FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

IMPORTANT NOTES

Block 1: Introduction to Political Science

Unit 1
Political Science: Meaning, Nature and scope

• The journey of political science began with the Hammurabi Code (1792 BC).
• Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle contributed to political thought.
• The term "Political Science" is derived from the Greek "polis" (city-state) and Latin
"scire" (to know).
• The study of politics helps understand institutions, power, and governance.

Political Science
Definition: Political Science is the systematic study of politics, government, and power.
Origin: Traces back to Hammurabi’s legal code and Greek city-states.

Thinkers:
Plato (427-347 BC): Analyzed ancient Greek political systems.
Aristotle: Called man a "political animal," emphasizing the need for society and governance.

Importance of Political Science

Explains how societies maintain order and justice.
Helps understand political behavior and governance structures.
Highlights the necessity of a well-organized society for human progress.

Nature of Political Science

• Aristotle: "Man is by nature a political animal" – meaning humans need society and
governance.
• Political science examines how power is distributed and exercised.
 • It is a branch of social science that studies political institutions, behaviors, and
ideologies.

Definitions of Political Science

• Traditional Definition: Focuses on the study of the state and government.
• Modern Definition: Includes political behavior, power dynamics, and institutions.

Scholars’ Views:
Garner: Political Science begins and ends with the state.
Gettell: It is the historical study of government evolution.
Paul Janet: Treats the foundation of the state and government principles.

Scope of Political Science

The scope of Political Science refers to its subject matter and areas of study. Political thinkers
have debated its exact definition, leading to various interpretations. However, the major areas
covered under Political Science include:
1. Study of State and Government
• Political Science is the scientific study of the state and government.
• It examines the nature, origin, and functions of the state.
• Different scholars have varied views on the definition and scope of Political Science.

2. Study of Associations and Institutions

• Political Science also studies associations and institutions through which the state acts.
• According to Dr. Garner, Political Science involves:
• The study of the origin and nature of the state.
• Inquiry into political institutions and their functions.
• Examination of the development of the government and other institutions.
• The state is the supreme institution, but other institutions also contribute to governance.

3. Study of National and International Problems

• The word “Politics” comes from the Greek word Polis, meaning city-state.
• Today, Political Science is not limited to city-states but includes national and
international affairs.
• It studies both domestic and global political issues affecting governance.
4. Study of Past, Present, and Future Development of the State
• Political Science includes historical analysis of political institutions.
• It classifies existing political systems and predicts future developments.
• Gettell states that Political Science helps improve political organization based on
changing conditions and ethical standards.

5. Study of Political Theories

• Political theorists develop ideas about the state, justice, governance, and authority.
• Important theories include:
Plato – Ideal State
Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau – Theories of the origin of the state
These theories provide a foundation for understanding political systems.

Study of the Concept of Power

• With the behavioral revolution in politics, power has become a central theme.
• Power is defined as the ability to manipulate and control events.
• Modern Political Science includes studies on:
• Political socialization – How individuals develop political beliefs.
• Political culture – The values and attitudes of a society toward politics.
• Political development – The growth and modernization of political institutions.

Unit 2
Interdisciplinary Study in Political Science

Need for an Interdisciplinary Approach

• Interdisciplinary studies combine two or more disciplines for better understanding.
• It connects knowledge across subjects for a deeper perspective.
• Helps in addressing issues that cannot be solved through a single-discipline approach.

Political Science and its Relationship with Other Subjects

Political Science is connected with other social sciences like History, Sociology, Economics,
Psychology, Ethics, and Anthropology.
1. Political Science and Sociology
 • Sociology studies society, its structure, traditions, and beliefs.
• Political Science focuses on governance and the state.
• Sociology is broader, covering all aspects of society, while Political Science is more
specific.
• They complement each other: Sociology helps understand social groups, and Political
Science provides insights into political authority and control.

2. Political Science and History

• History provides raw material for Political Science.
• Political Science studies laws and governance, while History records past political
events.
• Freeman stated: “History is past politics, and politics is present history.”
• Political Science helps historians understand political structures, and History helps
political scientists learn from past governance.

3. Political Science and Economics

• Economics was once called Political Economy because it deals with the wealth and
revenue of a state.
• Government policies influence economic systems, and economic factors affect politics.
• Political Science deals with state policies, while Economics studies production, trade,
and wealth distribution.
• The welfare state shows the strong relationship between the two subjects.
Relationship Between Economy and Politics:
• Economic order is closely linked to political order.
• Capitalists influence politics, especially in capitalist countries.
• Karl Marx emphasized that economic relationships shape political relationships.
• Economic disparity led to revolutions like the French Revolution.
• Colonialism was driven by the need for new markets and resources.

4. Political Science and Geopolitics

• Geopolitics studies how geography affects politics and international relations.
• Classical geopolitics focuses on state power and resources.
• Critical geopolitics emphasizes discourse and ideology.
Importance of Geopolitical Factors:
• Geographic location influences national security and cooperation.
• Landlocked countries rely on neighbors for trade.
• Strong institutions ensure political stability.
Geopolitical Risks:
 • Risks include political instability, terrorism, and economic disruptions.
• Geopolitical changes impact trade, investment, and global stability.

Geopolitical Concepts
• Strategic Locations: Important for trade and military advantage (e.g., Persian Gulf,
Strait of Malacca).
• Territorial Disputes: Conflicts over boundaries and resources (e.g., South China Sea,
Kashmir).
• Power Dynamics: Shifting alliances and influence among global superpowers.

Contemporary Geopolitical Challenges

• Globalization: Increased economic interdependence.
• Resource Competition: Struggles over energy and natural resources.
• Cybersecurity: Threats from cyberattacks and disinformation.
• Climate Change: Environmental crises leading to geopolitical instability.

Future Geopolitical Trends

• Multipolarity: Rise of new global powers like China, India, and Brazil.
• Technological Innovation: AI and space exploration shaping global power.
• Geoeconomics: Economic strategies influencing global governance.
• Transnational Challenges: Pandemics, terrorism, and cyber threats requiring
international cooperation.

Unit 3
Relevance of Political Science as a Social Science

• Political Science studies power, governance, and political behavior.

• It helps in understanding structures and systems that shape society.
• Important in addressing global issues like globalization, environmental degradation,
and inequality.

Origins of Political Science

• Aims to explain power distribution and its acquisition, use, and contestation.
• Empowers citizens to participate in governance and hold leaders accountable.
 • Examines the historical evolution of institutions and ideologies to predict future trends.

The Relevance of Conceptual Reflection

• Justifies the need for a political science approach in addressing societal problems.
• Political science provides rigorous theoretical and conceptual knowledge.
• Helps in managing humanitarian crises, climate change challenges, and governance
issues.

Advocating the Relevance of Political Science

• Political science is critical in explaining the relevance of power dynamics and
governance.
• It provides tools for understanding policies, international relations, and social
structures.
• Helps societies navigate complex political systems and governance frameworks.

Importance of Political Science

1. Helps develop good citizens and leaders.
2. Educates on political institutions, political parties, and governance.
3. Guides in policy-making for a modern welfare state.

Unit 4
Political Culture and Political Socialisation

Definition of Political Culture

• Political culture refers to the collective attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and values of
individuals toward the political system.
• It explains why political institutions function differently in different societies.
• Ulfan R. Ball defines political culture as the pattern of individual attitudes and
orientation toward politics.

Components of Political Culture

1. Cognitive Orientation – Knowledge and awareness about political institutions.
2. Affective Orientation – Feelings of attachment or rejection toward political objects.
3. Evaluative Orientation – Judgmental views about the political system based on values and
emotions.

Relation Between Political System and Political Culture

• The efficiency of political institutions depends on the prevailing political culture.
• Political culture varies from country to country based on history, experiences, and
societal structures.
• Political systems of developing countries differ from developed nations despite having
similar structures.

Different Types of Political Culture

1. Parochial Political Culture – People lack awareness or interest in politics (e.g., tribal
communities).
2. Subject Political Culture – Citizens are aware of the political system but do not actively
participate.
3. Participant Political Culture – Citizens are engaged in political processes and decision-
making.
4. Parochial-Subject Political Culture – Citizens recognize the government’s role but do not
influence it.
5. Subject-Participant Political Culture – Some citizens are politically active, while others
remain passive.
6. Parochial-Participant Political Culture – Local institutions dominate, while national
institutions are developed.

Contribution of Political Culture

• Political culture is an essential tool for analyzing the development and modernization
of a country. It contributes to:
• Making Political Science a more comprehensive field.
• Studying political communities and systems.
• Understanding the role of social and cultural factors in politics.
• Explaining variations in political behavior across different nations.
• Facilitating political socialisation and political change.

Criticism of Political Culture Approach

1. It is considered a new label for an old concept.
2. The definition is vague and interpreted differently by scholars.
3. It is difficult to separate elements contributing to political culture from general cultural
factors.

Political Socialisation
Political socialisation is a key concept in political sociology, which refers to the process by
which individuals learn and internalize political values, beliefs, and behaviors. It plays a crucial
role in political stability and development.

Definition of Political Socialisation

1. Almond and Verba define it as the process through which political culture is maintained and
changed.
2. Easton and Dennis describe it as the development of political orientations and behavior
patterns.
3. Dr. S. Bhatnagar defines it as the process through which individuals acquire political
learning, whether formal or informal, at every stage of life.

Features of Political Socialisation

• It is a continuous process influenced by various social and political factors.
• It involves the transmission of political values across generations.
• It helps shape a nation's political culture by maintaining, transforming, and creating
new political norms.

Agents of Political Socialisation

1. Family
• Plays a key role in shaping a child’s character and attitude towards authority.
• Parents and siblings influence a child's political opinions.
2. Educational Institutions
• Schools and colleges have a strong influence on political socialisation.
• The selection of courses and historical narratives impact political views.

3. Peer Group
 • Friends and classmates influence political attitudes.
• Debates, discussions, and shared experiences shape opinions.

4. Mass Media
• Television, radio, newspapers, and social media influence political views.
• Free press can create political awareness or resistance to dictatorship.

5. Experience in Employment
• Workplace interactions shape political attitudes.
• Workers' strikes and collective bargaining influence political awareness.

6. Religious Institutions
• Churches, temples, mosques, and religious beliefs influence political attitudes.
• Religion plays an active role in shaping political decisions.

7. Government and Political Parties

• Political parties educate people on political issues and train leaders.
• Direct interactions with government functionaries impact political awareness.

8. Symbols
• National symbols, historical events, and celebrations reinforce political socialisation.
• Examples: Independence Day, national leaders’ birthdays.

9. Political Crisis and Social Discontinuities

• Political crises and migration affect political socialisation.
• Urbanisation and shifting traditions impact political adaptation.

Contribution of Political Socialisation

1. Helps in the comparative study of political systems.
2. Determines the nature of a country’s political culture.
3. Explains how political qualities and elements grow.
4. Highlights class struggles and discontinuities in politics.
Block 2: Major approaches to the study of Political Science
Unit 1
Behavioural approach and post - behavioural approach

Approaches to Political Science

Political science requires specific methods and strategies for study.
These approaches are broadly classified into:
1. Traditional Approaches
2. Modern Approaches
3. Post-Modern Approaches

Behavioural Approach (Modern Approach)

• Emerged due to dissatisfaction with traditional approaches.
• Focuses on scientific and fact-based analysis.
• Replaces normativism with empiricism.
• Uses statistical and quantitative methods.

Characteristics of Modern Approaches

1. Emphasize empirical data.
2. Go beyond political structures to study political behavior.
3. Support interdisciplinary research.
4. Use scientific methods for conclusions.

Behaviouralism in Political Science

• A significant modern empirical approach.
• Key theorists: David Easton, Robert Dahl, Harold Lasswell, E.M. Kirkpatrick, Heinz
Eulau.
• Focuses on individual political behavior rather than institutions.

Salient Features of Behaviouralism (According to David Easton)

1. Regularities: Identifies patterns in political behavior for predictions.
2. Verification: Emphasizes testing and empirical validation.
3. Techniques: Advocates for scientific tools like surveys and statistical models.
4. Quantification: Uses measurable data for analysis.
5. Systemization: Research should be theory-oriented and systematic.
6. Pure Science: Political science should be scientific and verifiable.
7. Integration: Encourages combining political science with other social sciences.

Critical Analysis of Behaviouralism

1. Christian Bay argues it is "pseudo-politics" focusing on personal behavior rather than real
politics.
2. Critics claim it lacks ethical explanation and is biased towards liberal democracy.
3. Leo Strauss argues it emphasizes individual opinions but is ultimately conservative.
4. Overlooks the impact of social and economic structures (e.g., capitalism).
5. Fails to provide practical solutions for political development.
6. Stephen Wasby critiques its reliance on outdated ideas from the early 20th century.
7. Critics argue it defends capitalism and avoids discussing its crises.
8. Overemphasis on scientific methods without comprehensive political theory.

Post-Behavioural Approach
1. Origins and Context
• Emerged in the late 1960s as a response to the limitations of Behaviouralism.
• Focused on addressing real-world political issues.
• Scholars like David Easton, Gabriel Almond, and David Truman played key roles.
• Advocated for normative concerns, qualitative methodologies, and recognition of
political complexity.

2. Characteristics of Post-Behaviouralism
David Easton outlined seven key principles, known as the "credo of relevance":
a. Substance over techniques – Prioritizing meaningful political issues over mere methodology.
b. Social change over social preservation – Emphasizing progress.
c. Engagement with political realities – Politics should not ignore real-world problems.
d. Value-laden approach – Rejecting value-free science.
e. Protection of human values – Defending ethical and moral principles.
f. Action over contemplation – Encouraging active involvement.
g. Politicization of the discipline – Advocating for policy relevance.

