 98
Creating a Logo with CoolText.com .......................................................... 101
Editing Images .............................................................................................. 105
Resizing ............................................................................................... 106
Cropping ............................................................................................. 107
Rotating and flipping ......................................................................... 107
Adjusting color ................................................................................... 109
Using special effects filters ............................................................... 111
Basic Design with Images ........................................................................... 112
Placing images for maximum effectiveness .................................... 112
Sizing images in HTML ...................................................................... 114
Online Sources for Quality Graphics......................................................... 114

Chapter 8: Adding Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

Getting Input ................................................................................................ 118
Typing in text boxes .......................................................................... 120
Using text areas .................................................................................. 122
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
This will involve the laying out of irrigation works in eight separate
places, in some of which artificial methods of sewage purification
have been tried and found wanting.
Before commencing with my task proper it may not be out of place
to describe here very shortly the various stages through which the
sewage question has passed during the century just closed. Such a
retrospect is of general interest and may throw some further light
upon our subject; it must of necessity be short, otherwise it would
absorb more time and space than is at my disposal, and any
shortcomings in this respect that the reader may discover, I trust he
will kindly put down to this cause.
"The man in the street” seems year after year more called upon to
form an important element in settling questions even of a scientific
nature, and if what I am going to say should prove of some service
to him my labours will be well repaid.
II. THE SEWAGE QUESTION DURING THE LAST
CENTURY.
A Short Retrospect.

