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Wireless Sensor Networks-based Smart Agriculture: Sensing Technologies,

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 Vol. 5, No. 2 | July – December 2022

Wireless Sensor Networks-based Smart Agriculture:

Sensing Technologies, Application and Future
Directions
Mushtaque Ahmed Rahu1, Sarang Karim2*, Rehan Shams3*,
Ayaz Ahmed Hoshu4, Abdul Fattah Chandio1

Abstract:
With the advent of the latest sensing technologies and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN),
agricultural tasks can be performed quickly, adequately and precisely. These practices are
termed Smart agriculture. In this paper, we discuss various sensing technologies that enable
smart agriculture. Later, a system based on WSN has been designed to monitor agricultural
parameters. The proposed system has been deployed in a Wheat field. This work aims to increase
the quality and productivity of the Wheat crops and minimize the extensive field visits of the
farmers. This system enables precision agriculture by periodically measuring the three most key
parameters (temperature, light, and water level) for achieving a remarkable increase in quality,
productivity and growth of the Wheat crops. Thus, this system helps the agriculturists,
landowners and research experts to monitor these parameters at the base station without going
to the field site. A GUI tool is also designed to display the measured data and stored it in the
database accordingly. While designing this system; IRIS mote, MDA100 data acquisition board,
and MIB520 USB interface board are employed. We use TinyOS operating system for the
development of codes for wireless nodes and the GUI tool is designed in Microsoft Visual Studio.
ZigBee IEEE 802.15.4 protocol and direct topology are used for the communication of nodes
with the base station. In last, we also discuss future research directions.
Keywords: Wireless sensor networks, smart agriculture, precision agriculture, sensing
technologies, Wheat crops.
Pakistan, being an agricultural country can bring a remarkable increase in the
stabilizes its economy through agricultural production and quality rate of crops. Through
projects. The economy of most of the modern techniques and technologies not only
population depends on the outputs gained from the human efforts can be reduced but
the agriculture sector. It fulfils the major agricultural expenditures from sowing to
ingredient of food for mankind and other harvesting can also be minimized. Two basic
living organisms on earth. Modern technology needs of humans can only be fulfilled from