3. Contributions of Post-Behaviouralism
• Normative Concerns: Reintroduced ethical principles, justice, and values.
• Qualitative Methods: Emphasized case studies, textual analysis, and interpretive
methods.
• Critical Reflection: Encouraged scholars to question biases in political inquiry.
• Relevance to Real-World Issues: Addressed social challenges and policy debates.

4. Criticism of Post-Behaviouralism
• Lack of Methodological Rigour: Over-reliance on qualitative methods weakened
scientific objectivity.
• Theoretical Fragmentation: Lack of a coherent framework due to eclectic influences.
• Normative Bias: Risked ideological biases by prioritizing values over empirical
evidence.
• Limited Policy Relevance: Overemphasis on theoretical discussions without practical
implementation.

5. Contributions
• Enriched Methodological Toolbox: Expanded Political Science with qualitative and
interdisciplinary approaches.
• Critical Engagement: Challenged existing paradigms and encouraged intellectual
diversity.
• Enhanced Relevance: Focused on solving real-world problems and fostering social
change.
• Interdisciplinary Dialogue: Integrated insights from sociology, philosophy, and history.
• Epistemological Reflection: Encouraged self-awareness and methodological reflexivity
in political inquiry.
Unit 2
System theory

Structural Functionalism
• Originates from ancient Greek times, developed in the 20th century.
• Integrated into political studies by scholars like David Easton, Karl W. Deutsch, and
Gabriel A. Almond.
• Helps in understanding political systems through their structure and functions.

System Theory (Anatol Rapoport)

A system is a group of things that are connected. Criteria of a system:
1. Listing its parts.
2. Some parts must have relationships.
3. Relationships should lead to interaction.
4. Connections may change over time.
Includes physical, social, economic, and political systems.

Political System
• A type of social system involving governance and authority.
• Defined by David Easton as "a system of interactions through which binding or
authoritative allocations are made and implemented."
• Robert A. Dahl defines it as "a persistent pattern of human relationships involving
power, rule, or authority."
• Functions through structures like government, judiciary, and informal groups.

System Analysis of Gabriel A. Almond

• Defines a political system as "a system of interactions found in all independent societies
performing functions of interaction and adoption."
• More detailed compared to Easton's model.

Characteristics of a Political System (Almond)

1. Comprehensiveness – Includes various structures and functions.
2. Interdependence – Changes in one part affect the whole system.
3. Existence of Boundaries – Differentiates the political system from others.
4. Equilibrium – System adjusts to maintain stability.

Common Characteristics of Political Systems

a. Universality of Political Structures – All political systems have structures.
b. Universality of Political Functions – Functions are similar across systems despite
differences.
c. Multi-functionality of Political Structures – No single structure has one function; various
structures share multiple roles.
d. Cultural Mix of Political Systems – Most systems combine traditional and modern elements.

Functions of the Political System (Almond's Analysis)

1. Political Socialization and Recruitment
• Process of inducting political culture into members.
• Political recruitment trains citizens for specialized political roles.
2. Interest Articulation
• Citizens and groups express their demands to policymakers.
• Political parties and pressure groups facilitate this process.
3. Interest Aggregation
• Process of converting demands into policy alternatives.
• Performed by political parties, legislature, and bureaucracy.
4. Political Communication
• Medium for exchanging political information and decisions.
• Controlled by media and communication institutions.

Output Functions of Political System

1. Rule Making
Legislation process carried out by legislatures, executives, and judiciary.

2. Rule Application
Implementation of laws by government officers and bureaucracy.
3. Rule Adjudication
Judiciary interprets and adjudicates laws to resolve disputes.

David Easton's System Analysis (Input-Output Model)

1. Inputs (Demands & Supports)
Political system receives demands from citizens, political leaders, and institutions.
Four types of demands:
1. Allocation of goods/services (e.g., wages, education, transport).
2. Regulation of behavior (e.g., law enforcement, safety).
3. Participation in politics (e.g., right to vote, join associations).
4. Communication demands (e.g., policy explanations, foreign relations).

2. Outputs (Decisions & Policies)

• Extractive policies (taxes, services).
• Behavior regulation (laws, social control).
• Resource allocation (budget distribution).
• Symbolic policies (national symbols, political messages).

3. Feedback Mechanism
• System adjusts based on public response to policies.
• Negative feedback: Corrects errors.
• Goal-changing feedback: Redirects policies.

Unit 3
The Marxian Approach

Marxism
• Marxism is a socio-economic approach used to analyze and predict political processes.
• Developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century.
• It emphasizes economic class struggle as the driving force of social change.
Marxism and the Rise of Communism
• Historical materialism: Analyzes capitalism and class struggles.
• Contradictions in capitalism: Lead to revolution and socialist transformation.
• Bourgeoisie (owners) vs Proletariat (workers): Class struggle is inevitable.

Basic Principles of Communism (as per Marx's books)

1. Dialectical Materialism – Historical change happens through conflicts (thesis-antithesis-
synthesis).
2. Materialistic Interpretation of History – Economic structure determines social relations.
3. Theory of Surplus Value – Workers create value but capitalists take the profits.
4. Theory of Class Struggle – History is driven by conflicts between oppressors and oppressed.
5. Dictatorship of the Proletariat – Temporary rule by workers before a classless society.
6. Classless and Stateless Society – Final stage where government and social classes disappear.

Theories of Marxism
1. Dialectical Materialism
• Inspired by Hegel’s dialectic (thesis + antithesis = synthesis).
• Society progresses through conflicts leading to new social orders.
Example: Capitalism (thesis) → Worker Revolution (antithesis) → Communism
(synthesis).

2. Materialistic Interpretation of History

Society evolves through economic stages:
1. Primitive Communism (hunter-gatherer societies)
2. Slavery
3. Feudalism
4. Capitalism
5. Socialism → Communism (future stage)

3. Theory of Surplus Value

• Labour creates value, but capitalists take profits.
 • Example: A carpenter makes a chair (worth $2000), but the capitalist pays him only
$300 and keeps $1500 as profit.
• This leads to worker exploitation and class conflict.

4. Theory of Class Struggle

• All history is a struggle between oppressors and oppressed.
• In capitalism, the bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat.
• The proletariat must revolt and establish socialism.

5. Dictatorship of the Proletariat

• After revolution, workers must control the government to destroy capitalism.
• Government institutions like police, courts, and laws supporting capitalism will be
abolished.
• Wealth will be distributed based on needs: "From each according to his ability, to each
according to his needs."

6. Classless and Stateless Society

• Final stage: No government, no private property, true communism.
• The state "withers away" as it is no longer needed

Unit 4
The Feminist Approach

• A feminist approach examines social issues, power structures, and inequalities from the
perspective of gender equality and women’s empowerment.
• Feminism seeks to challenge oppression, discrimination, and patriarchal structures in
society.
• It explores power dynamics, social norms, and institutional structures that impact
marginalized genders.

Components of a Feminist Approach

1. Intersectionality – Recognizes that gender intersects with race, class, sexuality, ability, and
nationality, compounding experiences of oppression.
2. Critique of Patriarchy – Challenges patriarchal systems that privilege men and harm all
genders.
3. Promotion of Gender Equity – Advocates policies and social change to promote gender
equality.
4. Centering Women’s Voices – Prioritizes perspectives of marginalized communities in
discussions and decision-making.
5. Challenging Gender Norms – Questions stereotypes and social expectations related to gender
roles.
6. Solidarity and Collective Action – Encourages all genders to work toward a more just and
equal society.

First-Wave Feminism
• Period: Late 19th to early 20th century.
• Focus: Legal and political rights for women, especially suffrage, property rights, and
education.
• Key Figures: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Emmeline Pankhurst.
• Major Achievement: 19th Amendment (USA) – granted women the right to vote.

Theories of First-Wave Feminism

1. Liberal Feminism – Advocates legal equality and equal opportunities within existing social
structures.
2. Social Feminism – Focuses on economic and social justice, addressing labor rights and
welfare reforms.

Criticism of First-Wave Feminism

• Primarily benefited privileged white women.
• Failed to address intersectional oppression faced by women of color, working-class
women, and other marginalized groups.

Second-Wave Feminism
• Period: 1960s–1970s.
• Focus: Expanded beyond legal rights to issues like reproductive rights, sexuality,
workplace discrimination.
• Key Figures: Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, Audre Lorde.
Theories of Second-Wave Feminism
1. Radical Feminism – Critiques patriarchy and male dominance, advocating revolutionary
changes to dismantle oppressive systems.
2. Marxist Feminism – Links gender oppression to capitalism, arguing that women’s
subordination is tied to labor exploitation.

Criticism of Second-Wave Feminism

• Excluded women of color, lesbians, and transgender individuals.
• Focused mainly on middle-class white women’s experiences, leading to divisions in
feminist circles.

Third-Wave Feminism
• Period: 1990s–Present.
• Focus: Responds to shortcomings of previous waves, addressing intersectionality and
diversity.
• Themes: Cyber feminism, ecofeminism, LGBTQ+ rights.

Theories of Third-Wave Feminism

1. Intersectionality – Developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw, highlights how multiple forms of
oppression intersect.
2. Postcolonial Feminism – Examines race, colonialism, and imperialism, particularly from
non-Western perspectives.

Criticism of Third-Wave Feminism

• Overemphasis on individualism weakens collective activism.
• Tensions between different feminist generations lead to ongoing debates.

Post-Feminism
• Period: Late 20th – Early 21st century.
• Focus: Critical response to second-wave feminism, questioning its assumptions and
engaging with cultural shifts.
• Emphasizes individualism, choice, and empowerment.
• Suggests that feminist goals have been largely achieved, allowing women to freely
pursue their desires.
Theories of Post-Feminism
1. Neoliberal Feminism
• Aligns with neoliberal ideology.
• Suggests that women achieve equality through individual success and consumer
choices rather than collective activism.

2. Girl Power Feminism

• Celebrates female empowerment and agency, often through consumer culture and
media.
• Encourages femininity and sexuality while challenging traditional gender roles.
• Criticism: Tends to prioritize superficial empowerment while overlooking structural
inequalities.

Criticism of Post-Feminism
• Depoliticizes feminism, making it about personal success rather than systemic change.
• Over-reliance on individual achievement and market-based solutions weakens efforts
to address social injustices.
Block 3: Basic concepts in Political Science
Unit 1
Liberty - Meaning and significance - Types of Liberty

Liberty: The Concept

Liberty or freedom is a cornerstone of modern democracy. It evolved alongside civil society
and government. Liberty is essential for individuals to exercise their rights freely and is
considered the foundation of all rights.

Meaning
• The word "Liberty" comes from the Latin word Liber, meaning "free."
• Liberty means freedom from constraints and the ability to act according to one's
preferences.
• It involves freedom from unjust restrictions rather than total lack of constraints.
• Governments and powerful entities often impose limits on liberty, such as
imprisonment, slavery, or strict laws.

Definitions
• G.D.H. Cole: "Liberty is the freedom of the individual to express, without external
hindrances, his personality."
• Gettel: "Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are
worthy of enjoyment and work."

Significance of Liberty
• The early European idea of liberty focused on the "absence of restraints."
• Recognizing equal autonomy for everyone is necessary.
• Social contract theorists like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau emphasized liberty as
growth within shared rules.

Negative and Positive Liberty

• Negative Liberty: Absence of restrictions; individuals are free to act as they choose.
Advocated by J.S. Mill and Friedman.
• Positive Liberty: Freedom with certain restrictions; allows individuals to do what is
worthy of doing. Supported by Prof. Seeley and Barker.
Contribution of J.S. Mill
• Mill's work emphasized Negative Liberty.
• He argued that liberty means developing individuality and self-determination.
• Liberty is connected to choice; individuals must resist external norms that hinder self-
determination.
• Mill distinguished between self-regarding (personal) actions and other-regarding
(social) actions.
• Governments should not interfere in self-regarding actions unless they harm others.

Contribution of Isaiah Berlin

• Berlin compared Negative Liberty (lack of constraints) and Positive Liberty (self-
mastery).
• Negative liberty asks, "What can people do without interference?"
• Positive liberty asks, "What controls influence choices?"
• Freedom is strongest when one's "higher self" (long-term goals) controls their actions.

Marxist Criticism of the Concept of Liberty

• Marxists argue that true freedom is impossible in capitalism.
• Individuals are not free but interconnected and influenced by economic structures.
• Real freedom comes from economic and social equality, possible only in a communist
society.
• Marx and Engels emphasized that alienation in capitalism restricts freedom.

Types of Liberty
1. Natural Libert
• Freedom without restrictions.
• Based on the idea that humans are naturally free.

2. Civil Liberty
• Freedom within a legal and political framework.
• Requires laws to protect rights while limiting threats.

3. Political Liberty
• The right to vote, contest elections, and participate in governance.
 • Defined by Laski as "active participation in the state."

4. Personal Liberty
• Individual freedoms such as speech, movement, and profession.
• Should be exercised without harming others.

5. Economic Liberty
• The right to work and earn a livelihood.
• Requires freedom from hunger and unemployment.

6. Religious Liberty
• Freedom to practice or not practice any religion.
• Based on secularism and equal religious status.