In dealing with the sewage question during the last century, it will
be an advantage to distinguish between the theory and practice of
sewage purification, as such a division of the subject will render it
less complicated and will tend to avoid misconceptions.
Dealing first with the theoretical side of the question, it is very
doubtful whether at the dawn of the century even a working
hypothesis existed to explain the process of sewage irrigation which
was then adopted in one or two instances, notably at Edinburgh,
where the town sewage was very successfully purified on the
Craigentinny meadows. It is more than likely, that at this time
instinct took the place of theory, and that sewage irrigation was an
instinctive imitation of irrigation with river water employed for many
centuries in some eastern countries.
Later on it is on record, that Cagniard de la Tour in France, about
the year 1825, and Schwann in Germany, about the year 1836,
expressed the view, that organised substances—micro-organisms—
played some role in fermentative and putrefactive changes. Almost
diametrically opposed to this were the views authoritatively laid
down by the then star in the chemical horizon, Justus von Liebig,
who, about the year 1845, maintained that these changes were
brought about by the dead inert matter itself—by molecular
movements in the same—and not by organised substances, the
presence of which in fermenting or putrefying substances was purely
accidental. So great was Liebig’s authority then, that many almost
blindly adopted his views, and the strife that commenced around
these opposing views was fought with the greatest bitterness. But
the stronghold of old ideas, which were gradually but surely being
supplanted by new ones, could not hold out for ever against
combined attacks, however stoutly it was defended by its designer,
and its final downfall came about the year 1860, when a young
Frenchman, Pasteur, established beyond doubt by his ever classical
researches, that fermentation and putrefaction were, in the first
instance, due to living organisms and not to dead matter. Pasteur
further demonstrated that living organisms were also the cause of
some and probably of all zymotic diseases.
So far, so good! But unfortunately the methods of biological research
employed by M. Pasteur were very cumbersome and left otherwise
much to be desired, so that his discoveries could not be fully utilised
and extended, until in 1882 Robert Koch of Berlin published his new
methods of investigation. This was the signal of raising the
floodgates of biological (bacteriological) research throughout the
world with this result, that the flood waters pent up until then
inundated practically other branches of scientific investigation and
drowned their individual life for some time to come.
During this interval, 1860 to 1882, investigators who wished to study
the organised impurities in sewage had to proceed by indirect
methods. They had no means of ascertaining by direct biological
experiment the number and character of the micro-organisms
contained in sewage: all they could do, was to determine chemically
the dangerous nature of the sewage by the amount and origin of
organic matter it contained, which would probably act as food to the
germs; and the greater this amount was, so it was inferred, the
greater would be the number of germs it harboured and the more
dangerous its character.
This was the condition of things at the time the second Rivers
Pollution Commission carried out its investigations, which in many
respects, and rightly too, are still considered standard investigations.
It cannot be surprising, therefore, that, being without proper means
of biological examination, and having to rely chiefly on chemical
methods only, the Commissioners came to the conclusion that the
changes brought about in sewage purification were due to
mechanical and chemical agencies!
It is frequently a matter of the utmost difficulty to ascribe, after the
lapse of half-a-century, a new theory to one special author, as
several investigators may have been trending the same way quite
independently of each other, but may not have been equally
successful in the matter of their publications becoming generally
known. Theories, as a rule, do not drop out of the clouds like
meteorites, they force themselves gradually upon men’s minds and
are elaborated by them until ripe.
Bearing this in mind, and subject to further research, it would
appear as if Alexander Müller had been the first to apply Pasteur’s
general theories as to decomposition, fermentation and putrefaction
to the problem of the self-purification of sewage. He made his
experiments in 1869 and published them in 1873. Since that date a
very large number of investigators have been at work on similar
lines, and whilst it would lead too far to deal with them minutely, it
ought to be stated that the results of their labour confirmed the view
of living organisms playing a very important part in the
decomposition of sewage. Among the many names prominent in this
respect are those of Schloesing, Müntz, Hatton, Warrington, Sorby,
Winogradsky, Percy Frankland, Dupré, Emich and Dibdin. That set of
researches, however, which has done more than any other to
consolidate the theory of bio-chemical changes taking place in the
self-purification of sewage are the investigations of the
Massachusetts State Board of Health, which were commenced in
November 1887, and are still being continued.
Since 1895 a large number of additional experiments have been
made, which will be dealt with more in detail later on, but speaking
generally they have not materially increased our knowledge of the
processes taking place in sewage purification.
Summarising the remarks on the theoretical aspect of this question,
it may be said that, as to the agencies at work, we know now they
are of a mechanical, chemical and biological nature; but as to the
processes and products brought about by these agencies we know
very little beyond the initial and terminal stages, as will be pointed
out in some of the subsequent observations.
Directing now attention to the practical side of the question, it has
already been stated that the only known sewage treatment at the
commencement of last century was land irrigation. Then about the
middle of the century chemistry seems to have taken the matter in
hand and tried to make a lucrative business out of it. It is on record,
however, that it did not succeed in this attempt, and the financial
loss which this endeavour has caused is a dismal subject to
investigate.
There is before my mind’s eye the case of a gallant officer of His
Majesty’s land forces who, after having reached very near the
summit of his career, retired and employed his time in trying to make
a fortune out of sewage. So enamoured was he of the subject, that
—so the story goes—he commuted his pension to have all the more
ready money; but fortune did not smile on him, and his last days
were spent under the lengthening shadows of the sorrow of financial
difficulties, having practically lost all he possessed.
The emphatic verdict of the first Sewage Commission of 1857, the
first and second Rivers Pollution Commission, and, indeed, of all
other authoritative investigations, was in favour of land treatment;
and it cannot, therefore, be surprising to find that the Local
Government Board insisted, save in exceptional cases, that “any
scheme of sewage disposal, for which money is to be borrowed with
their sanction, should provide for the application of the sewage or
effluent to an adequate area of suitable land before it is discharged
into a stream.” Indeed, had this body taken any different view and
neglected the findings of practically all authoritative inquiries, it
would have been singularly deficient in the discharge of its duties to
the ratepayers of this country.
But the best of land cannot go on for ever doing its duty if by
systematic neglect and ignorance the essential conditions for
successful purification are year after year violated; and the great pity
is that the Local Government Board, after deciding in favour of land
treatment, did not systematically superintend this operation. It may
not have had the power, but it is quite evident that had it done so,
things would not have drifted from bad to worse, until local
authorities, driven to despair by the apparent failure of land and not
discerning the right cause, refused altogether to be ruled by what
seemed to them a very unfair and absurd restriction.
It was at this time that Mr. Dibdin, who, on behalf of the London
County Council, had been carrying out a set of valuable experiments,
came forward with his application of well known theories to sewage
operations on a large scale. As I pointed out at the time, Mr. Dibdin’s
experiments proved beyond a doubt that the application of sewage
to suitable land was right in principle and that the failures were
brought about by the non-observance of the rules laid down by this
gentleman—that, in fact, sewage irrigation was the only natural
method of sewage purification and that all the other methods were
artificial. I described land treatment as the natural self-purification of
sewage and the oxidation or contact bed system as the artificial self-
purification of sewage.
But the swift current of public opinion had set very strongly against
sewage farms, and nothing but the contact bed treatment would do.
A large number of experimental plants on this system grew up like
mushrooms all over the country, and the waves of enthusiasm
seemed at one time to engulf even the Local Government Board
itself with its “antiquated notions,” until Parliament came to the
rescue and appointed on May 7, 1898, a new Royal Commission to
study the question of sewage purification.
This Commission consists of nine members,[4] i.e. six professional
men and three laymen. Of the professional men, one is a biologist,
one a chemist, two are medical men in administrative positions, and
two are engineers likewise in administrative positions. Of the laymen
two are members of special boards for the prevention of the
pollution of rivers.
So far the Commissioners have issued an Interim Report dated July
12, 1901, a volume of evidence and a volume of appendices. Quite
lately, it is stated, they have issued a further Interim Report, to
which are attached separate reports on some special subjects by
their officers, but this report has not yet come to hand.[5]
At the time of their first Interim Report, July 12, 1901, the
Commissioners had held altogether thirty-five sittings, the first of
which was on June 22, 1898, and the last on May 22, 1901. The
period thus covered is nearly two years, and out of the thirty-five
sittings thirty took place in London, and five in the provinces, viz. at
Leeds, Ripon, Manchester, Accrington and Reigate.
On these occasions, all in all, fifty-eight witnesses were examined,
who may be grouped as follows:

1 Zoologist
1 Botanist
2 Laymen
3 Bacteriologists
5 Lawyers
7 Medical men
11 Patentees
14 Chemists
14 Engineers

58 witnesses in all.