1
Department of Electronic Engineering, Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and
Technology, Nawabshah 67450, Pakistan.
2
Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering,
Science and Technology, Nawabshah 67450, Pakistan.
3
Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Sir Syed University of Engineering and
Technology, Karachi 75300 Pakistan.
4
Department of Electronic Engineering, Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and
Technology, Larkana Campus, Larkana 77150, Pakistan.
Corresponding Author: [email protected] and [email protected]
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Wireless Sensor Networks-based Smart Agriculture Sensing Technologies, Application and Future Directions
(pp. 18 - 32)
agricultural resources, which are food and sensing technologies is carried out. Later, we
clothes. Hence, modern techniques and perform a case study on the wheat crop. In
technologies always do come up with the best which, we design a WSN-based system to
solution for higher productivity and quality of monitor the three most key parameters
cash crops like wheat, rice, cotton, sugar-cane (temperature, light, and water level). In last,
and vegetables [1]. For enhanced productivity we discuss the research gaps in this study,
with low cost, a Wireless Sensor Network which can be implemented in the forthcoming
(WSN) provides a variety of solutions for real- paper. The readers and researchers can also
world challenges. WSN has proved its integrate our suggested research gaps in their
significance very effectively in various other work.
applications like structural and health
monitoring of highways and buildings, The remaining sections of the paper are
habitats and irrigation [2]. Meanwhile, WSN described as follows: Section 2 describes the
can also be equally beneficial in precision previous research work based on WSN that
agriculture for monitoring the quality had been carried out by different researchers.
Section 3 gives the details about the term smart
parameters of the crops and helping the
farmers and landowners in cultivation agriculture followed by different sensors and
procedures as well [3]. sensing technologies. In section 4, we describe
the general block diagram of the system
A management framework in which followed by the complete picture of the sensor
suitable strategies and plans based on node with IRIS mote and deployment scenario.
information and communication technologies Section 5 gives the software implementation
(ICT) are made to handle the agricultural description, which is also divided into two
practices is called precision agriculture or sub-sections: implantation in TinyOS and
precision farming [4], [5]. The impacts of implementation in MS Visual Studio. The
precision agriculture on improving crop deployment results are discussed in section 6.
profitability are addressed in [6]. The principle Section 7 is based on general discussions, for
aim of precision agriculture is to increase crop example, the requirement of Wheat crops,
productivity and quality and reduce the efforts different users, and future directions.
of the farmers using ICT systems and Conclusion is given in section 8.
algorithms [7]. Precision agriculture is
somehow related to data monitoring of an Exhaust research work on WSN-based
agricultural field [8]. Typical attributes of precision agriculture has been carried out by
precision agriculture are [7], [9]: different researchers. Most of the research
work on precision agriculture is based on
• Monitoring of agricultural environmental various application scenarios like agricultural
parameters. monitoring, data monitoring, greenhouses,
pest detection, soil monitoring and irrigation
• Appropriate set point for data collection. management [5], [8], [12]–[18] by
• Data transmission from source (field) to incorporating different methodologies,
destination (sink). techniques, tools and platforms [19]–[21]
along with basic guidelines [22]. In [23], a
• Control actions and decision-making as WSN-based system was developed for
per sensed data. monitoring the fluoride-affected area. Their
system enables the users to access the status of
In this paper, we portray novel deployment
fluoride sensors at the remote station on their
architecture of smart agriculture, which
cell phones via the Internet. Government
depicts the shape of future digital agriculture.
The architecture is comprised of various key organizations and ordinary people can also
technologies, for example, renewable energy make use of their systems to monitor the
sources, sensor classifications, and other affected areas. Nowadays, mobile devices
emerging technologies. We also provide a such as robots and drones are engaged in
agricultural monitoring.
detailed discussion on different sensors and
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Wireless Sensor Networks-based Smart Agriculture Sensing Technologies, Application and Future Directions
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In [14], WSN-based aerial robots were Phosphorus (P) for improving crop quality and
employed. Aerial robots were dedicated to quantity. Their system was managed via an
vineyards for frost monitoring. The core task ARM 7 Processor and the monitored data were
of the aerial robot is to provide dynamic sent to the remote station with the aid of IoT
mobility to the nodes in vineyards for sensing (internet of things). In WSN algorithms can
and creating a communication link between improve the data packet transmission
the base station and scrubby clusters sited at efficiency by up to 25% and also helps to
disjointed points. Their system is very suitable prolong the lifetime of Wireless Sensor
for such areas where wireless sensor networks Networks to achieve efficient data
have some limitations for such characteristics. transmission [49].
By using the dedicated communication
channel, data can be routed even at long In [50], authors provided a survey of
distances. In [13], an instrumentation setup has tending resource-efficient and secure
been made for monitoring the critical inputs of techniques used with distributed estimation
Wheat crops such as water and Nitrogen. Their algorithms over WSN. In [39], authors have
performed a short survey on the
system was employed for collecting field data
continuously. Besides, agricultural implementations and usage of artificial
environmental monitoring, a suitable irrigation intelligence in smart agriculture. In addition,
plan is also needed for precision agriculture various machine learning techniques for smart
[9]. Providing an adequate amount of water in agriculture are also discussed. Some other
meantime plays a dramatic role in improving survey papers related to smart agriculture can
crop quality and quantity. In addition, some be found in [41], [42], in which, the authors
basic guidelines must be considered before the have discussed different challenges and
deployment of WSN in an agricultural field proposed some solutions to be faced in smart
and useful descriptions, such as SOPs agriculture.
(Standard-Operating-Procedures) of a crop Fig. 1 portrays the smart agriculture
must be reviewed for proper crop monitoring deployment architecture equipped with
and pre-and-post processing actions. modern techniques, paradigms, and
In [22], authors have reviewed different technologies in order to provide strong
existing components of WSNs for precision technical support in speeding the agricultural
agriculture, viz. mote platforms, sensor types, transformation and development [30]. The
operating systems, communication issues, smart agriculture system collects the key
maintenance, power supply, etc. After a deep information from the cultivated field via
review of these data, basic guidelines have sensing and communication devices [31]. The
been proposed for the deployment of WSNs in key information includes soil pH, soil
any application scenario related to agriculture. moisture, humidity, temperature, water level,
In [16], authors have performed real-time and so on (more classifications of agricultural
deployment for monitoring the agricultural sensors are given in Table.1). Agricultural
land. They have designed a WSN system production increases by continuous
based on IRIS motes to monitor the humidity, monitoring of these parameters [31].
temperature and light intensity. TinyOS and The smart agriculture system requires
MS Visual Studio were used to program the immense quantities and different types of
IRIS motes and a GUI tool for displaying the sensor nodes to cover the whole field. These
results respectively. sensor nodes are tiny in size with limited
In [17], authors have carried out two battery power [32]. So, whenever the battery
of these nodes is depleted, they halt the sensing
operations for agricultural monitoring. Firstly,
they designed an irrigation system for operation, and the network lifespan is
watering agricultural land automatically. Then shortened. Hence, it is essential to provide a
after, they designed a system to sense the key continuous supply of energy to the smart
parameters, Potassium (K), Nitrogen (N) and agriculture system, for which it would be
better to opt and energy harvesting techniques
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for avoiding the battery depletion of these low
powered sensor nodes.