Safeguards of Liberty
To protect liberty, the following are necessary:
1. Absence of special privileges
2. Democratic government
3. Fundamental Rights
4. Independence of Judiciary
5. Separation of Powers
6. Rule of Law
7. Public Opinion
8. Freedom of Press
9. Healthy Party System
10. Strong Opposition
Unit 2
Equality - Meaning and Significance - Types of Equality

The Concept of Equality

• Equality in everyday language means treating everyone the same, but natural equality
acknowledges differences in abilities.
• True equality is about fair opportunities, not identical treatment for all.

Definitions
• Laski: Equality means no one should dominate another to the extent that it threatens
their citizenship.
• Barker: Equality means equal rights and removal of special privileges.

Negative equality: Removing privileges and discrimination.

Positive equality: Ensuring equal rights, shared resources, and recognition of merit.

Kinds of Equality
• Natural Inequalities: Differences in abilities and talents.
• Human-created Inequalities: Discrimination based on caste, gender, color, religion, etc.

Significance
• Essential for fairness and impartiality.
• Integral to democracy, ensuring participation.
• Promotes social justice by challenging discrimination.
• Addresses wealth disparities through fair distribution of resources.

Dimensions of Equality
• Legal Equality: Equal application of the law, rule of law, and protection from
discrimination.
• Political Equality: Equal rights to vote, express opinions, and participate in governance.
• Economic Equality: Ensuring a minimum standard of living for all and reducing income
disparities.
• Social Equality: Equal opportunities for growth, removal of discrimination, and equal
rights for women.
Types of Equality
• Formal Equality: Everyone should be treated the same under the law.
• Equality of Opportunity: Ensuring equal chances to grow without obstacles like caste
or gender.
• Equality of Outcomes: Advocates for equal end results, but critics argue it restricts
freedom and individual choices.

Unit 3
Justice - Meaning and Significance - Types of Justice

The Concept of Justice

• Justice is central to political practice and theory. It is invoked in social and political
movements like civil rights, Dalit, feminist, and environmental movements.
• John Rawls defines justice as “the first virtue of social institutions” in his book A
Theory of Justice (1971). The Indian Constitution also prioritizes justice—social,
economic, and political.
• Tom Campbell states that justice is the "central and commanding concept of mainstream
normative political philosophy."

Meaning
• Justice is a complex concept with different viewpoints. It is associated with values that
change over time. Some define it in terms of equality (egalitarian), others in terms of
liberty (libertarian).
• Some connect justice to divine will, others to duty or balancing different interests.
Overall, justice covers individual rights and social organization, representing both legal
and moral ideas.

Definitions
• Dr. Raphael: "Justice protects the rights of the individual as well as the order of society."
• C.E. Merriam: "Justice consists in a system of understandings and a procedure through
which each is accorded what is agreed upon as fair."
• Salmond: "Justice means to give every individual his due share."
Significance
• Justice is crucial for any state or society. Laws and policies are based on justice. Civil
rights movements fight for more justice.
• Justice ensures order and legitimacy in a legal and political system. Its meaning has
expanded from non-discrimination to taking active steps for social equality.
• Justice dismantles unfair biases in institutions, ensuring freedom from discrimination
and creating an equal society.

Types of Justice
1. Social Justice
• Social justice ensures equality for all regardless of religion, caste, creed, gender, or
status. It is about fair distribution of social resources, rights, and opportunities.
• The Indian Constitution promotes social, economic, and political justice. It has
abolished untouchability and granted equal access to public places.
• Equality is fundamental to social justice. The state must not discriminate based on birth,
caste, race, or gender. Achieving social justice requires dismantling privileged classes.

2. Economic Justice
• Economic justice ensures that all citizens can earn a livelihood, receive fair wages, and
access basic needs. Wealth should be distributed equitably to reduce economic gaps.
Different ideologies define economic justice differently:
• Liberals favor open competition and private property rights.
• Socialists advocate collective ownership and social control.
• Most agree that necessities like food, shelter, education, and healthcare should be
provided fairly.

3. Political Justice
• Political justice ensures citizens have equal rights to participate in governance. Every
citizen should have the right to vote, contest elections, and hold office.
• Fundamental rights like freedom of speech and expression are essential. Public service
recruitment should be based on merit without discrimination. An impartial, independent
recruitment agency is necessary.

4. Legal Justice
Legal justice has two aspects:
1. Creation of just laws
2. Administration of justice by those laws
Laws should reflect public opinion and social needs, not just the will of rulers. Good laws align
with social values and prevent injustice.

Justice includes four key dimensions:

1. Social Justice
2. Economic Justice
3. Political Justice
4. Legal Justice
All these aspects are interconnected. True justice exists only when all are present.

The Concept of Distributive Justice

• Distributive justice is about fair allocation of resources, benefits, and burdens. It is
based on:
• Aristotle: Justice can be distributive (sharing equally) or corrective (fixing wrongs).
• Marx: Justice is based on "from each according to his ability, to each according to his
need."
• J.W. Chapman: Justice should distribute benefits fairly based on demand and economic
rationality.
• A system is unfair if a few benefit at the cost of many. Justice requires that profits should
not come from another’s loss.

The Concept of Procedural Justice

• Procedural justice focuses on rules that govern individual actions rather than wealth
redistribution.
• Hayek argues that state intervention for equality may lead to totalitarianism. Critics say
following rules alone does not ensure fairness, as some groups may still be
disadvantaged.

John Rawls’s Theory of Justice

• Rawls presents his Theory of Justice in contrast to utilitarianism. His concept is rooted
in contractarianism and focuses on fairness
• He introduces:
• Veil of ignorance: A hypothetical situation where people make rules without knowing
their own social position.
• Original position: A fair starting point for justice decisions.
Rawls proposes two principles:
1. Equality principle – Equal rights for all in political participation, freedom of expression,
liberty, and law.
2. Difference principle – Inequalities are acceptable only if they benefit the least advantaged.

A just society has:

• A constitutional democracy
• A regulated free economy ensuring fair competition, full employment, and property
ownership
• If these conditions are met, economic and social opportunities will be distributed justly.

Conclusion
• Justice is an ethical concept linking social, political, and legal values. It prioritizes
fairness and impartiality.
• Justice enables key values like:
• Equality → Meaningful freedom
• Rights → Legal fairness
• John Rawls argues that under a veil of ignorance, people would choose justice because
they don’t know their own position in society. Justice balances fairness, political ideals,
and social values for human dignity.

Unit 4
Rights and Duties - Meaning and Importance
The Concept of Rights

Meaning
• Rights are social claims that help people reach their full potential.
• In a democracy, the government serves the people by ensuring a system of rights.
• Rights enable individuals to fulfill their potential while maintaining social balance.
• Philosophers like Plato emphasize the role of the state in justice, while John Locke
highlights the sanctity of individual rights.
• The idea of individual rights emerged in the 15th and 16th centuries in Europe,
opposing excessive state power.
 • Rights are universal and apply to all, whereas privileges are exclusive to a few.

Definitions
• Holland: "Rights are man's capacity to influence others, not by strength but by the
support of society."
• Wilde: "A right is a reasonable claim to freedom in the exercise of certain activities."
• Bosanquet: "A right is a claim recognized by society and enforced by the state."
• Laski: "Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in
general, to be himself at his best."

Key Aspects of Rights:

1. Social Origins: Rights emerge from society and social needs.
2. Role in Individual Growth: Rights enable development within social relationships and duties.
3. State’s Duty: Rights are enforced by the state, not granted through law.
4. Link with Duties: Rights and duties are interdependent.
5. Liberties and Claims: Rights include both freedoms and positive claims on others for
resources.

Nature of Rights
• Rights are claims, but not all claims qualify as rights unless recognized by society.
• Hobhouse: Rights are expectations tied to social functions and responsibilities.
• Rights arise from society and depend on social well-being.
• They change with social customs but differ from inherent powers.
• Rights are responses to actions, serving as rewards for contributing to society.
• A balance between individual rights and social interests is essential to prevent chaos.

Types of Rights
Rights are essential for individual and societal development.
Key Rights:
Right to Life: The foundation of all rights, ensuring existence and safety.
Right to Equality: Fair treatment and protection from discrimination.
Right to Freedom: Expression, choice, and decision-making.
Right to Education: Access to learning for a better life.
Economic Rights: Work, wages, and financial security.
Right to Property: Ownership and inheritance for stability.
Political Rights: Participation in governance and empowerment.

Different systems prioritize rights differently:

• Liberal Democracies: Political rights (voting) come first, followed by social and
economic rights.
• Socialist Societies: Economic rights (work, wages) take priority, followed by social and
political rights.

Theories of Rights
Rights are explained by various theories focusing on their nature, origin, and meaning.

Theory of Natural Rights

• Championed by Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and J.J. Rousseau.
• Argues that rights are inalienable and essential to human nature.
• Critics like Bentham and Laski dismiss natural rights, saying they are not fixed but
depend on society’s needs.

Legal Theory of Rights

• Supported by Laski, Bentham, Hegel, and Austin.
• States that rights are granted by law and exist only within a legal framework.
• Emphasizes that rights are linked to duties and responsibilities.

Historical Theory of Rights

• Argues that rights emerge from traditions and customs over time.
• Supported by thinkers like Edmund Burke.
• States that rights exist due to long-term social practices rather than laws.
• Criticism: Some customs (e.g., caste system) do not align with rights.

Social Welfare Theory of Rights

• Argues that rights should be based on social welfare and benefit the community.
• Advocates include Roscoe Pound, Chafee, and Bentham.
• Rights that do not serve the common good should not be recognized.
Marxist Theory of Rights
• Links rights to the economic system of a society.
• In capitalism, rights serve the ruling class; in socialism, rights protect all citizens.
• Focuses on economic rights (work, security), social rights (education), and political
rights (franchise).

The Concept of Human Rights

• Human rights are inherent entitlements crucial for human existence.
• They support dignity and are embedded in various organizations, including the UN.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) lists 30 rights, including traditional
rights like life and liberty, and additional rights like equality, marriage, family, property,
and cultural participation.

Duties
Meaning:
• Duties and rights go together.
• A duty is an obligation one must fulfill.
• Enjoying rights requires fulfilling certain duties.

Kinds of Duties
• Legal Duties – Enforced by law.
• Moral Duties – Enforced by public opinion.

Moral Duties of Citizens

1. Duties towards oneself
A citizen must develop mentally, spiritually, and physically for the betterment of society.

2. Duties towards Family

Fulfilling family responsibilities ensures a better future for society.
3. Duty towards neighbors
Citizens should help and support their neighbors in all aspects.

4. Duties towards humanity

Citizens should promote peace, harmony, and international cooperation.

Legal Duties of Citizens

1. Loyalty and Allegiance
Every citizen must be loyal to the state and defend it when required.

2. Obedience
Citizens must obey laws, as laws are made for community welfare.

3. Payment of Taxes
Paying taxes is essential for the government to function.

4. Protection of Public Property

Citizens must safeguard public resources.

5. Duty to Vote
Voting is a fundamental duty in a democracy.

6. Duty to Co-operate with the Government

Citizens should help in maintaining law and order.

Relationship between Rights and Duties

1. One’s right is another’s duty

Rights impose duties on others to respect them (e.g., property rights require others not to steal).
2. One’s right is one’s duty also
Enjoying a right means fulfilling its corresponding duty (e.g., the right to life includes the duty
to avoid dangerous behavior).

• Rights and duties go hand in hand.

• Mahatma Gandhi emphasized that real rights arise from the performance of duty.
Block 4: Political Ideologies
Unit 1
Liberalism - Classical, Modern and Neo – Classical

The Concept of Liberalism

• Originated from the Renaissance and Reformation.
• Shaped the Western world for over three centuries.
• Initially driven by the rising middle class, challenging monarchs and promoting
intellectual, social, religious, and economic freedoms.
• Early liberalism focused on dismantling barriers, promoting negative liberties (freedom
from state control), human rights, and national self-determination.
• Faced competition from democracy, socialism, and fascism in the 20th century.
• Shifted towards conservatism and became vulnerable to criticism.
• Collapse of communist governments led to the resurgence of classical liberalism,
particularly in the form of libertarianism.

Meaning
• Liberalism stands for the "Liberty of Individuals," meaning liberation from
authoritarian state restraints.
• The word "Liberalism" comes from the Latin word Liberalis, meaning free man.
• It emphasizes personal freedom in all aspects of life.
• W.H. McGrover: Liberalism is a compound of democracy and individualism, opposed
to dictatorship.
• It emerged as a reaction against feudalism and aristocratic rule.
• Promotes economic and political freedom, open markets, secularism, and self-
expression.

Rise of Liberalism
• Began in England and spread to Western Europe and America.
• In England, it became a national philosophy and policy, while in France, it leaned
toward specific social classes.
• Supported rights for the middle and working classes, protecting them from industrial
exploitation.
Scholars divide liberalism into:
1. Classical (Negative) Liberalism – Focused on individual rights, limited government.
2. Welfare (Positive) Liberalism – Recognized the role of the state in adapting to
industrialization and nationalism.

Characteristics
John Hallowell outlined the key features of liberalism:
1. Individual Dignity and Equality – Emphasizes the worth and equality of all individuals.
2. Individual Autonomy – Freedom of individuals to make their own choices.
3. Human Potential – Humans are rational and capable of making sound decisions.
4. Fundamental Rights – Rights like life, liberty, and property are inherent and inviolable.
5. Limited Government – The state exists only to protect citizens’ rights.
6. Social Contract – The state-citizen relationship is based on an agreement.
7. Rule of Law – Law should regulate society, not arbitrary power.
8. Individual Freedom in All Spheres – Liberty in politics, economy, society, and culture.
9. Limited and Constitutional Government – Government should be minimal.
10. Rationality and Truth – Truth is discovered through reason.