Out of this number twenty-five were officials, viz. five lawyers, six
medical men, six chemists and eight engineers. Four officials were
further managers of artificial sewage purification works, but not one
single manager of natural purification works, i.e. a sewage farm
manager, was called, the term “sewage farm manager” being used
here to indicate an official whose sole duty it is to manage a sewage
farm.
The entire absence of this latter class of official is so striking that it
cannot be due to accident, but must be the outcome of a settled
policy not to reopen questions conclusively settled by previous
inquiries.
Another point that strikes the observer is that the Commission only
called one zoologist and one botanist, as it is to these scientists that
belongs in the first instance the question of studying the fauna and
flora of sewage before the subject is taken up by other branches of
natural science.
Speaking on the whole, the evidence taken by the Commissioners
forms very interesting reading, and ought to be carefully studied by
those who have to deal with the subject. When now and again
opinions are expressed, which seem directly opposed to each other,
it must be borne in mind that here, as in other things human,
unanimity of opinion, though much desired, is apparently
unobtainable.
To understand the conclusions fully, at which the Commissioners in
their Interim Report have arrived, it ought to be pointed out that
they had either to accept the recommendations in favour of land
passed by all previous Royal Commissions and authoritative
inquiries, or they had to show by incontestable evidence that their
predecessors had made grievous mistakes, and where!
Of these two courses, the present Commissioners have adopted, no
doubt for very good reasons of their own, the first, and they have
started therefore, in the conclusions to which they have come, at the
point where previous inquiries had left off, viz. that land treatment is
a very proper method of sewage purification.
But before referring more in particular to their observations on land
treatment, it will be necessary to point out that the Commissioners
evidently divide all methods of sewage purification into two main
classes, viz. natural and artificial methods. Into the former they only
place land treatment, whilst they call all other methods artificial.
This division seems to have given a great deal of offence to all those
who have expressed decided and frequently very one-sided views in
favour of the “bacterial” treatment of sewage; but on closer
examination it cannot be denied that the Commissioners were quite
right in forming this view, as the following remarks will show.
For main divisions of all methods of sewage treatment two factors
seem to be of primary importance, viz. the agencies which bring
about this purification, and the way in which these agencies are
employed. Now, it will not be denied that all agencies are natural
ones, whether the process employed is a purely chemical one, a
purely “bacterial” one, land treatment pure and simple, or a
combination of these, and, at the present time no such thing as an
artificial agency is known; indeed, it is perhaps not too much to say
that there cannot be such a thing as an artificial agency. Hence it is
impossible to divide sewage purification methods in this respect by
the agencies employed, and one is bound to fall back upon the way
in which these agencies are employed. Here it is no longer open to
argument whether a chemical process or the contact bed system—
oxidation bed system—is artificial, or whether the land treatment is
natural! For who would deny that masonry or concrete tanks and the
materials contained in the same are artificial products—i.e. products
formed by man—and that land is a natural product—i.e. formed by
nature—and that further the soil is the natural home of bacteria.
Hence it must be perfectly clear, even to a casual observer, that the
line of demarcation drawn by the Commissioners between all known
systems of sewage purification is a correct and legitimate one, and
that all objections to such a division are based on misconceptions.
Concerning land treatment, the Commissioners observe, “We doubt
if any land is entirely useless,” but further on they observe that peat
and stiff clay lands are generally unsuitable for the purification of
sewage. Concerning peat, nobody acquainted with the subject would
probably differ from their conclusions owing to the great amount of
moisture contained in this material; but as to clay soils, the
Commissioners when making this statement must have known that
there are several successful sewage farms on this kind of land in
existence, such as the sewage farms at South Norwood, Wimbledon,
Warwick and Leicester, not to mention others. In the case of
Leicester, although the land is a very dense boulder clay, the
Corporation of this town have just purchased the freehold of the
farm for about 160,000l.
Dealing with the artificial processes from a chemical point of view,
the Commissioners are of opinion that it is practicable to produce by
these processes alone, either from sewage or from certain mixtures
of sewage and trade refuse, effluents which might be discharged
without fear of creating a nuisance, and that in consequence the
Local Government Board would be justified in modifying, under
proper safeguards, the present rule as regards the application of
sewage to land.
The artificial processes referred to in the observations appear to be
the following:—​
Closed septic tanks and contact beds.
Open septic tanks and contact beds.
Chemical treatment, subsidence[6] tanks and contact beds.
Subsidence tanks and contact beds.
Contact beds alone.
Closed septic tank followed by continuous filtration.
Open septic tank followed by continuous filtration.
Chemical treatment, subsidence tanks, and continuous
filtration.
Subsidence tanks followed by continuous filtration.
Continuous filtration alone.
The Commissioners do not say what these safeguards are, in fact
they state that no general rules concerning them can be laid down,
and that in the case of these artificial processes it is necessary to
consider every case on its own merits.
The next point dealt with is the bacteriological quality of effluents,
and here the Commissioners observe: “We find that, while in the
case of effluents from land of a kind suitable for the purification of
sewage there are fewer micro-organisms than in the effluents from
most artificial processes, yet both classes of effluents usually contain
large numbers of organisms, many of which appear to be of
intestinal derivation, and some of which are of a kind liable under
certain circumstances at least to give rise to disease.”
No particulars of effluents from sewage farms are given, and later on
it will be shown that this conclusion of the Commissioners is not in
accord with the results published up to now and available concerning
the bacterial purity of effluents from land treatment.
The report concludes with some remarks on rivers pollution. The
Commissioners state that it is of the utmost importance to provide
the simplest possible means for adequately protecting all rivers, and
they think that this subject is of such grave importance “as to
demand the creation of a separate Commission or a new department
of the Local Government Board, which shall be a supreme Rivers
Authority, dealing with matters relating to rivers and their
purification, and which, when appeal is made to them, shall have
power to take action in cases where the local authorities have failed
to do so.”
Summing up the observations on the practice of sewage treatment,
it may be said that as a result of their extended inquiries, the
present Royal Commissioners have at the end of the century re-
established land in its position as the first and only natural method
of sewage purification, beside which they have recognised artificial
(biological) treatments as being under proper safeguards admissible
for the purification of sewage.
Before concluding this portion of the observations, it is necessary to
mention the valuable work done by Mr. Scott-Moncrieff and Mr.
Cameron, who, contemporaneous with Mr. Dibdin, but quite
independently, had experimented with sewage and evolved their
own artificial methods of sewage treatment.
These remarks must suffice for the more historic portion of the
subject, viz. the progress of sewage purification during the last
century, and it is time now to direct attention first to natural and
afterwards to artificial sewage treatments.