Fig. 1. Deployment architecture of smart agriculture.

There are various energy harvesting Technology, iii) Material, iv) Operating
techniques, such as solar, wind, thermal, principle, v) Conversion techniques and vi)
vibrations, radio frequency (RF), water, and so Application areas. We classify the agricultural
on [33]–[35], [40]. The on-board field sensors into these groups i) Chemical, ii)
information collection and consequent actions Physical, and iii) Mechanical. Table 1 includes
are the great challenges in agriculture. The an additional breakdown of these sensors.
data collected from a large field or crop
monitoring requires extensive time and effort.
For example, performing soil analysis with 3.1.1 Sensing Technologies
crop and environmental monitoring requires Sensing technologies experience
regular field trips or even multiple times for explosive creativity, activities, exciting
certain crops. This is highly exhaustive as it applications, and innovations in the
requires too much time and manpower along agricultural sector. Various technological
with expenditures to collect the sample and on- firms and entrepreneurs show their diversity
field data. and willingness to enter a gigantic field of
Thus, thanks to the sensing technologies, agriculture. Here we discuss some sensing
which collect the field data and monitor the technologies along with their extensive
crops by providing comfort to the farmers. products and their sensory role in the
There are several sensing devices and kits in agricultural sector. Table 1 provides a review
hundreds of thousands and are available in on different agricultural sensing technologies.
different taxonomies. These sensor
taxonomies include [38]: i) Measurement, ii)

TABLE I. AGRICULTURAL SENSORS CLASSIFICATION

Class Type Classification
pH sensor Soil and water quality monitoring
Chemical sensors Biosensor Glucose and acids
Gas sensor Pollution and air quality
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Temperature sensor Soil, plant, crops, and environment
Humidity sensor Soil and environment
Watermark sensor Soil humidity
Rain sensor Environmental monitoring
Electrical conductivity Soil monitoring
Leaf wetness sensor Tress, crops, and plants
Physical sensors
Terrestrial sensor Weather and environmental monitoring
Color sensor Nutrient monitoring
Passive Infra-red Environmental monitoring
Underwater sensor Salinity, solvents, and quality
Underground sensor Soil compaction and moisture
Solar radiation Crops and plants
Pest detector Pest and bug detection
Pressure sensor Soil compaction
Vibration sensor Soil and atmosphere
Mechanical sensors Wind sensor Speed and direction of air
Motion sensor Environmental monitoring
Water flow sensor Irrigation
Water level sensor Ground and underground