Classical Liberalism
• Emerged in the 16th century, challenging medieval structures and advocating for
individual freedom.
• Opposed arbitrary monarchical power and supported merit-based society.
• Promoted free markets and limited government intervention.
• The state exists to protect rights and is legitimate only with the consent of the governed.
• Thinkers like Adam Smith and Herbert Spencer supported minimal government in
economic affairs
• John Locke emphasized natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract.
• Influenced revolutions (American, French).
• Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill) linked happiness to limited government intervention.

Positive Liberalism
• Emerged in the late 19th century as a critique of classical liberalism, which emphasized
individual freedom with minimal state intervention.
 • Critics argued that laissez-faire policies led to social and economic issues like wealth
concentration, monopolies, harsh working conditions, and poverty.
• Positive liberalism aimed to address these shortcomings while still valuing individual
liberty.
• Recognized the need for a more active state role in promoting the common good,
ensuring a fair distribution of opportunities and regulating economic exploitation.
• Thinkers like John Stuart Mill and T.H. Green emphasized that true freedom requires
social and economic opportunities, not just the absence of restraints.
• Acknowledged the limitations of negative liberty, advocating for state action in areas
like education and healthcare.
• Early 20th-century thinkers like Laski, Keynes, and Barker justified continued state
intervention in social welfare and integrated socialist ideas into liberalism.
• John Maynard Keynes promoted state intervention to regulate the economy and address
unemployment.
• Positive liberalism continues to evolve, balancing individual liberty with social
responsibility.

Concept of Liberal Democratic Welfare State

• A "welfare state" is a system where the government provides essential services like
healthcare and education, funded through taxes.
• Works towards social good by regulating the economy, nationalizing industries,
protecting weaker sections, ensuring economic and social security, and reducing wealth
inequality.
• Developed in the 20th century, merging with the idea of the democratic welfare state.
• Marked a shift from 19th-century laissez-faire capitalism by expanding government
intervention and redefining its role in social welfare.
• Aims to reconcile individual and social interests while mitigating capitalism's negative
effects.
• Ensures a minimum standard of living, economic stability, and full employment.
• Supports free enterprise while implementing fair taxation and investment incentives.
• Provides social security measures like protection against poverty, illness, and old age.

Conclusion
• Emerged as a response to the idea that public assistance weakens individuals and the
market is the source of freedom.
• Recognized that market unpredictability left many without control over their economic
fate.
• The Great Depression and post-war unemployment highlighted the need for state
intervention.
• Aimed not to replace markets but to correct social injustices by providing basic needs
like food, healthcare, and education.
• Redefined core liberal principles to emphasize community welfare and social bonds.
 • Post-World War II, welfare states became widely accepted to address capitalism’s
shortcomings and promote equality and social justice.

Criticism
• Seen as a compromise between classical liberalism’s market model and libertarianism’s
emphasis on individual freedom.
• Blends capitalist freedoms with socialist equalities to achieve liberty, equality, and
justice.
• Retains key aspects of capitalism while addressing its social shortcomings.
• Critics argue that:
• Welfare state expansion can neglect market efficiency.
• State distribution policies violate individual rights (e.g., Nozick’s libertarian view).
• Welfare leads to bureaucracy, inefficiency, and reduced freedom.
• Excessive redistribution burdens the middle class and can create dependency cultures.
• Some propose alternative models that promote individual responsibility, such as
voucher systems and decentralized welfare services.

Neo-Classical Liberalism
The 20th century saw a transformation in political philosophy. As welfare state liberalism
expanded, a counter-movement called Neo-Classical Liberalism or Libertarianism emerged,
aiming to revive classical liberal principles.

Origins and Development

• Robert Nozick's "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" (1974) played a crucial role in bringing
libertarianism into mainstream academia.
• John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" was a contrasting influential work.
• 1960s (U.S. and England): Neo-Classical Liberalism challenged state intervention and
promoted individual liberty as the foundation of a just society.
• Etymology: Rooted in "free will," it represents the most radical form of individualism,
advocating pure capitalism.
• Influences: Ancient Chinese, Greek, and Israeli thinkers explored liberty and
governance. Enlightenment philosophers like Locke, Smith, and Jefferson emphasized
individual rights and limited government.
• 20th Century Revival: Thinkers like Hayek and Friedman reinforced free markets and
minimal government.

Core Concepts of Libertarianism

• Individual freedom as the highest political value
 • Strict limits on government in personal choices and market decisions
• Strong private property rights
• Individual rights over wealth redistribution

1. Individualism
• Extreme belief in personal independence.
• Opposes authoritarian governments and welfare expansion.
• Ayn Rand: Advocates selfishness as taking responsibility for one's life, rejecting
altruism.
• Anarcho-capitalism: Minimal coercion and economic freedom.

2. Individual Rights and Liberty

• Personal liberty is the highest moral good.
• Emphasizes natural negative rights (life, liberty, property).
• Negative Liberty: Freedom from coercion; self-ownership is key.
• Libertarians reject positive rights and enforced obligations.

3. Civil Society
• Societies function without central control.
• Free associations form based on personal needs, not government orders.
• Joining groups should be voluntary.

4. Political Economy and Redistribution

• Free markets ensure fair distribution through voluntary trade.
• Prices reflect real information, not government control.
• Hayek's view: Markets evolve efficiently through voluntary exchange.
• Redistribution and state welfare infringe on natural liberty.

5. Rule of Law and Limited Government

• Libertarianism values freedom with fair laws protecting rights.
• Robert Nozick: Advocates a "minimal state" that prevents force and fraud but does not
redistribute wealth.
• Government must not impose morality or control personal lives.
• Libertarians accept some government but fear excessive power.
Unit 2
Marxism - Classical and Neo – Marxism

Karl Marx: An Introduction

• Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German philosopher and revolutionary thinker.
• Initially studied law but was drawn to radical anti-government movements like the
Young Hegelians.
• Became a journalist and editor, critiquing the Prussian government's economic policies.
• Expelled from Germany in 1843, moved to Paris, where he met Friedrich Engels.
• Published Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts in 1844, developing his theory of
historical materialism.
• In 1847, wrote The Communist Manifesto with Engels.
• Moved to England in 1849, where he co-founded the International Working Men’s
Association in 1864.
• Analyzed the Paris Commune in The Civil War in France.

Classical Marxism: Emergence

• Liberalism and Marxism became dominant ideologies for the last two centuries.
• Marxist ideas were adapted by leaders like Lenin and Mao in their specific countries.

Theoretical Contributions of Classical Marxism

1. Alienation
• Marx was initially influenced by Hegel’s idealism but later adopted Feuerbach’s
humanistic communism.
• Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (EPM) discusses the alienation of labor.
• In capitalism, workers perform tasks mechanically, becoming alienated from their work
and creative potential.
• Marx argued that abolishing private property and establishing a communist society
could overcome alienation.
2. Historical Materialism
• Marx’s theory of historical materialism was influenced by Hegel’s dialectical approach.
• Unlike Hegel, Marx focused on material conditions and economic factors shaping
society.
• The dialectical process occurs through contradictions in economic and social structures,
leading to continuous social revolutions.
• Marx envisioned a future society free from alienating labor.

3. Class War
• The mode of production determines a society’s social, political, and ideological aspects.
• The history of society is marked by class struggles.
• In capitalism, the state serves class interests, but in a classless society, the state would
eventually wither away.

4. Surplus Value
• Marx’s theory of surplus value explains exploitation in capitalist societies.
• Surplus value is the profit capitalists make by selling goods for more than the workers'
wages.
• It is based on the labor theory of value—commodity value depends on the labor needed
to make it.
• Capitalists extract surplus value, intensifying class conflict.
• A proletarian revolution would overthrow capitalism and establish a dictatorship of the
proletariat.

Communism
• Abolishes private property, with the proletariat controlling production.
• The state becomes unnecessary and fades away.
• Marx viewed communism as a return to a harmonious, non-exploitative state.

V. I. Lenin (1870-1924)
• Born in 1870 in Simbirsk (Ulyanovsk), Russia.
• Expelled from Kazan University for student protests.
• Arrested and exiled in 1895, wrote The Development of Capitalism in Russia.
• Published What Is to Be Done? in 1902, focusing on party organization.
• Wrote Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), analyzing capitalism’s
global expansion.
• Led the 1917 Russian Revolution, establishing the first socialist state.
• Due to health issues, withdrew from governance but left a lasting impact.
Party as Vanguard of the Proletariat
• Lenin emphasized a national political organization to raise workers' political
consciousness.
• Advocated an underground Communist Party acting as the "vanguard of the
proletariat."
• His idea faced criticism for undermining working-class self-emancipation.

Democratic Centralism
• Party structure with two elements: democracy and centralism.
• Allowed open discussions but required strict adherence to decisions.
• Critics argued that it led to increasing centralization over time.

Imperialism
• Marx predicted capitalism would lead to proletarian revolutions, but they did not occur
in Europe.
• Lenin explained this in Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
• Argued capitalism had become monopolistic and relied on colonization for survival.
• This imperialist expansion prolonged capitalism, delaying socialist revolutions.

Mao Zedong (1893-1976)

• Born on December 26, 1893, in Hunan province, China.
• Joined the Hunan army during the 1911 Kuomintang (KMT) revolution.
• Became active in the Communist Party of China (C.P.C.) between 1921 and 1925.
• Led the Autumn Harvest Uprising in 1928, which failed, leading him to develop
guerrilla warfare strategies.
• Led the Long March after the KMT forced revolutionaries out of northwest China.
• Promoted mass mobilization of peasants and nationalism against Japan.
• Became leader of the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.) in 1949 after the C.P.C.
defeated the KMT.

Peasant Revolution
• Mao innovated Marxist ideas by emphasizing the revolutionary role of the peasantry.
• He successfully led the Chinese revolution with the support of peasants.
 • This approach was significant for Afro-Asian peasant societies, marking a shift from
traditional Marxism.

Contradictions
• Mao expanded the concept of contradiction as a key driver of social change.
• Introduced "antagonistic" and "non-antagonistic" contradictions.
• Antagonistic contradictions: Cannot be resolved peacefully (e.g., between the Chinese
people and imperialist forces).
• Non-antagonistic contradictions: Can be resolved peacefully.
• Identified contradictions such as:
Peasantry vs. proletariat.
Peasantry vs. petty bourgeoisie.
Peasantry, proletariat, and petty bourgeoisie vs. national bourgeoisie (non-
antagonistic).

On Practice
• Mao developed his theory of knowledge in his 1937 essay On Practice.
• He emphasized empirical investigation and analysis of real-world conditions.
Identified two stages of understanding reality:
1. Perceptual stage: Sensory experience.
2. Conceptual stage: Synthesis into knowledge.
Applied this method to understanding Chinese society.

United Front and New Democracy

• Recognized that peasants alone couldn't win a revolution.
• Promoted alliances between different social groups (United Front).
• Proposed "New Democracy" in 1945, a system combining Marxism with broad social
alliances.

Conclusion
• Marx, Lenin, and Mao significantly shaped Marxist thought.
• Marx critiqued capitalism and envisioned socialism.
• Lenin emphasized disciplined revolutionary leadership and developed the theory of
imperialism.
• Mao adapted Marxism to rural China, prioritizing peasant-led revolution.
Neo-Marxism (Critical Theory) - Lukács, Gramsci, and the Frankfurt
School

Three major contributors:

1. Lukács (Hungarian)
2. Gramsci (Italian)
3. Frankfurt School (German)
Other contributors: Trotsky, Althusser, Poulantzas, Che Guevara, Régis Debray, Frantz Fanon.

Georg Lukács (1885-1971)

• Born in Hungary, made major contributions to Marxist theory.
• Initially focused on literary criticism, later shifted to Marxist philosophy.
• Joined the Communist Party of Hungary, served as Education Minister in 1919.
• Exiled after the fall of the Communist government, later returned to Hungary in 1945.
• Key work: History and Class Consciousness (influenced Frankfurt School).
• Advocated for Workers’ Councils over party organizations.

Rejection of Dialectical Materialism

• Lukács provided alternative perspectives on capitalism and challenged the Marxian
view of its ruin by the proletariat.
• He stressed the necessity for the proletariat to develop revolutionary consciousness.
• Criticized the application of dialectics to social behavior, arguing human behavior is
distinct from the natural world.
• Rejected historical materialism, arguing economic laws alone do not determine
revolutionary conditions.
• Suggested revolutionary change occurs when a class becomes conscious of
contradictions, highlighting the role of human consciousness.

Denial of Lenin’s Vanguard Thesis

• Lukács diverged from Lenin’s perspective on the Communist Party’s role.
• Advocated for proletariat’s independent acquisition of revolutionary consciousness.
• Proposed that Workers’ Councils, rather than party organizations, should develop
proletarian consciousness.
 • Challenged Lenin’s vanguard thesis, bypassing the need for an intermediary
revolutionary party.

Relation of Subject and Object

• Proletariat’s realization of commodification leads to transformation into an agent of
change.
• Object and subject exist within a unified dialectic.
• Consciousness is not just a reflection but an active force for historical transformation.
• Argued that proletariat’s consciousness could change its conditions of existence.
• Shifted focus from conditions determining consciousness to consciousness altering
conditions.

Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937)

• Born in Sardinia, Italy; faced hardships due to his father’s imprisonment.
• Secured a scholarship at the University of Turin and observed class disparities.
• Aligned with the Italian Socialist Party and later became General Secretary of the Italian
Communist Party.
• Arrested in 1926, wrote "Prison Notebooks" and "Modern Prince and Other Writings."

Notion of Hegemony
• Hegemony involves more than coercion, shaping societal values and beliefs.
• Ruling class maintains control through cultural domination and consent.
• Ruling class forms alliances (historic bloc) to sustain dominance.

Role of Intellectuals
• Intellectuals shape social hegemony and maintain ruling class dominance.
Distinguished between:
• Traditional intellectuals (claim independence).
• Organic intellectuals (emerge from working class and challenge hegemony).

Philosophy of Praxis
• Marx’s praxis emphasizes creative human activity shaping history.
• Gramsci considered Marxism as praxis, stressing individuals influence history through
action.
• Emphasized inseparability of theory and practice in revolutionary change.
Relations between the Base and the Superstructure and the Notion of
Historic Bloc
• Developed concept of historic bloc: fusion of material conditions and ideologies.
• Diverged from Marx’s strict economic determinism, stressing dialectical interaction.
• Argued revolutionary change requires shifts in mass consciousness, not just economic
conditions.

Frankfurt School (or Critical Theory)

• The Frankfurt School was a group of philosophers from the Frankfurt Institute for
Social Research in the 1920s-30s.
• Key members: Horkheimer, Adorno, Pollock, Erich Fromm, Neumann, Marcuse.
• Despite differing views, they shared a critical stance against social domination and
exploitation.
• Criticized Stalinist socialism and emphasized cultural and ideological issues over
political economy.

Opposition to all Forms of Domination

• Active during the rise of Nazism, Fascism, and Stalinism.
• Critiqued all ideologies that justified oppression.
• Aimed to uncover hidden roots of domination and raise awareness for revolutionary
action.

Critique of Orthodox Marxism

• Criticized orthodox Marxism for its authoritarianism in the Soviet Union.
• Opposed Marxism's focus on economic factors alone, emphasizing human ideas and
actions.
• Argued that economic struggles depend on people's understanding and reactions, not
just material conditions.

In Search of Emancipation
• Focused on domination and authority.
• Argued that capitalist and socialist societies use "instrumental reason" to control people.
• Advocated understanding people to free them from oppression rather than controlling
them.
 • Criticized authoritarian family structures, education, and how governments and
businesses manipulate public opinion.

Conclusion
• Marxism evolved through Lukacs, Gramsci, and the Frankfurt School.
• They challenged strict historical materialism and emphasized human consciousness and
culture.
• Concluded that having a proletariat class alone is insufficient for revolution—
consciousness is necessary.
• Ruling classes maintain power through cultural control and ideological influence.
• Intellectuals play a role in guiding awareness.
• The Frankfurt School analyzed how authority uses justification and manipulation to
maintain stability.

Unit 3
Gandhism - Relevance of Gandhism

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948)

• A pivotal figure in Indian history.
• Advocated self-reliance (Swadeshi).
• Emphasized individual and ethical responsibility.
• His philosophy critiqued modernity.
• Promoted Swaraj (self-rule) and grassroots democracy.
• Influenced by Tolstoy, Thoreau, Swami Vivekananda.
• Major works: An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Young
India, and Harijan.

Philosophical Foundations
• Gandhiji saw spirituality as the foundation of politics and society.
• Believed in self-realization as the ultimate goal of life.
• Stressed unity of all existence.
• Advocated moral and ethical life.
• Emphasized non-violence, truth, cooperation, and tolerance.
Views on Human Nature
• Believed in self-awareness and self-improvement.
• Saw spiritual potential in every individual.
• Argued that human nature is fundamentally the same.
• Differentiated humans from animals by self-consciousness.
• Advocated for moral values like cooperation and tolerance.

Relationship between Religion and Politics

• Believed politics without religion is worthless.
• Religion meant universal spirituality, not any specific faith.
• Advocated governance based on ethical and moral principles.
• Stressed religious tolerance and equality of all religions.

Relationship between Means and Ends

• Means are as important as the goal.
• Stressed that pure means lead to good ends.
• Compared means and ends to seed and tree.
• Criticized those who justified immoral means.
• Advocated truthfulness in conduct.

Truth, Satyagraha, and Ahimsa

• Equated truth with God.
• Satyagraha: Force of truth, ethical struggle without animosity.
• Emphasized non-violence and moral integrity.
• Two types of Satyagraha: Constructive and Aggressive.

Concept of Swaraj
• Beyond political freedom, focused on self-rule.
• Encouraged people to resist authority when misused.
• Swaraj meant self-control and understanding authority.
• Advocated self-governance with equality and social justice.
• Emphasized individual freedom and economic self-reliance.

Sarvodaya
• Criticized capitalism and socialism.
 • Emphasized social justice and equity.
• Advocated interdependence and community welfare.
• Encouraged individual growth without losing uniqueness.

Theory of Trusteeship
• Advocated shared wealth distribution.
• Believed property should be used for social welfare.
• Opposed economic exploitation and disparity.
• Proposed a system where the rich act as trustees for society.

Concept of Swadeshi
• Linked Swadeshi with Swaraj and self-reliance.
• Encouraged using local goods and services.
• Advocated economic self-sufficiency with cooperation.
• Stressed avoiding foreign products only when alternatives exist.
• Promoted indigenous industries and self-containment.

Relevance
• Mahatma Gandhi was a man of greatness with multiple facets—thinker, teacher, leader,
fighter, humanist, nationalist, internationalist, and enlightened soul.
• He challenged and evolved his ideas, shaping the Gandhian philosophy.
• His ideology, though seemingly utopian, remains relevant today.
• His principles of conduct and teachings influenced global thinkers and leaders.
• Non-violence and ahimsa can bring peace in turbulent times.
• Means and ends should be equally noble.
• Duties over rewards: People should perform duties without expecting rewards.
• Vocational education, prohibition, and cottage industries were strongly emphasized by
him.
• Decentralization of power was realized through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendments.
• Advocated forgiveness over punishment and simple living.
• Satyagraha is a powerful democratic weapon for justice.
• His concepts of Sarvodaya, socialism, and trusteeship remain idealistic but significant.
• Gandhi fought against exploitation, disease, hunger, ignorance, and mental and physical
worries.
• He is regarded as the leading light of contemporary India.
Conclusion
• Gandhi was a prominent activist-theoretician of the 20th century.
• His writings were influenced by social, economic, and political actions.
• His ideas aimed at solving immediate problems rather than forming a definitive theory.

Three major works:

1. Autobiography (serialized in Gujarati journal).
2. Satyagraha in South Africa.
3. Hind Swaraj (1909) - Explored Swaraj (self-rule) and Satyagraha.
Hind Swaraj was a response to anarchists and an alternative to violence.
Gandhi’s philosophy highlights personal integrity, moral courage, and collective
transformation.
His legacy is a living philosophy that calls for purpose, compassion, and leadership.

Unit 4
Democracy and Multiculturalism

The Concept of Democracy

• The word "democracy" comes from the Greek words demos (people) and kratos (rule),
meaning "power of the people."
• Ancient democracy was limited to free males, excluding slaves, women, and foreigners.
• Modern democracy allows all adult citizens to participate.

Definitions of democracy
• Webster's: "A form of government where power is vested in the people and exercised
by representatives."
• Lord Bryce: "Government where ruling power is legally vested in the community as a
whole."
• Abraham Lincoln: "Government of the people, by the people, for the people."

• Democracy allows people to elect representatives through voting.

• Vox Populi (voice of the people) should be Vox Dei (Voice of God).
Historical Background
• Britain: First modern democracy post-17th century Civil War.
• Royal absolutism ended, and power shifted to Parliament.
• France: The 1789 Revolution promoted Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.
• Declaration of the Rights of Man emphasized personal liberty and equality.
• United States: The 1776 Declaration of Independence:
• Established democracy by removing hereditary rule.

Liberalism and Democracy:

• Liberal democracy merges state liberalism with democratic governance.
• The 20th century saw democratic expansion, women's suffrage, apartheid dismantling,
and new democracies.

Conditions for the Success of Democracy

1. Faith in Democracy: People must believe in democratic principles.
2. Political Awakening: Citizens should be aware of their rights and duties.
3. Intelligence & Reasoning: Citizens should have sound judgment.
4. Public Opinion: A strong public opinion keeps the government in check.
5. Tolerance: The majority should respect minority rights.
6. Good Leadership: Effective leaders are essential.
7. Political Parties: Necessary for a functioning democracy.
8. Opposition: A strong opposition ensures checks and balances.
9. Decentralization: Prevents power concentration.
10. Economic Equality: No democracy can exist without economic fairness.

Types of Democracy

1. Representative Democracy:
• Citizens elect representatives to make decisions.
• Hobbes & Locke: Representatives act in people's interests.
• Rousseau: Ultimate power should remain with the people.
 • Criticism: Schumpeter argued democracy is about electing leaders, not direct rule by
people.

2. Participatory Democracy:
• Advocated by Rousseau & John Stuart Mill.
• Citizens actively engage in decision-making.
• Modern scholars promote "strong democracy" where people participate beyond
elections.

3. Deliberative Democracy:
• Focuses on discussion and persuasion rather than coercion.
• Encourages accountability in political decisions.

4. Social Democracy:
• Emphasizes equality and social justice.
• Combines liberal democratic institutions with welfare state policies.

5. Cosmopolitan Democracy:
• Supports global governance beyond national boundaries.
• Encourages international democracy via organizations like the EU.

6. Direct Democracy:
• Citizens make decisions directly.
• Found in small communities and Swiss cantons.

Types of Direct Democracy:

1. Referendum: Citizens vote on policy issues.
2. Initiative: Citizens propose laws for a vote
3. Plebiscite: Government consults people on political matters.
4. Recall: Citizens can remove elected officials before term ends.
Multi-Culturalism
Concept:
• Modern societies consist of people from diverse backgrounds, including religions,
races, and cultures.
• Multiculturalism aims to ensure equality while acknowledging the challenges faced by
minority cultures.
• Simply providing equal rights does not eliminate discrimination. Special measures are
needed to support minority cultures.
• Recognizes diversity as valuable and seeks to promote non-discrimination.

Promoting Cultural Diversity

• Multiculturalism supports policies that promote cultural diversity to prevent
discrimination against minority cultures.
• Reducing Discrimination: Creating environments where minority cultures can flourish
minimizes discrimination.
• Preserving Cultural Plurality: Maintains the presence of different cultures in diverse
societies.
• Argues that assimilation into the dominant culture leads to marginalization.

Multiculturalism, Pluralism, and Diversity

• Cultural membership is not a matter of choice; it is shaped by shared language, history,
and traditions.
• Each culture has unique identities, practices, and values that cannot be judged by
another culture.
• Encourages critical evaluation of beliefs and structures.

Multiculturalism and Liberalism

• Challenges liberalism by arguing that identity and culture are integral to personal
identity.
• Public spaces should accommodate cultural identities instead of promoting a neutral
identity-free approach.
• Cultural recognition is crucial for self-esteem and social integration.

Critique of Liberal Democracies

• Liberal democracies claim to ensure equal citizenship but often promote assimilation
into the dominant culture.
• State policies like language choices and education favor the majority culture.
 • Advocates for group-differentiated rights to ensure minority cultures' survival.

Multiculturalism as a Liberal Theory of Minority Rights

• Challenges the liberal ideal of state neutrality, arguing that neutrality often benefits the
dominant culture.
• Calls for special rights for minority cultures to prevent forced assimilation.

The Idea of Differentiated Citizenship

• Liberalism promotes equal rights, but multiculturalism argues that equal rights alone
do not address cultural discrimination.
• Differentiated citizenship grants specific rights to minority groups to protect their
cultural identity.
• Recognizes that individuals are shaped by cultural differences and should not be forced
to conform to the majority.

Different Kinds of Special Rights

Multiculturalism advocates three types of special rights for minorities:
1. Cultural Rights – Legal exemptions supporting cultural practices (e.g., Sikhs wearing turbans
in Canada).
2. Self-Government Rights – Political autonomy for indigenous communities.
3. Special Representation Rights – Ensures marginalized groups have a voice in policymaking.

Differentiating Between Minorities

• Multiculturalism debates whether all minorities should receive the same special rights.
• Generally supports special rights for minorities but not all three types for all groups.
• Special rights are typically reserved for historically oppressed minorities.
• Rights granted depend on the specific context of each case.

Will Kymlicka’s View:

• Distinguishes between national minorities and immigrant communities.
• National minorities: Should receive self-government rights as they have a distinct social
culture and historical claims over a territory.
• Immigrants: Cannot claim self-government rights since they voluntarily adopt the host
country's norms.
Criticism
• Empowers traditional authority structures: May suppress internal differences within
minority groups and disadvantage marginalized members (e.g., women).
• Assumption of homogeneity: Communities are not always clear-cut entities, and
individuals often identify with multiple communities.
• Threat to nation-states: Special rights may create conflicting jurisdictions and loyalties,
leading to state fragmentation.

Marxist critique:
• Multiculturalism overemphasizes cultural recognition while ignoring economic
inequalities.
• It may distract from broader redistribution issues.