[4] Two of these have since retired.

[5] This report has just been issued (August 18, 1902), and although the
special reports it contains are of the greatest interest, it is not necessary
to refer to it again in these observations.
[6]The expression “subsidence tanks” is intended to denote tanks which
are used in such way that little or no septic action is produced.
 III. THE SUBSOIL.
Before dealing more in detail with the processes taking place in the pores of the
subsoil of sewage farms, it may not be out of place to make here a few general
observations on the mechanical structure of soil, its permeability, water
capacity, retentive power, the capillary movements in the same, its temperature,
the subsoil air, the movement of water in and through the same, the micro-
organic life in soil, and its absorbing powers.

1. Mechanical Structure of Soil.

Here is of interest the size of the grains or particles composing the soil, the size
of the pores and their collective capacity.
According to the character of the soil, its grains or particles will vary from very
large in coarse gravel to very fine in fine sand and clay.
The size of the pores will vary as the size of its grains from large to small, but
frequently a certain kind of soil will contain a mixture of large and small pores.
The finer the pores the more energetic will, as a rule, be the surface attraction
of the grains composing the soil.

The collective capacity of the pores or the pore-volume mainly depends on the
equal or unequal sizes of the particles. When the same are of equal size the
pore-volume amounts to about 38 per cent. of the total space occupied by the
soil, but when this is not the case it may sink to as low as from 10 to 15 per
cent. of this space. With equally sized particles the pore-volume is the same
whether the individual particles are large or small. In nature it will be the
exception to find all the particles of equal size, such a condition of things
prevails only when careful sorting by sifting or riddling has taken place, and in
the majority of cases the larger pores will be partly filled up by the smaller
particles of the soil.
 2. Permeability of Soil.
The permeability of a soil for the passage of air and water depends, in the first
instance, on the size of the pores, and is further to some extent influenced by
the pore-volume.

Soil with large pores will offer but little resistance to the passage of air and
water, but when the pores are small these movements will be greatly impeded.

It has been ascertained that the permeability of soils is proportional to the

fourth power of the diameter of the pores, so that it decreases very rapidly with
the diminishing size of the pores.

In subsoil with small pores all movements of air practically cease when it is half
full of water, and in frozen soil the decrease of the permeability is still more
marked.

3. Water Capacity of Soil.

The water capacity of a soil is that quantity of water which can be stored in its
pores; it is therefore equal to the pore-volume. For very accurate
measurements allowance must be made for a small amount of air, which even
after filling remains in the pores and cannot be dislodged, but for practical
purposes this can be overlooked.

As has already been stated, the pore-volume of a soil consisting of equal

particles throughout, amounts to about 38 per cent. of the space occupied by
it, and 1 cubic yard of such a soil—whether we have to deal with coarse gravel
or fine sand—will hold about 85 gallons of water.

4. Water-retentive Power of Soil.

The water-retentive power of a soil is expressed by that quantity of water which
can be retained by it; it will always be a percentage or portion of the water
capacity of this soil.
Soil with a large pore-volume and with a large percentage of fine pores will
retain more water than soil with a small pore-volume and few fine pores. Clean
gravel will retain about 12 per cent. of its water capacity, i.e. 10 gallons per
cubic yard, whereas fine sand may retain as much as 84 per cent. of its water
capacity, i.e. about 70 gallons per cubic yard.

This will explain why a polluted subsoil containing a large amount of organic
substances will retain more water than the same soil in a clean condition.

The retentive power of a soil is due to the surface attraction of its particles, and
when the space between them is small, or when, in other words, the pores are
small, this attractive power will be all the greater.

It is further of interest to observe here, that if after the limit of the retentive
power has been reached further quantities of water are poured upon the soil,
the water retained in the lower layers will commence to drain away. This means
that the water freshly poured upon the soil will drive out a portion of the water
previously stored in the pores. It is important to bear this in mind when dealing
with polluted water, as owing to this action the water penetrating into deeper
layers will to some extent at least have become purified in the upper layers.

5. Capillary Movements of Water in Soil.

Through capillary attraction an ascending movement of the water is caused in
direct opposition to the laws of gravity, and the height to which water will thus
ascend depends mainly on the smallness of the pores; large pores do not assist
in this movement. As the same, however, extends over the whole pore-volume
the quantity of water thus raised may exceed the water-retentive power of soil.

In addition to the upward movement brought about by capillary attraction, this

power is also continually at work in a lateral and downward direction; but for
the present purposes only the upward movement will be noticed.

In observing the upward movement, it is interesting to notice the time occupied

by it and the total height reached. As to the time occupied, it has been
established that the upward movement in gravel and coarse sand is much
quicker than in fine and loamy sand, but the heights attained are reversed. For
whereas the height in a material consisting of coarse or large pores amounts to
from 2 inches to 4 inches; a height of about 4 feet after thirty to thirty-five days
has been recorded in fine or loamy sand; in peaty soil one observer states that
the upward movement of the water may reach a height of 20 feet.