3.1.2 Libelium Smart Agriculture 3.1.4 Open Garden platform [52]

Xtreme [58] Open Garden platform has capabilities to
This smart agriculture tool kit offers monitor three different setups: 1) indoor
numerous onboard sensors developed by farming (greenhouse and vertical farming) 2)
Libelium. This kit allows various outdoor farming (crops, gardens, etc.), and 3)
communication protocols, e.g., LoRaWAN hydroponics (water sensors). The Open
(Long Range Wide Area Networks), Wi-Fi Garden platform can be equipped with
(Wireless Fidelity), ZigBee, Sigfox, and 4G. multicommunication modules, such as 3G,
This Smart Agriculture Xtreme seeks a variety Wi-Fi, or GPRS module. The sensed data can
of applications based on IoT, for example, be propagated via any of these communication
precision farming, greenhouses, weather protocols. The indoor/outdoor setup kits
station, and irrigation. The main advantage of include temperature, humidity, light levels,
Libelium kits is that they are solar powered. drip (indoor) / sprinkler (outdoor) water
pumps, and so on. The hydroponics kit
includes many water sensors: moisture,
3.1.3 Smart Pot [51] humidity, conductivity, pH, growing light,
Parrot Pot has introduced a smart pot, oxygen pump, etc.
especially for indoor farming within an in-situ
Bluetooth communication module. This smart
pot is also a suitable ingredient for 3.1.5 X-ray Computed Tomography [54]
greenhouses and urban farming. Various X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) has
sensors are embedded in this smart pot, for the capabilities to examine water content,
example, sunlight, soil moisture, temperature, conductivity, and configuration of the soil by
and fertilizer levels, which help in continuous using images. In [56], authors have used X-ray
monitoring of the plants. CT images to quantify the hydraulic
conductivity of bulk soil. Another work using
CT images was reported in [57] to air- and
water-filled pore space and structure of the
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soil. In [55], a novel work on X-ray CT and for agricultural environmental monitoring
image processing was reported to calculate the based on IoT and WSN. It offers a broad
root-water absorption in the soil. number of sensing parameters, for example,
solar radiation, rain gauge, pressure, pollution,
dew, humidity, temperature, and so on. This is
3.1.6 The Arable Mark [59] only suited for terrestrial monitoring. This
The Arable Mark has designed an greatly helps in solving the meteorological
irrigation management kit for smart solutions.
agriculture. Farmers can use this tool to
irrigate their crops properly and precisely.
3.1.10 SKY-LoRa Weather Station [64]
This tool acquires the field data, such as soil
moisture, crop water scarcity, and Farmers can use this weather station kit to
precipitation in order to provide the required forecast any uncertain environmental and
water to crops. This helps in avoiding over- weather occurrences, such as rain and wind.
This tool kit uses the LoRa communication
and under-irrigation.
protocol to communicate with the master
sensor node. Its communication coverage is
3.1.7 GreenIQ [61] approximately 600 m.
The Eastern Peak provides an agricultural
field device for irrigation purposes and is
named GreenIQ. This is suitable for 3.1.11 EC1 Speed controller [65]
greenhouses and house gardens. It irrigates the This device performs its operation upon
gardens using a sprinkler controller. monitoring the atmospheric conditions and
then toggling the condition of different
devices. This controller helps to control
3.1.8 Grofit climate monitoring system various agricultural field devices and
[60] equipment by turning on/off the machines.
The Grofit introduced this system for
agricultural climate monitoring, it offers a The main system is elaborated in Fig. 2.
Bluetooth based monitoring system with a Numerous devices come together to make the
propagation area of up to 200 meters. This can main system. These devices include IRIS
measure air humidity, temperature, and solar motes [10], various sensors and a display
radiation. Grofit also provides a cloud to screen to monitor the data. In this research, our
access information related to their devices. nodes are connected wirelessly in a way of
direct topology to communicate with the sink
located at the base station. Each IRIS
3.1.9 MeteoHelix IoT Pro [63]
The allMeteo designed MeteoHelix IoT
(Internet of Things) Pro hardware, especially