Conclusion
• Critics highlight valid concerns, but proponents argue multiculturalism helps strengthen
states by addressing ethnic conflicts.
• It promotes inclusive citizenship and creates a sense of commitment within diverse
societies.
• Main challenge: Balancing cultural diversity while ensuring individual freedom and
equality.
Proposed solutions:
• Develop democratic institutions within communities to include marginalized voices.
• Establish a state-defined minimum rights framework that allows communities some
self-governance.
Block 5: State - Elements, Civil society
Unit 1
State - Elements, Civil society

• The concept of 'State' is central to Political Science.

• Without the study of the State, Political Science as a discipline will struggle to exist.
• Scholars like R.G. Gettel and J.W. Garner define Political Science in relation to the
State.

Origin and Evolution of the term State

• The word 'State' is derived from the Latin word status, meaning power status of rulers.
• First used by Niccolo Machiavelli in The Prince.
• The Greeks used the term polis instead of the State.

Definitions
• Aristotle: Defined the State as an association of families and villages for a happy and
self-sufficient life.
• Jean Bodin: Defined the State as an association governed by supreme power and reason.
• Bluntschli: Defined it as politically organized people of a definite territory.
• Woodrow Wilson: Defined it as a people organized for law within a definite territory.
• Harold J. Laski: Defined it as a territorial society divided into government and subjects.
• G.D.H. Cole: Defined the State as the whole community of its members regarded as an
organized social unit.
• Garner: Defined it as a concept of political science and public law, consisting of a
community occupying a definite territory with an organized government.
• Max Weber: Defined it as a human community claiming the monopoly of legitimate
physical force within a territory.

Essential Elements of the State

The modern State has four essential elements:
1. Population
• A State must have a population consisting of citizens and aliens.
• Theorists have differing views on ideal population size:
• Plato: Suggested 5,050 citizens for an ideal city-state.
• Rousseau: Suggested about 10,000 people.
 • Hegel: Believed large populations increase economic self-sufficiency but warned
against excessive size.

Benefits of large populations:

• More human resources and talent.
• Greater production capabilities.
• Increased military strength.
• Enhanced global influence.

Challenges of large populations:

• Income disparities.
• Resource scarcity.
• Governance issues.

2.Territory
• Territory is the physical area occupied by the State, including land, water, and air-space.

Importance of territory:
• Provides living space.
• Enables economic activities.
• Allows people to establish emotional ties
• Symbolizes sovereignty.

Relevance in a modern interconnected world:

• Technological advancements transcend physical borders.
• Globalization reduces the economic importance of territories.
• Transnational identities and diaspora communities make physical boundaries less
relevant.

3. Government
• Government is an indispensable element of the State.
• It exercises political authority and power.
• J.W. Garner: Defined government as the machinery regulating common affairs.
• Different forms of government include democracy, authoritarianism, and monarchy.
Functions of Government:
1. Maintaining law and order.
2. Formulating policies and laws.
3. Providing public services.
4. Managing fiscal matters.
5. Conducting foreign affairs.
6. Addressing unemployment, poverty, and development.

4.Sovereignty
• Definition: The supreme power of the State to govern itself.
• Derived from the Latin term Superanus, meaning supreme.

Types:
Internal sovereignty: Supreme power over all associations within the State.
External sovereignty: Freedom from foreign control.

Prof. Laski: Sovereignty issues orders to all but receives orders from none.
Sovereignty expresses the supreme power of the State and distinguishes it from other
organizations.

Civil Society
• A debated political concept, often used in political theory.
• Includes strategies for community participation in governance.
• Modern interpretations include non-state actors, NGOs, and advocacy networks.

Civil society can be seen as:

1. An association between family and state.
2. An agency questioning tyrannical states.
3. A space between state and market.
Definitions of Civil Society
Jurgen Kocka: "Civil society is a societal sphere between state, economy, and private life,
populated by voluntary associations, networks, and NGOs."

Civil Society and State

• Initially, "civil society" was synonymous with "state" (Cicero, Rome).
• Social contract thinkers (Locke, Rousseau) defined it as establishing order and security.
• Hegel differentiated it from the state as an economic and organizational entity.
• Marx believed civil society embodied the state itself.
• Antonio Gramsci differentiated civil society and political society.

Civil Society and Democracy

• Ernest Gellner: "No civil society, no democracy."
• Civil society provides space for political engagement, identity formation, and
democratic transition.
• It supports the overthrow of non-democratic regimes.

Forms of Civil Society

1. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Independent, non-profit organizations working in various fields like human rights and poverty
relief.

2. Community-Based Organizations (CBOs)

Local, grassroots groups focused on community development.

3. Interest Groups
Represent specific concerns (e.g., labor unions, business associations).

4. Charitable Organizations
Non-profits offering social services like food relief and healthcare.

5. Professional Associations
Represent specific professions, promoting standards and networking.
6. Advocacy Groups
Focus on specific social or political causes using lobbying and protests.

7. Foundations
Grant-making non-profits supporting various causes.

8. Think Tanks
Research institutions providing policy analysis.

9. Social Movements
Large-scale groups advocating for social reform, often using protests and civil disobedience.

Unit 2
Theories of state: Liberal and Marxian

Liberal Theory of State

Based on the mechanistic view of the state.
Developed from two perspectives:
1. Social Contract
2. Laissez-faire individualism.

Social Contract Theory

• Originated in the 18th century.
• Opposes the Divine Origin theory of Robert Filmer.
• Believes the state is a product of human agreement.

Based on two assumptions:

a) State of Nature (before formation of state)
b) State of Society (after formation of state)
Key theorists: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Contributions of Thomas Hobbes

• English philosopher (born 1588).
• Wrote Leviathan to justify absolute sovereign power.
• First English philosopher to present a logical political system.

Views on State of Nature

• Human life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
• State of nature was a war of all against all.
• No justice, only struggle and self-interest.
• No distinction between justice and injustice.

Views on Social Contract

• A contract was the only way out of the state of nature.
• People gave up their natural rights to a sovereign.
• Sovereign is not a party to the contract.

Features of Hobbes’ Social Contract

1. Sovereign is artificial creation of the contract.
2. People cannot break the contract (formed out of fear).
3. Sovereign’s commands are law.
4. Contract is both social and political.
5. Establishes both society and government.
6. Sovereign’s authority is absolute.

Criticism
1. Does not describe human rights.
2. Unrealistic state of nature.
3. Unlimited sovereign power restricts liberty.
4. Fails to differentiate state and government.
5. One-sided contract (only people enter, not ruler).
6. People in the state of nature are selfish.

Contributions of Views of John Locke

• English philosopher of the 17th century.
• Opposed absolute monarchy.
• Advocated constitutional monarchy.
• Wrote Two Treatises of Government (1689).
• Promoted government by the consent of the people.

Views on State of Nature

• Not a state of war, but of “peace, goodwill, mutual assistance.”
• People followed natural laws willingly.
• No fixed laws or judges, leading to difficulties.
• People entered civil society through a contract.

Views on Contract
• Individuals give up some rights for protection.
• Rights given up are to the community.

Two contracts:
a) Social Contract
b) Governmental Contract

Sovereign is part of the contract.

Criticism
1. Locke’s state of nature is unrealistic.
2. Gives no importance to legal sovereignty.

Contributions of Views of Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• French philosopher (born 1712).
 • Advocate of Popular Sovereignty.
• Wrote The Social Contract.
• Inspired the French Revolution (1789).

Views on State of Nature

• State of nature was ideal, with equality and self-sufficiency.
• Man was a “noble savage” with a simple, happy life.
• No awareness of agriculture or industry.
• Growth of population led to disputes, ending the state of nature.

Views on Contract
• A mix of Hobbes’ and Locke’s theories.
• Individuals surrender rights to the community, not to one ruler.
• The collective will of the people forms the sovereign.

Rousseau’s Theory of General Will

General Will is the collective good of individuals.

Two kinds of will:

a) Actual Will (self-centered)
b) Real Will (rational, for society’s welfare)

General Will is superior to individual will.

Criticism
1. No clear distinction between General Will and individual will.
2. Unhistorical; lacks social contract confirmation.
3. Unrealistic state of nature.
4. Encourages absolutism, making General Will unquestionable.
Utilitarian Theory of State
• Utilitarianism is based on Hedonism, promoting "the greatest good of the greatest
number."
• Key advocates: Jeremy Bentham and J.S. Mill.
• Opposes natural rights and social contract theories.
• The state is created by the people for their benefit, not a natural necessity.
• Focuses on maximum welfare of the maximum number, supporting private enterprise
and liberalism.

David Hume's Contribution

• First philosopher to explain the utilitarian state concept.
• The state should function for the maximum welfare of people.
• Bentham developed systematic utilitarianism.

Bentham’s Views
• State is a law-making body for happiness promotion.
• Opposed contract theory, instead based state legitimacy on utility.
• Supported unlimited sovereign power.

John Stuart Mill’s Views

• Modified Bentham’s ideas.
• Argued that pleasures differ in quality and degree.
• Advocated for individual liberty and democracy.
• Supported Proportional Representation and Plural Voting.

Mill’s Political Philosophy

• Rejected the term "state," preferred "society" or "government."
• Ideal government is one with sovereignty in the whole society.
• Government intervention in public interest is acceptable.
• Education and character are vital for democracy.

Criticism
1. Focused on physical comforts, ignored spiritual happiness.
2. Bentham failed to explain the qualitative difference of pleasure.
3. The "maximum welfare of the maximum number" may suppress minority interests.
The Marxian Theory of State
• Karl Marx, Frederic Engels, and V.I. Lenin are key figures.
• State is not natural, but arises due to economic development.
• Lenin described the state as an instrument of class oppression.

Class Struggle
• Different classes in history:
• Greece: Masters vs. Slaves.
• Rome: Patricians vs. Plebeians.
• Medieval Europe: Landlords vs. Serfs.
• Capitalism: Bourgeoisie (capitalists) vs. Proletariat (working class).
• The state exists as an instrument of exploitation and coercion.

Communist Revolution
• The capitalist class will disappear.
• A classless and stateless society under Proletariat Dictatorship will emerge.

Criticism
1. Ignores non-economic factors like religion and ethics.
2. Believes in force and revolution.
3. Fails to explain the true nature of the state.

Unit 3
Organs of Government

• Three organs of government: Legislature, Executive, Judiciary.

• Legislature makes laws, Executive implements laws, Judiciary interprets laws.
• In a parliamentary system, the Executive is responsible to the Legislature (Parliament).
• Parliament can remove the Executive by a no-confidence motion.
• Judiciary can declare laws made by Parliament as null and void if they violate the
Constitution.
 • Parliament can remove judges due to misbehavior or incapacity.
• Constitution defines the functions of each organ clearly.

Legislature
• The Legislature is a representative body with a superior position in government.
• Some countries (e.g., India, USA, UK) have a bicameral legislature (Upper & Lower
House).
• Others (Bangladesh, China, Portugal, Turkey) have a unicameral legislature.

Major Functions of the Legislature

• Different roles in different systems:
• In a monarchical government, the Legislature acts as a consultative body.
• In a Parliamentary system, the Legislature is superior to the Executive.
• In a Presidential system, the Legislature is co-extensive with the Executive.
Legislative Functions
Law-making is the primary function.
Bills pass through multiple stages before becoming law:
1. First reading
2. Second reading
3. Committee stage
4. Report stage
5. Third reading
The bill requires approval from both Houses and the Head of State.
Financial Functions
• The Executive cannot spend money without Legislature's approval.
• Budget discussions allow opposition to raise concerns.
Administrative Functions
• The Legislature controls the Executive through:
• Raising questions to the Council of Ministers.
• No-Confidence Motion against Ministers.
• Committees to investigate misconduct.
Judicial Functions
• Some Legislatures can remove heads of state:
• India – President removed by impeachment.
 • USA – President removed by impeachment.
• UK – House of Lords is the highest appeal court.
Electoral Functions
• Legislatures elect key officials:
• India – President elected by Parliament & State Legislatures.
• Russia – Judges of the Supreme Court elected by Parliament.
Constituent Functions
• Legislatures amend Constitutions:
• India & UK – Parliament plays a major role.
• Other countries – Special procedures required.
Miscellaneous Functions
Power to remove judges:
India – Parliament can remove Supreme Court & High Court judges.
USA – Federal Court judges removed by impeachment.
UK – Removal by joint sitting of Parliament & the Crown.

Executive
• In ancient times, the Monarch and Council of Ministers formed the Executive.
• With monarchy declining, modern governments have elected executives.
• The Executive executes laws, while the Legislature makes laws.

Types of Executive
Nominal and Real Executive:
Nominal Executive – Symbolic head (e.g., Queen in UK, President in India).
Real Executive – Exercises power (e.g., Prime Minister in India).
Presidential system (USA) – No distinction between nominal & real executive.

Singular and Plural Executive:

Singular Executive – Power held by one person (e.g., US President).
Plural Executive – Power shared (e.g., Swiss Federal Council).
Parliamentary and Presidential Executive:
Parliamentary Executive – Executive depends on Legislature (e.g., UK, India).
Presidential Executive – Executive is independent of Legislature (e.g., USA, Brazil).

Hereditary and Elective Executive:

Hereditary Executive – Passed through family (e.g., Monarchies like UK, Japan).
Elective Executive – Elected by people (e.g., India, USA, France).

Functions of the Executive

Varies by government type (Democracy vs. Dictatorship).

Administrative Functions:
• Implements public policies.
• Ensures peace & security.
• Appoints top officials.

Legislative Functions:
• Summons & dissolves Parliament.
• Issues Ordinances when Parliament is not in session.

Foreign Relations:
• Maintains diplomatic relations.
• Appoints ambassadors & negotiates treaties.