6. Temperature of Soil.
The earth’s crust receives its supply of heat from three principal sources, viz.:
1. From the sun through its rays;
2. From the interior of the earth through conduction; and
3. From various physical and chemical processes which take place in it and
create heat.
Dealing with the upper layers of the crust, it may be said that, besides the
intensity of the sun’s rays, the temperature also depends on a variety of
properties possessed by various kinds of soil, amongst which latter may be
mentioned the absorption of heat, which is much greater in dark than in light-
coloured soils; the heat conductivity and the capacity for heat, which lead to
higher temperatures in damp and fine-grained soils; and finally the evaporation
and condensation of aqueous vapour, which tend to prevent extremes of heat
and cold and which likewise produce the greatest effects in fine-grained soils.
It follows from these observations that a coarse-grained, dark coloured and dry
soil will show the highest and lowest temperatures, whereas a fine-grained
damp soil does not get so hot but retains the heat better.

It ought to be pointed out in this place that a variety of circumstances may

bring about very high temperatures on the surface of the ground which
considerably exceed the average temperatures of the air at the same time.

Concerning the laws that have been deduced from careful and long continued
observations of subsoil temperatures, it will not be necessary at this point to
deal minutely with them; it must on the contrary suffice to summarise only the
more important ones.
With the distance from the surface of the ground,
1. The differences of temperature become less,
2. The temperatures are retarded, and
3. The variations of short durations gradually disappear.
At a depth of 18 inches below the surface the daily fluctuations are hardly
observable, the temperature differences of various days become obscured, the
differences between the monthly mean temperatures are less by several
degrees, and the yearly fluctuation amounts only to about 10° C. At a depth of
4 feet 6 inches the latter is only 4° C., and at a depth of 9 feet it is only 1°C.

Between 9 and 33 feet, according to the yearly mean of the surface, the yearly
fluctuation ceases and the temperature remains the same throughout the year.

Below this point an increase of temperature is observable towards the earth’s

centre, which amounts to about 1° C. for every 40 feet.
Concerning the retardation of the temperatures with an increase in depth below
the surface, it is interesting to point out that this, according to Fodor, amounts
to about three weeks for every yard, so that the yearly maximum at a depth of
1 yard will take place in August, at a depth of 2 yards in the beginning of
September, and at a depth of 4 yards in October. This is on the assumption that
the maximum temperature of the atmospheric air is reached in July.
The depth to which frost under ordinary conditions penetrates is about 3 feet,
but there are cases on record where water pipes at depths of from 4 to 5 feet
have been frozen up during long continued severe frost.

7. Subsoil Air.
The pores of soil are either partly or wholly filled with air, which as a rule is
saturated with aqueous vapour. This air consists very largely of carbonic acid
(from 0·2 to 14 per cent., on an average from 2 to 3 per cent.) and to a small
extent of oxygen, which has been used up for the formation of carbonic acid. It
also contains traces of ammonia and gases of decomposition.

The movements of subsoil air need not be considered here, and beyond these
few general observations it will not be necessary to deal with the subject.

8. Movements of Water in Soil.

Two main strata may here be distinguished in subsoil, one above the level of
the subsoil water and one below this level. The latter strata do not interest us,
and those above the level of the subsoil[7] water may again be subdivided into
three zones, which in descending order are as follows:--​
The evaporation zone;
The passage zone; and
The capillary zone.
All these three zones must be passed by the water in its descent from the
surface of the ground to the subsoil water level, and the quantity of water
retained by them will depend on their state of dryness. Speaking quite generally
and within wide limits, one-third of the rain-water flows off the surface, one-
third evaporates, and one-third percolates into the subsoil.

The evaporation zone reaches from the surface of the soil to that point below,
which marks the extent of the drying influence of the atmospheric air. In the
same the quantity of water stored in the pores may at times sink below the
retentive power of the soil, i.e. below that quantity which can be retained in the
pores owing to the mechanical powers of adhesion, etc. When it has become
very dry through evaporation and other causes the zone, especially when it
extends some way down, may retain large quantities of water. In a depth of 10
inches, 1 square yard of soil, with fine pores, may retain about 10 gallons of
water, and as a rainfall of ½ inch produces only 2·3 gallons per square yard, it
is clear that subsoil of this nature may retain a number of successive showers.
During the height of summer fine porous soil may become so dry that
practically no water finds its way into deeper zones; in this state the
evaporation zone can be compared to a large sponge.
The next zone traversed by the water in its downward movement is the
passage zone, which lies beyond the drying influence of atmospheric air. When
too far removed from the level of the subsoil water, its pores will not be
completely filled with water, but will only contain that amount which is due to
the retentive powers of the soil. By direct measurement it has been found that
on an average a cubic yard of fine porous soil will retain from 30 to 80 gallons
of water, and it can easily be calculated that in a layer from 1 to 2 yards in
thickness the rainfall of a whole year may be retained. The passage zone,
especially if it is of considerable thickness, represents a very large storage
reservoir.
The last zone before the level of the subsoil water is reached is the capillary
zone, in which the pores are partially or wholly filled by the upward movement
—due to capillary attraction—from the subsoil water. The extent of this filling
will depend on the size of the pores.
When the descending water has finally reached the subsoil water it either
comes to a standstill altogether on the impervious layer or moves along the
same, if the latter is not horizontal, until it may eventually leave the subsoil
again by issuing therefrom in the form of visible or invisible springs.
The rate of movement of any liquid—rain-water, sewage or other polluting liquid
—is largely governed by the size of the pores. Where these are large, as for
instance in coarse gravel, the descent of the water will be comparatively rapid,
but when they are small it may take a very long time before the water reaches
the level of the subsoil water, and in that case it will have undergone material
changes as regards its chemical or bacterial composition.

With a high level of subsoil water the zones may become indistinguishable, one
zone reaching into the other, with the result that the whole of the soil becomes
very wet.