Fig. 2. Block diagram of the system

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Fig. 3. Complete picture of a sensor node

mote is connected to a sensor board. The while sensor nodes were placed at a distance
main control station collects sensed of about 20-30m from each other.
information from individual nodes, which is
later on directed to the sink node. MIB520CB
USB board [11] is used to connect the sink
node with the computer via a serial USB port.
GUI interface is provided for the visualization
of measured data to users.
4.1 Sensor Node with IRIS
Fig. 3 shows the complete picture of the
sensor node with its peripherals. Its peripherals
include IRIS motes [10], MDA100CB Board
[25], Temperature sensor [26], LDR sensor,
water level sensor and drive circuitry. For this
work, three sensor nodes are used, which are
wirelessly connected via direct topology with Fig. 4. Physical deployment site of sensor
a sink or base station with the aid of IRIS nodes
motes. Sensor nodes can acquire temperature,
LDR and water level data of irrigated Wheat We deployed various sensor nodes
fields. The base station is connected to a consisting of temperature, LDR and water
computer, where acquired data is monitored level sensors to sense the agricultural data of
and stored in a database for post-processing Wheat crops. Experiments were conducted for
aspects. Batteries keep the sensor nodes alive 10 (ten) weeks, consecutively to obtain the
till the work is done. results from the sensing field. The nodes
transmit the sensed data via direct topology
4.2 Deployment of nodes [15], [28]. The sink node is directly connected
We performed the deployment of sensor with all nodes for access to the sensed data.
nodes in an agricultural field of the Wheat crop
(see Fig. 4). Fig. 4 shows the real-time 5.1 Implementation in TinyOS
deployments of the sensor nodes. The sink was A small operating system named TinyOS
about 50-60m away from the sensing field, [24] is used to program the IRIS motes by
interfacing the MIB520 interface board with a
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computer via serial communication. The code data, the sink node must be interfaced serially
for IRIS motes is developed in the Nested C via MIB520 USB interface board with PC by
language. Despite being a small Linux-based initializing the port on which it is connected.
operating system TinyOS comes with various After the initialization process, the measured
built-in applications, which makes the data of each node is displayed on the GUI tool
programming of IRIS motes much easier. We and updated into the database accordingly. The
programmed four IRIS motes, one for the base database can be imported into the data log
station (as a sink) and the other three for the window by clicking the button to display the
sensing field (as a sensor node). Each IRIS data log available on the GUI tool. The
possesses a unique ID. database can also be viewed in MS Access: an
office application.
The programming flowchart for sink and
sensor nodes is depicted in Fig. 5. The sink This system has been deployed in the
node is serially connected to a computer/ irrigated (shallow-water based) Wheat field
laptop with the help of MIB520CB for monitoring three different agricultural
programmable board. The data is displayed in parameters (temperature, light and water
a GUI tool and in the meantime stored in a level). The deployment results are depicted in
database so that users can easily observe the Fig. 6. Fig. 6a. shows the temperature
measured data. Whereas, sensor nodes are measured by three different sensor nodes
deployed at the field site (as shown in Fig. 4). located at different points in the Wheat field
Once the sink nodes receive the data from (refer Fig. 4) for consecutive 10 (ten) weeks.
sensor nodes, it will display that measured data
on the GUI tool. The sensor nodes measure the 6.1 Temperature Measurement
temperature, LDR, and water level of the Fig. 6b shows the comparison between the
Wheat field and then each sensor node two temperatures i.e. one is the actual
transmits the measured data to the sink node temperature (i.e., standard temperature) of the
using direct topology. Sink nodes and sensor deployment location and the other is the
nodes can communicate with each other via a measured temperature by the sensor nodes. It
wireless medium. is obvious that the average temperature as
measured by the sensor nodes should be equal
5.2 Implementation in MS Visual Studio to the actual temperature. Well, a minor
The main GUI tool (refer to Fig. 6) is difference in readings is also acknowledged,
developed in Microsoft Visual Studio [29]. this difference might be accorded due to
The purpose of designing the GUI tool is to different issues, such as power consumption
display the measured data of each sensor of and the distance between the sink node and
each node. In the GUI tool, all three sensor sensor nodes. It is seen that the average
nodes are recognized with node ID and three difference between the two mentioned
sensors (temperature in degrees Celsius, LDR temperatures is 3-4 degree Celsius. This
in light/dark (in form of LUX in the database) difference can be reduced and more accurate
and water level in inches). The data received and reliable results can be obtained if the
by the sink node from the sensor nodes are sent temperature sensors are calibrated properly
to a computer for display on the GUI tool and by minimizing the interferences, network
through serial communication via a USB port. issues, etc.
At first, GUI is loaded, in which default values
are displayed then for receiving the measured