Military Functions:
• Head of Executive is often Commander-in-Chief.
• Declares war or peace (e.g., US President with Congress approval).

Financial Functions:
• Manages national finances.
• Prepares & presents the Budget.
Judicial Functions:
• Grants pardons & clemency.
• Appoints judges (e.g., India’s Supreme Court judges appointed by the President).

Judiciary
Interprets laws and acts as guardian of the Constitution.

Independence of Judiciary
• Judges play an important role in society.
• They must be independent to perform their duties effectively.
• Judicial independence means judges are free from external influence.

Factors for Ensuring the Independence of the Judiciary

1. Method of Appointment
Three methods:
1. Election by the Legislature
2. Election by the people
3. Appointment by the Executive (preferred method)

2. Higher Qualification
Judges should have legal expertise.
Preferably selected from experienced lawyers.

3. Security of Tenure
Judges should have job security for impartiality.
They should not be removed arbitrarily.
4. High Salaries
Ensures social status and good living standards.
Prevents corruption and attracts competent judges.

5. Separation of Powers
Judiciary should be independent from the executive and legislative branches.
Protects citizens from executive interference.

6. Ban on Appointment after Retirement

Judges should not be appointed to judicial positions after retirement.
Ensures impartiality and judicial independence.

Major Functions of the Judiciary

1. Administration of Justice
• Judiciary settles disputes between individuals and the state.
• Decisions are based on existing laws.

2. Protects the Rights and Liberties of the People

• Courts protect fundamental rights.
• Citizens can file writs in High Courts and Supreme Court for protection.

3. Guardian of the Constitution

• Judiciary ensures laws follow the Constitution.
• Can declare unconstitutional laws null and void.
• Established in Marbury v. Madison (1803).

4. Advisory Functions
• Judiciary advises the executive on legal matters.
• In India, the President can seek Supreme Court’s advice.
Unit 4
Role of the state in the era of Globalisation

• We live in a global society, not just in our state.

• Globalisation has created far-reaching changes in the world order.
• It has shifted political power from national institutions to international economic actors.
• Globalisation transforms governance and increases interdependence.

Globalisation as Political Reality

• Globalisation allows free movement of goods and services worldwide.
• Multinational and transnational corporations drive globalisation.
• Its roots trace back to European colonisation and industrialisation.
• After the Cold War, technology accelerated globalisation.
• Communication technology has made interaction across borders easier.

Definitions
• Martin Albrow: "Globalisation refers to all those processes by which the peoples of the
world are incorporated into a single world society, global society."
• Anthony Giddens: "Globalisation is the intensification of worldwide social relations
which link distant localities."
• Ronald Robertson: "Globalisation refers to both the objectiveness of increasing
interconnectedness and the subjective awareness of a single global space."

Globalisation and the State

Globalisation challenges the functions of the nation-state.

Shrinking of State Sovereignty:

• Sovereignty is the foundation of the state system.
• Rooted in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).
• In modern times, sovereignty faces challenges.
• States struggle to regulate capital, ideas, and people.
• Interdependence weakens external sovereignty.

Reduce the Capacity of the State:

• States remain central but lose authority.
 • Increased interdependence limits state control over politics, economy, and society.
• Multinational corporations influence decision-making.
• The state withdraws from welfare; the market takes over.

Create Economic Inequality:

• Globalisation creates winners and losers in the international economy.
• Developed countries benefit from trade, while poor countries suffer.
• Transnational corporations exploit developing nations.
• They violate labour laws and worsen working conditions.

Cultural Homogenisation:
• Globalisation is not just economic but also cultural.
• It leads to the worldwide spread of ideas and values.
• Social norms change due to global influences.

Role of Non-State Actors:

• Multinational corporations and NGOs influence global policies.
• Economic and political decisions favour non-state actors.
• Weak states, especially in the Third World, face pressure.
• International organisations (ASEAN, APEC, NAFTA, EU) limit state roles.

Increasing Anti-National Activities:

• Globalisation leads to destabilising activities.
• States spend heavily on security, affecting development.

Creating Threat to National Identity:

• Nation-states must adjust to globalisation.
• Non-state actors gain more influence.
• Globalisation increases inequality and misery.
• It reduces the likelihood of inter-state war but weakens state control.
• States struggle to manage global corporations, remote sensing, and stock trading.
Block 6: Post cold war issues
Unit 1
Globalisation, Identity politics, Populism, Terrorism

Globalisation
• Globalisation refers to the integration of a country's economy with the world economy.
• It is multidimensional, involving political, economic, and cultural aspects.
• The key feature of globalisation is worldwide interconnectedness, intensifying the flow
of ideas, capital, commodities, and people across borders.

Definitions
• United Nations: Reduction and removal of barriers between national borders to
facilitate trade and capital flow.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF): Economic interdependence among countries
through increased cross-border transactions and technology diffusion.
• S. K. Misra and V. K. Puri: Integration of a country's economy with the world economy.
• Dr. C. Rangarajan: Integration of economies and societies through cross-border flows
of goods, services, technology, capital, and people.

Causes of Globalisation
1. Technological advancements (telephone, telegraph, internet, etc.).
2. Development of transport, free trade agreements, foreign investments, and removal of trade
barriers.
3. Increased capital mobility.
4. New liberal capitalism, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the rise of global capitalism.
5. Growth of multinational corporations (MNCs) like Microsoft, Sony, and McDonald's.
6. Improved capital mobility, increased labor mobility, and the rise of the internet.

Features of Globalisation
1. Societies have become interconnected.
2. Economic integration on a global scale.
3. Transnational media creating global culture and consumerism.
4. Growth in global tourism.
5. Media imperialism.

Objectives of Globalisation
1. Bringing markets closer.
2. Creating a strong civil society by protecting civil rights.
3. Increasing international trade.
4. Improving the status of underdeveloped nations.
5. Providing markets for all products.

Types of Globalisation
1. Economic Globalisation – Focus on financial integration and free trade agreements.
2. Social Globalisation – Exchange of information, ideas, and social interactions across
borders.
3. Political Globalisation – National policies integrating countries politically, economically,
and culturally (e.g., NATO, UNO).
4. Cultural Globalisation – Worldwide transmission of ideas, values, and cultures through
media.

Effects of Globalisation
Positive Effects:
1. Size of the World has Shrunk: Increased international participation and economic integration.
2. Advantages of Healthy Competition: Enhances product quality and reduces prices.
3. Higher Standard of Living: Creates job opportunities and improves incomes.
4. Impetus to Consumption: Modern technology allows production and supply of superior
products.
5. Flow of Capital and Technology: Access to global resources and increased investment.
6. Increased Production Facilities: Encourages labor-intensive industries and productivity
growth.

Negative Effects:
1. Widening Wealth Gap: Rich nations dominate markets, while poor nations struggle to
compete.
2. Disadvantages for Developing Nations: Developing countries face economic struggles due
to foreign debt and market control by multinational corporations.
3. Adverse Effects on Labourers: Foreign companies in developing nations exploit workers and
ignore labor laws.
4. Environmental Damages: Multinational companies exploit natural resources in developing
countries.
5. Cultural Invasion: Media and advertisements influence people’s consumption and lifestyle,
leading to cultural homogenization.

Identity Politics
• Identity politics is a political approach where people share common identities like race,
religion, culture, nationality, and socioeconomic status.
• It aims to reclaim self-determination and political freedom for marginalized groups.
• Political and social movements worldwide have been shaped by modernization,
democratization, and advancements in communication.

Understanding Identity
• The term "identity" gained popularity in the 1960s, growing more common in the
1970s.
• Charles Taylor’s 1994 article, "The Politics of Recognition," discusses identity, identity
formation, and related politics.
• The notions of ‘politics of equal dignity’ and ‘politics of difference’ emphasize non-
discrimination and recognition of differences.
• Identity politics is closely tied to multiculturalism.

Major Perspectives of Identity Politics

• Identity politics is linked to various approaches, including:
• Neo-Marxist approach: Focuses on class struggle.
• New social movement approach: Emphasizes ethnicity, religion, and nationalism.
• Marxists argue that cultural and religious identities are bourgeois constructs that exploit
the working class.

Features of Identity Politics

• Recognition of group identity: Shapes experiences and perspectives.
• Intersectionality: Individuals have multiple identities that intersect, affecting
experiences and opportunities.
• Advocacy for marginalized groups: Challenges systemic inequalities and injustices.
Identity Politics in India
• India is highly diverse with multiple languages, cultures, religions, and castes.
• Identity politics plays a role in shaping political discourse, governance, and electoral
strategies.
• Issues like caste-based discrimination, linguistic rights, and regional autonomy
dominate political debates.
• Identity politics is often used by politicians to gain electoral advantage.

Populism
Understanding Populism
• Populism is a political strategy where leaders appeal directly to people against the elite.
• It is associated with frustration and resentment among voters.
• Populism can be progressive or reactionary.

Definitions
• Bart Bonikowski: Populism is based on opposition between a corrupt elite and a
virtuous people.
• Daphne Halikiopoulou: Populism can be good as it gives voice to the neglected.
• Matthijs Rooduijn: Populism is a contested concept and often ambiguous.
• Cas Mudde: Populism sees society as divided into two homogeneous and opposing
groups.

Elements of Populism
Populism consists of four key elements:
a) Claims to represent "the people."
b) Morally divides groups as good or evil.
c) Involves a battle against the elite.
d) Opposes elites while not necessarily being anti-democratic.

Characteristics of Populism
• Homogeneous people.
• Exclusive policies.
• Greater direct popular rule.
• Nationalism.
Features of Populism
• Not an ideology but a strategy.
• Not inherently xenophobic or racist.
• Has been present in democratic societies for a long time.

Terrorism
• Terrorism is one of the grave acts of violence in the present world, affecting nations
globally.
• Origin traced to the French Revolution; initially meant "system, regime de la terreur
(reign of terror)."
• It is the systematic use of terror for coercion, often to create fear for religious, political,
financial, or ideological goals.
• Methods include bombings, kidnappings, mass murders, blackmailing, hijacking, and
intimidation.
• Not only affects national politics but also international politics.
Example: 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Centre (WTC) in 2001.

Definitions of Terrorism
• Ram Ahuja: "Violent behaviour designed to generate fear in the community for political
purposes."
• Encyclopedia of Social Sciences: "Method whereby an organized group achieves aims
through systematic violence."
• Michael Walzer (2002): "Deliberate killing of innocent people to spread fear and force
political change."
• Geneva Conventions & Security Council Resolution (2004): "Act intended to cause
death or harm to civilians/non-combatants for intimidation or coercion."

Characteristics of Terrorism
1. Tool of Organized Crime – Includes bombings, assassinations, armed assaults, kidnapping,
hijacking, and hostage-taking.
2. Planned & Organized Act – Not spontaneous but deliberate.
3. Targets Governments & Institutions – Can be against both governments and non-
governmental organizations.
4. Psychological Warfare – Aims to break public morale.
5. Targets Civilians – Innocent people are often victims.
6. Provokes Repressive Measures – Authorities may react with harsh actions, losing public
support.
7. Unlawful & Inhumane – Undemocratic and against human values.

Forms of Terrorism
1. Political Terrorism – Uses violence to create fear for political purposes.
2. Nuclear Terrorism – Use of nuclear materials for terrorism.
3. Religious Terrorism – Based on faith-oriented tactics.
4. State-Sponsored Terrorism – Conducted by a state government.
5. Dissent Terrorism – When groups rebel against their government.
6. Bio-Terrorism – Use of biological toxins to harm people.
7. Left-Wing or Right-Wing Terrorism – Rooted in political ideology.
8. Criminal Terrorism – Criminal groups aiding terrorism.
9. Cyber Terrorism – Use of information technology for terror.
10. Narco Terrorism – Linked to illegal drug trade.

Causes of Terrorism
• Conflicts between East & West, North & South, Left & Right.
• Differences in race, language, caste, and religious ideologies.
• Political, economic, and social causes.

International Terrorism
• Global terrorism affects many countries, including Afghanistan, USA, India, Egypt,
France, Germany, Italy, etc.
• Examples:
• 2004 Russia terrorist attacks.
• 2005 London train and railway station bombings.
• Taliban and Al-Qaeda activities in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Consequences of Terrorism
1. Threat to Peace & Security – Opposed to democracy and humanity, creating lawlessness.
2. Uncertainty & Instability – Affects economic development and social stability.
3. Loss of Life & Property – Causes mass deaths and economic damage.
4. Encourages Smuggling – Terrorist networks engage in illegal money activities.
5. Economic Disruptions – Retards economic growth and foreign investment.
6. Damages Infrastructure – Attacks government installations like media stations, transport
hubs, defense establishments, etc.

Measures to Curtail Terrorism

1. Public Awareness – Educating people to build pressure against terrorism.
2. Counter-Terrorism Strategies – Countries adopting preventive measures.
3. Punishment of Terrorists – Through international and regional organizations.
4. International Cooperation – Sharing intelligence to prevent attacks.

Unit 2
Human rights - Issues of marginalised sections

Human Rights
• Human rights are inalienable and indivisible.
• They stem from human dignity.
• The American Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Revolution (1789)
emphasized these rights.
• Key rights: Life, liberty, and security.

Negative and Positive Rights

• Negative Rights: Freedom from state intervention (e.g., speech, expression).
• Positive Rights: State's duty to protect citizens' rights (e.g., medical aid, legal help).