When subsoil has been artificially drained the amount of water reaching the
subsoil water below the general level of the drains will depend on the size of
the latter and the distance between them. In such a case the downward
movement of the water through undrained soil, previously described, may be
further interfered with through the ventilation of the subsoil by drains, and the
drying up action caused thereby.

[7]The term subsoil water is here used to denote that portion of the water in the
pores of the soil, which is either at rest on or moves along the inclined plane of an
impervious layer.

9. The Micro-Organic Life in Soil.

The soil is probably the original home of all micro-organisms, from which they
have emigrated into other media. It contains vast numbers, and, according to
some observers, 1 ccm. may hold 100,000 germs. By far the greater number is
found on or near the surface, and in lower layers the numbers gradually
diminish, until at last a depth is reached, which depends on local conditions,
where the soil is perfectly sterile. The aerobes live near the surface and carry
on their work in this region, whereas the anaerobes are at work lower down in
the soil.

The picture of the cycle of micro-organic activity in the upper layers of the soil
during the various seasons of the year is probably the following. In winter,
especially during that period when frost and ice bind the earth, micro-organic
life is apparently at its lowest ebb, and may in some very cold climates come to
a standstill altogether, when micro-organisms may be said to hold their
vegetative winter sleep. With the return of life and the awakening of nature in
spring—especially with the approach of higher temperatures and the formation
of moisture—micro-organic activity once more makes itself felt all round. During
the summer months it is exposed to some injurious influences such as the
heating and drying up of the upper layers of the soil, but, still gradually
increasing, micro-organisms reach the climax of their activity during the
autumnal rains, to remain in this state until with the advent of the cold season
their activity gradually declines again.
In the lower layers of the soil, down to 3 feet and 6 feet, micro-organisms are
more protected against the injurious influences of the atmosphere, sunlight and
drying up, but the want of oxygen, together with the greater difficulty of
removing such products as carbonic acid, has an injurious influence. As the
temperature in these layers is considerably more uniform, it may be inferred
that the micro-organic activity is there of a more uniform kind, less influenced
by sudden changes, probably also less intense, but without pronounced periods
of rest.
In depths greater than 6 feet micro-organisms probably perish very quickly
owing to unfavourable conditions, and if found their presence must be
explained by emigration from higher layers, not by actual growth at these
depths.

On sewage farms the micro-organic activity is without doubt greatly modified,

and proceeds all the year round at a more uniform rate than on ordinary land,
as the sewage always contains the necessary warmth and moisture so beneficial
for it.

10. The Absorbing Powers of Soil.

The absorbing powers of soil are due to the surface attraction of its particles or
grains, and these, as has already been pointed out, will be all the greater the
finer the pores are; they extend on the one hand to aqueous and other vapours
and gases, and on the other to matters in solution.

That the attractive force of the surface of the particles is pretty considerable will
be at once apparent when it is stated that 1 cubic yard of coarse gravel may
contain about 140,000 grains with a combined surface of 50 square yards, and
1 cubic yard of fine sand 40 million grains with a combined surface of 9200
square yards, which is a little under 2 acres.

Concerning the absorption by soil of aqueous vapour and gases (apart from
condensation through a fall in temperature), dry soil with fine pores acts most
energetically. The almost instantaneous deodorisation of foul-smelling gases,
such as are formed by decomposing fæcal matters (earth closet) or coal gas,
through a thin layer of fine dry soil is well known, and is to be explained in this
way.

More interesting still, and also more important, is the absorption of dissolved
substances by soil. In this way is to be explained the decolorising effect and the
retention of dissolved polluting substances such as are contained in sewage. In
the same way soil has the power of destroying such poisons as strychnine,
nicotine, coniine, etc., and the experiments of Falk and others go to show that
ptomaines and toxines are likewise retained and rendered harmless by it. This
absorbing power of soil is of the utmost importance in agriculture, and without
it soil could not possess purifying powers for polluting liquids. It is quite true
that in this process of purification other factors play an important part, but they
could not come into play if this absorption did not exist.
The absorbing powers of soil are in some way dependent on the presence of
micro-organisms and air, and in the absence of these they will soon come to a
standstill.
 IV. SELF-PURIFYING POWERS OF SOIL. NATURAL
SELF-PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE.
After these preliminary remarks it becomes necessary now to examine into the
self-purifying powers of soil with special reference to sewage farms. Generally
speaking, the term “self-purifying powers of soil” comprises all those processes
which go on on the surface and in the pores of the soil of sewage farms, and by
which polluting liquids such as sewage become purified as these take place
under natural conditions and in a natural medium, the process of land
treatment of sewage is called—see previous observations—"the natural self-
purification of sewage.”
It should be stated at the outset that the self-purifying powers of soil will
depend largely on the soil itself and the local conditions under which they come
into play, so that observations made in one locality will not be immediately
applicable to others without making full allowance for the differences; this will
be clear from the preliminary remarks as to the character and properties of soils
made in the previous pages. As will be pointed out more in detail later on, a
subsoil that combines great permeability for air with high retaining and
absorbing powers, is best suited for sewage farms.

Let us now consider what becomes of water, sewage or any other polluting
liquid containing organic substances after it has been poured out upon the
surface of the ground, and for this purpose we will assume a subsoil of a
suitable character and in fair condition for work with proper under-drainage.
The liquid thus poured out upon the surface will sooner or later disappear in the
soil, and will at first be retained in the pores of the zone of evaporation, which
may be said to extend to the level of the under-drains. This retention is due to
the retentive powers of soil.
Portion of the suspended matters will be retained on the surface and the rest
will be strained out in a mechanical manner in the pores, the soil acting as a
sieve more or less fine according to its character. If the suspended matters are
present in very large quantities it may happen that they will gradually form a
coat on the surface of the land and choke the pores to the exclusion of air, and
as this is a thing to be avoided in sewage farming it is in most cases advisable
to remove them out of the liquid before it is poured upon the land.

Even where such a removal has taken place there will still be left a certain
portion of the suspended matters, and if these are in a finely divided state,
such as is probably the result of their passage through fine strainers or pump
valves, the work of the land will be considerably lightened.

The micro-organisms contained in the liquid will be to a large extent screened

out in a mechanical way with the suspended matters and deposited on the
surface and in the upper layers of the soil.

The matters in solution will partly, after removal out of the liquid, be retained
by the absorbing powers of the soil in the pores, a process that is due to
physical and chemical agencies.

It is well known that land which is being treated with sewage for the first time
does not purify sewage so well as land that has been under systematic
treatment for some time, and this is probably due to the absorbing powers,
which gradually ripen until they have reached their maximum of efficiency. This
process of gradual improvement seems to be due to the formation of a slimy
coating round each particle of soil, which growth does not only assist
mechanical filtration, but also possesses high powers of absorbing oxygen.
The depth to which polluting substances may penetrate into soil will probably
differ in each case, but the following factors may be said to influence it, viz. the
velocity of the downward flow, the nature and degree of the polluting liquid,
and the character of the soil. Where, therefore, the powers of the soil are over-
taxed the polluting substances may reach the level of the underdrains and pass
out through them, in which case the effluent will be but little better than the
raw liquid. It must be the aim of careful management to avoid this.
The polluting substances of an organic nature thus stored in the pores undergo
here—and that probably chiefly during periods of rest—a process of
decomposition or disintegration, which goes on until the whole of the organic
matter has been converted into stable mineral forms.

This process of retention, absorption and decomposition of organic impurities is

called “the self-purifying power of soil.”

The substances thus converted do not remain in the pores, but they are
removed either by the plants, for which they act as food, or by the currents of
subsoil air, or by the subsoil water, and as the removal of fertilising substances
by the subsoil water indicates a waste it must be the aim of a careful
management to utilise them as much as ever possible for the benefit of the
plants.

The whole of these intricate and very complicated changes may be likened to
the process of digestion in animals, and when these digestive powers are
overtaxed signs of sickness may be noticed as the inevitable result, which
increase until, in sewage phraseology, the land becomes “sewage sick.” In this
condition it remains until the flow of the polluting liquid is stopped, when after
a period of rest—recreative period—the digestive powers gradually return and
begin to do their work afresh.
When the soil of a sewage farm has got into this state, owing to having
received heavy doses of sewage, the application of lime has proved very
beneficial by accelerating the process of nitrification, and in this respect
interesting experiments have been made on the Berlin sewage farms. The
action of lime is said to be a twofold one.
1. It quickly attacks and splits up the organic matters and accelerates
afterwards their decomposition and their utilisation by plants; and
2. It neutralises the excess of acid in the soil, and causes the latter to part with
its carbonic acid.
The process of decomposition proceeds as a rule at a much quicker rate on the
surface and in the upper layers of the soil, where, as already mentioned, the
number of micro-organisms is greatest.
It has been maintained that the soil of sewage farms will after a while silt up
and cease to purify sewage, but the results obtained with carefully managed
farms clearly disprove this, and under these conditions there appears to be no
limit as to time to the purifying power of soil.

Concerning the depth of soil—evaporation zone—that is necessary for the

successful retention, absorption and decomposition of sewage, no generally
applicable rule can be laid down, as this will depend on a variety of factors,
amongst which may be mentioned: the character and thickness of the top soil
(humus), the nature and cultivation of the top soil; the character of the subsoil
—its permeability for air and its retaining and absorbing powers; the surface
slopes of the land and the level of the subsoil water.
On some farms a depth of 3 feet on an average has proved sufficient, and on
others the drains have been laid at depths ranging between 3 and 6 feet, but
very special reasons ought to be shown for all depths over 4 feet.

Whilst practically no soil is entirely useless for sewage farming, with the
exception perhaps of peat, owing to the quantity of moisture it contains, a soil
that combines great permeability for air with high retaining and absorbing
powers—such as a loamy sand with fairly large grains—is probably the best.
It has been maintained that clay, owing to its impervious character, is totally
unsuitable for sewage farming, but the experience of such farms as South
Norwood, Wimbledon, Warwick and Leicester disproves this. It is true, however,
that as the purifying powers of the soil are restricted in a vertical sense to the
upper layers, it may become necessary in places to extend the area of the farm
beyond what would be necessary with a more pervious soil.

It may not be without interest to draw attention here to some of the changes
that have taken place on the Leicester sewage farm since the land has received
regular dressings of sewage. When I was engaged in laying it out in 1888 my
powers of locomotion over the land were greatly impeded during wet seasons
by the inordinate amount of clay that adhered to the boots; but when engaged
again for some considerable time on the land during the winter 1900 to 1901
this unpleasant peculiarity had completely disappeared even on land that had
recently been sewaged. Through the action of the sewage the very dense clay
had been disintegrated and become so pliable that, when trod upon, it
crumbled to pieces. The colour of the soil had been changed from a yellowish-
brown to a greyish-black, and altogether the land had been greatly improved by
the application of the sewage.
If more sewage is poured upon the land than the effluent drains can deal with
—and here it may be well to bear in mind that on sewage farms in our climate
on a broad average throughout the year about one-third of the total quantity is
lost by evaporation—the excess will pass down between the drains from the
evaporation to the passage zone, and if the flow of the sewage is not
discontinued the downward movement in the passage zone may be continued
until, after having traversed the capillary zone, the level of the subsoil water is
reached.
What length of time may elapse before this level is reached will entirely depend
on local circumstances, but it will be clear from the preliminary remarks that the
completion of this downward movement may in places and under certain
conditions take a very long time.