Origin of Human Rights

• Traced back to liberal democratic traditions.
• Influenced by thinkers like Thoreau, J.S. Mill, and Thomas Paine.
 • Magna Carta (1215) is an early document on human rights.
• The American Declaration of Independence (1776) and Bill of Rights (1791) reinforced
individual rights.
• The French Revolution (1789) introduced the Declaration of Rights of Man.
• Human rights gained prominence post-World War II, especially in the Nuremberg Trials
(1946).

Forms of Human Rights

Right to Life:
• Protection against detention, torture, and death.
• The state must ensure security from aggression, disasters, and pollution.

Right to Property:
• Right to own property through legal means.
• Property is crucial for security and labor.

Democratic Rights and Civil Liberties:

• Enables individuals to participate in governance.
• Political rights include voting and running for office.
• Civil Liberties are legal rights, effective in democracies.
• Includes freedom of speech, religion, movement, and fair trials.

Socio-Economic and Cultural Rights:

• Right to education, work, rest, healthcare, and social security.
• Aims to ensure social justice.

United Nations Organization and Human Rights:

• Established in 1945 to promote human rights.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) is a landmark achievement.

Recognizes fundamental rights, including:

• Right to life
• Right against slavery
• Right to freedom of thought, democracy, and social security
Other International Conventions on Human Rights
Includes:
1. Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Genocide (1948)
2. European Convention on Human Rights (1950)
3. Convention on Status of Stateless Persons (1954)
4. Convention on Elimination of Racial Discrimination (1965)
5. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
6. International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966)
7. American Convention on Human Rights (1969)
8. Helsinki Accords (1975)
9. African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (1981)
10. Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (1979)
11. Convention on Rights of the Child (1989)

Human Rights in Indian Constitution

• India aligns with UDHR principles.
• Indian Constitution includes:
• Fundamental Rights (Part III)
• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) (Part IV, Articles 36-51)
• Fundamental Duties
• Supreme Court expanded fundamental rights (e.g., health, speedy trial, privacy, legal
aid).
• National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) (est. 1993) protects and promotes rights.

Human Rights and Marginalised Sections

• Marginalised sections are the most vulnerable in society, including unorganised
workers, minorities, Dalits, and women.
• They are often socially, politically, and economically oppressed and lack institutional
support to claim their rights.

Human Rights and Unorganised Workers

• Unorganised workers form a significant part of the workforce and work in various
sectors like agriculture, fishing, mining, weaving, and petty trade.
 • They may be self-employed or paid workers.
• The term ‘unorganised’ refers to either the sector they work in or the nature of their
work arrangements.
• The International Labour Organization (ILO) began studying their issues in the early
1970s.

Characteristics of Unorganised Workers

1. Work categories are diverse and numerous.
2. Some workers, especially women, may not be recognised as workers.
3. Employer-employee relationships are unclear.
4. Workers receive low wages.
5. There is an absence of trade unions.
6. Lack of collective bargaining capacity and political representation.

Key Human Rights Issues of Unorganised Workers

• Lack of Health Safeguards: Hazardous work conditions with poor sanitation and no
first aid.
• Difficulty in Obtaining Livelihood: Low wages, wage deductions, and no overtime
compensation.
• Insecure Contracts: Workers are often employed through contractors, leading to
unstable jobs.
• Lack of Organised Strength: Workers are scattered in different locations, making
unionising difficult.
• Lack of Collective Bargaining Power: No trade unions lead to weak bargaining power.
• Lack of Welfare Measures and Social Security Benefits: Contract-based recruitment
results in no social security.

Human Rights and Minorities

• Minorities are smaller groups distinguished by religion, language, or ethnicity.
• They are often persecuted by the majority.

Human Rights and Minority Rights in the UN

• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) does not explicitly mention
minority rights but assumes they fall under human rights.
• The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966) recognised
minority rights.
 • The 1992 UN Declaration on Minority Rights encouraged states to protect minority
identities.

Minority Rights in the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution does not define minorities but provides safeguards for them.
Two Types of Rights for Minorities:
1. Fundamental rights (Articles 25-26) ensuring freedom of religion.
2. Special rights for cultural and educational protection.

Minorities and Human Rights Issues

1. Violent Attacks: Communal violence like the Godhra incident.
2. Targeting in Elections: Electoral gains lead to the misuse of minority identities.
3. Terrorism-related Violence: Minorities are often victims of such violence.
4. Migrant and Refugee Issues: Examples include Rohingya refugees and Palestinian refugees.

Human Rights Issues of Dalits

1. Lowest Status in the Social Hierarchy
• Dalits are at the bottom of the caste hierarchy and have faced exploitation and
humiliation.
• They are traditionally seen as servants of other castes.
• Even today, they suffer from untouchability.

2. Civic and Educational Disabilities

• Dalits were historically denied access to public places and educational institutions.
• Literacy rates are low, especially in Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar
Pradesh.
• Poor education affects their job and life opportunities.

3. No Right to Landed Property Ownership

• Dalits were historically denied land and businesses.
• Only recently have their land rights been recognized.
4. Landless Labourers
• Majority of Dalits work as landless laborers.
• They are the lowest-paid workers and economically exploited.
• Some continue to suffer as bonded laborers.

5. Problem of Atrocities against Dalits

• Dalits face atrocities, including violence and caste conflicts.
• Bihar is notorious for caste-related conflicts.
• Several caste-based militant groups operate in Bihar.

Human Rights and Adivasis/Tribal

• The term "Adivasi" refers to original inhabitants, similar to "tribe."
• Tribes live in remote areas and have a close relationship with nature.
• They form a significant social group in India, which has the second-largest tribal
population globally.

Definitions of Tribe
• Dr. D. N. Majumdar: A tribe is a "collection of families bearing a common name,
territory, and language while following shared customs and obligations."
• S. C. Dube: A tribe is an "ethnic category with a corporate identity and shared cultural
traits."
• Gillin and Gillin: A tribe is a "group of local communities that live together, speak a
common dialect, and share a common culture."

Characteristics of Tribe
1. A tribe has a definite territory.
2. It consists of families.
3. Every tribe has a unique name.
4. They speak a particular language.
5. They worship a common ancestor.
6. Each tribe has distinct culture, beliefs, and customs.
7. They feel united.
Human Rights Issues of Adivasis/Tribes
1. Issues of Land Ownership
• Land is the most valuable asset of Adivasis.
• International Labour Organizations’ conventions instruct states to recognize individual
and community ownership.
• In reality, land rights are often unrecognized due to legal loopholes.

2. Forced or Bonded Labour

• Adivasis face forced labor, particularly in kilns and quarries.
• Powerful groups exploit them using muscle power and debt traps.

3. Displacement by Mega Projects

• Adivasis face displacement due to loopholes in land laws and mega development
projects.
• Many live in forests, hills, and valleys, and their forced displacement affects their life.

Dalits and the Constitution

The Constitution provides protection and promotion of Dalit rights.
Rights of SCs and STs are categorized into:
1. Social Rights and Safeguards
2. Educational/Economic Rights and Safeguards
3. Service Rights and Safeguards
4. Political Rights and Safeguards
5. Administrative Rights and Safeguards

Unit 3
Environmental politics and issues of policy making

Environmental Issues
• Environmental issues became globally significant by the late 20th century.
 • Major concerns: Water Pollution, Air Pollution, Climate Change, Global Warming,
Solid Waste Management, Deforestation, Ozone Depletion.

Air Pollution
• Caused by human activities, affecting health and ecosystems.
• Includes emissions from vehicles, industries, and other sources.
• WHO defines air pollution as substances that interfere with health and environment.
• Carbon monoxide and gases from industrial plants are major pollutants.

Water Pollution
• Essential for life, but population growth and industrialization have endangered water
sources.
• Pollution from agriculture, municipal waste, and industries is a serious concern.
• 1.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, leading to health issues.

Deforestation
• The clearing of forest land affects biodiversity and climate.
• Causes include urbanization, population growth, mining, and wood harvesting.

Decline of Ozone
• Ozone forms a protective layer against UV rays.
• Human-made chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) deplete the ozone layer.
• Leads to increased health risks like cancer and harms plant growth.

Global Warming
• Refers to the rise in Earth's temperature due to natural and human activities.
• Causes: volcanic eruptions, methane gas, deforestation, mining, and fossil fuel use.
• Leads to rising sea levels and land submersion.

Climate Change
• Global phenomenon affecting ecosystems and human life.
• Caused by deforestation, fossil fuel use, and industrial waste.
• Impacts agriculture, weather patterns, and biodiversity.
Over Exploitation
• Soil degradation due to excessive resource use.
• Chemicals, heavy metals, and radioactive waste pollute seas and water bodies.
• Many species of plants and animals face extinction.

Issues of Policy Making

• Environmental problems are global and require international cooperation.
• Globalization and industrialization have worsened environmental degradation.
• Nations must develop and enforce environmental policies.

International Agreements & Policies

• Montreal Protocol (1987): Protection of the ozone layer.
• Earth Summit (1992): Addressed sustainable development, resulted in Agenda 21.
• Kyoto Protocol (1997): Set greenhouse gas reduction targets, effective from 2005.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1992: Called
for climate protection.

Environmental Protection Efforts

• Governments must enforce strict industrial policies to reduce environmental damage.
• Public awareness and global cooperation are key to saving the environment.
• Political leaders, students, and social organizations should actively participate in
conservation efforts.

Unit 4
Role of new social media in politics

Concept of Social Media

• Social media enables interaction where people create, share, exchange, and modify
ideas in virtual communities.
• It includes web-based applications built on Web 2.0 for user-generated content
exchange.
• Kaplan and Haenlein define social media as digital platforms that allow interaction,
two-way communication, and computing.
Important Social Media Networking Sites
Facebook:
• Launched on February 6, 2004, by Mark Zuckerberg.
• Features allow users to create individual and business accounts.
• Used for social and professional networking, brand marketing, and customer
interaction.

YouTube:
• Launched on February 14, 2005.
• A free platform for broadcasting news, events, and personal content.
• Helps people share news and stories globally.

Twitter:
• Launched in 2006, offering open communication via short messages called "tweets"
(140 characters).
• Used for information sharing, political communication, and marketing.

WhatsApp:
• Launched in January 2010.
• A cross-platform instant messaging app for text, audio, and video sharing.
• Used for mobilizing people and planning activities.

LinkedIn:
• A business-oriented networking site launched in 2003.
• Helps users create professional profiles and build relationships.
• Businesses use it for hiring, marketing, and showcasing talent.

Orkut:
• Created by Google in 2004 and named after Orkut Buyukkokten.
• Designed for making new friends and maintaining relationships.
• Allowed users to post events, ask questions, and play games.
Instagram:
• Launched on October 6, 2010, with over 400 million users.
• A visual-based platform for photos and short videos.
• Features include filters and photo editing.

Reddit:
• A social news and entertainment website where users submit content.
• Founded by Alexis Ohanian and Steve Huffman on June 23, 2005.
• Has 36 million registered accounts and 231 million monthly visitors.

Tumblr:
• Founded in February 2007 by David Karp.
• A microblogging platform supporting text, images, videos, and GIFs.
• Features include quote posts and reblogging.

Pinterest:
• Launched in March 2010, mainly used for digital bulletin boards.
• Acquired 100 million users by September 2015.
• A popular platform for businesses targeting women.

Advantages of Social Media

1. Connects people with similar interests globally.
2. Messaging is cheaper.
3. Used for social activism and political mobilization.
4. Facilitates discussion and scientific knowledge exchange.
5. Helps in brand awareness.
6. Provides instant news updates.
7. Enables participation, networking, and bookmarking.
8. Speeds up information distribution.
9. Allows freedom of expression.
10. Empowers audiences to bring change.
Disadvantages of Social Media
1. People create fake profiles to deceive others.
2. Risk of identity theft and fraud.
3. Causes online harassment.
4. Wastes time, affecting health.
5. Leads to hacking and cybercrimes.
6. Invades privacy.
7. Phishing and virus attacks are common.

Impact of Social Media on Politics

• Social media plays a crucial role in politics by acting as a tool for democracy, political
participation, and influencing public opinion. It is widely used by political actors to
mobilize supporters and communicate their messages.

Political Communication
• Communication is key in politics for delivering messages.
• Social media enables political parties to interact directly with citizens.
• Politicians use social media to promote themselves and seek voter support.
• It allows for faster and more targeted communication.

Agenda Setting
• Social media reshapes the flow of political information.
• It allows ordinary citizens to bypass traditional media and engage directly.
• Political discussions and campaign strategies are influenced by social media.

Medium of Political Campaigning and Mobilisation

• Social media is a significant tool for political mobilisation.
• It helps in fundraising, candidate promotion, and campaign messaging.
• Movements like the Arab Spring and Black Lives Matter used social media effectively.
• There are concerns about misinformation and foreign interference.

People’s Engagement and Participation in Politics

• Social media lowers barriers for political participation.
 • It allows people without traditional political power to engage in discussions.
• It helps in political activism and citizen participation in governance.

Political Propaganda
• Social media facilitates the spread of misinformation and fake news.
• Political propaganda includes manipulated images, videos, and conspiracy theories.
• Unlike traditional media, it is harder to distinguish fact from fiction.

Political Censorship
• Social media is an important forum for political discourse.
• Governments regulate content to limit misinformation and harmful content.
• Some censorship is necessary for public safety, but it also limits free speech.

Attracted the Younger Generation Towards Politics

• Young people use social media for political discussions.
• It provides an effective medium for engaging in political activities.
• Politicians use social media to reach and mobilize youth.