In connection with this it is of importance to point out that not the fresh
sewage which is poured on the surface of the land will at once pass into the
lower layers, but a portion of the old sewage, which up to then was stored in
the pores and is now displaced by the fresh discharge, so that the fresh raw
sewage is retained and only purified sewage allowed to escape into deeper
layers, which means that in its downward movement all sewage undergoes
purification. Were this not the case the raw sewage might reach the effluent
drains.

It appears time now to examine somewhat more closely the processes of

decomposition and the products elaborated therein.
Concerning the factors which have a favourable influence upon this process,
some of them, such as permeability for air, high retentive and absorbing
powers, have already been mentioned, and to these can be added moisture and
warmth, the latter of which are always present in sewage.

One word here concerning the systematic under-drainage of the subsoil. Its
chief function is, of course, the carrying away of the effluent water and by
doing so to prevent the formation of a swamp, but after the land has done its
work, and during so-called periods of rest, the under-drains act as ventilators of
the subsoil and thus make it artificially more permeable for air, with the result
that a drying-up action is set up and oxygen supplied for micro-organic life. For
the purpose of improving the ventilation of the soil it may become advisable in
places to connect the upper ends of the drains with a short upcast shaft. The
mouths of the drains should always discharge above water so as to allow of a
free circulation of air.
The work of splitting up and converting the organic compounds is primarily
carried out by micro-organisms such as yeast fungi, mould fungi, algæ,
protozoa and even by higher forms of life such as earthworms and insects.

To what extent in addition to these other agencies take part in this bio-chemical
process is not yet fully elucidated.
Fischer in his interesting book, ‘The Structure and Functions of Bacteria,’
observes (page 99): “The decomposition of dead animal bodies, of vegetable
tissues, or of substances like stable manure, is far from being a simple
putrefactive process. Side by side with the disintegration of nitrogenous bodies
there are going on a number of fermentative changes by which non-
nitrogenous compounds are being broken up, besides nitrification and other bio-
chemical processes. For this reason it is always difficult and often impossible to
determine the respective parts played by the different species of bacteria.…
“The phenomena of putrefaction are so complicated that we do not know all of
the compounds that arise during the process.… Very careful chemical
investigations on pure cultures will be necessary before the chaos of
phenomena presented by putrefactive bacteria can be arranged in something
like order.
"Proteids are split up by putrefaction into a large number of simpler compounds
both nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. The substances thus produced are
precisely similar to those resulting from the artificial decomposition of proteids
by fusion with caustic potash or boiling with hydrochloric acid or barium
hydrate. Five groups may be distinguished:

"1. Albumoses and peptones: soluble diffusible bodies closely resembling

albumen. They are produced by the action on albumen of bacterial enzymes,
similar to the enzymes (pepsin and pancreatin) which give rise to peptones in
the digestive tract of man.
"2. Aromatic compounds; among others indol and skatol, which give the
characteristic odour to human excrement; also some non-nitrogenous
substances such as phenol, phenylacetic acid, and phenylpropionic acid.
"3. Amido compounds, all nitrogenous: leucin, tyrosin, aspartic acid, glycocol.
"4. Fatty and aromatic acids, all non-nitrogenous and therefore having no part
in the circulation of nitrogen; acetic, butyric, succinic and valerianic acids.
"5. Inorganic end-products of putrefaction: free nitrogen, ammonia, free
hydrogen, methane, carbonic acid, methylmercaptan, sulphuretted hydrogen. It
is probable also, but not certain, that phosphuretted hydrogen is formed and is
oxidised at once by the free oxygen of the atmosphere.
"Most of these substances are formed also by the chemical decomposition of
proteids, but there is a sixth group which may be termed specific putrefactive
products. These are the so-called ptomaines or putrefactive alkaloids.”
Some of these bodies are either not poisonous or only poisonous in large doses,
whilst others, derived from putrid foods of various kinds (sausages, cheese), are
highly toxic (ptomatropine, tyrotoxine).
Concerning the work done by micro-organisms, it may not be out of place here
to define the meaning of certain terms, and to direct attention at the same time
to the modifications in the results brought about by the presence or absence of
air during the various stages of the process.
The terms mineralisation, disintegration, oxidation, hydrolysis, bacteriolysis,
nitrification, decomposition, eremacausis, putrefaction, fermentation, etc., have
by many been used somewhat promiscuously, and this has led to a good deal of
confusion, bewilderment and misconception. The cause of this has been
undoubtedly our small amount of knowledge concerning this process and the
changes brought about therein, but this would appear to be no reason why
complication should be made worse. For the purposes of these remarks the
undermentioned terms shall have the following meaning.
The term “mineralisation” is used for describing the whole process of the
disintegration and conversion of organic into mineral matter, and no distinction
shall be made between organic matter containing nitrogenous and organic
matter containing carbonaceous substances.
When this process of mineralisation is carried on in the presence of sufficient
quantities of air it is called “aerobic fermentation,” or “decomposition,” which is
generally characterised by the absence of strong smells. The process may then
be called one of complete oxidation.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com