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Fig. 5. Flowchart for sink and sensor nodes

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(a) Temperature measurement (b) Temp. measurement (actual v/s

measured)

(c) LI measurement (d) LI measurement (actual v/s measured)

(e) 1st irrigation (f) 2nd irrigation (g) 3rd irrigation

Fig. 6. Deployment results

6.2 Luminous Intensity (LUX) 6.3 Water Level Measurement

Measurement Fig. 6e, Fig. 6f, and Fig. 6g plot the water
Fig. 6c describes sunlight detection in levels of Wheat crops at different instant of
terms of Luminous Intensity (LI) for 10 times for 3 consecutive irrigations. We can
consecutive weeks. We measured the LI observe that the readings for water level for all
during day time because there is no sunlight at sensor nodes are different from each other with
night. It is measured in LUX. The LI is very the passage of time; this is due to the rough
necessary for crops to complete the process of surface layer of the Wheat crop field.
photosynthesis [27]. Hence, the crops are Henceforth, by measuring water level, we can
dependent on sunlight for their growth. irrigate our crops accurately, precisely and
Different states of sunlight at different timely. Moreover, it also helps in avoiding
moments are mentioned in the form intensity over and under irrigation. Thus, an ample
unit LUX in Fig. 6c. Fig. 6d. shows the amount of water can be saved. We provide a
comparison between measured LI versus summary of the WSN-based smart agriculture
actual LI. application for Wheat crops, which is given in
Table. 2.
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TABLE II. SUMMARY OF THE WSN-BASED SMART AGRICULTURE APPLICATION FOR WHEAT
CROPS

# Parameter Module Description Remarks

Ample amount is
Budget = good
available
Outdoor
Land/Field
Crop = Wheat
1 Pre-deployment Input Period = 10 weeks
One crop season
Area = 100m2
Node density = 4
1 sink node and 3
Random deployment
sensor nodes
Temperature
2 Sensors Input Water level
LDR
Different
Sink/sensor node = IRIS
applications
motes
Temperature sensor
Hardware and MDA 300
3 Input For irrigation
software Water level sensor
For sunlight
LDR
detection
OS=TinyOS
Linux based OD
Topology = tree, direct
Data rate = 1 Also depends on
message/30sec the deployment
4 Communication Communication Node-node = Zigbee area
Node-sink = Zigbee Application
BS-Server = WiFi specific
Server-User = Internet
Can be replaced
5 Energy Input Rechargeable batteries
easily
Safety and Plastic casing Few can be used
6 Output
maintenance Security cameras across the field

7.1 Requirement of Wheat Crop assistance and guidance, different Wheat

The Wheat crop essentials and researchers have provided the Wheat crop
requirements are described in Fig. 8. SOPs (Standard-Operating-Procedures), for
According to it, the major requirements for the example, season, crop length, irrigation
crops like Wheat are temperature, sunlight and period, harvesting time, and so on [62].
water. So far, by keeping these parameters 7.2 Users
under consideration; the production rate and
crop length can easily be estimated. If all or There are two major users for the analysis
any of these significant parameters become of the results obtained during this work and
less/more and are not maintained at their that are farmers and researchers (or experts).
The prime goal of this work is to provide
proper time, it will directly affect the
production and quality rate of the crops, which essential up-to-date crop data and information
is further clarified in Fig. 8. For further to the farmers, landowners and researchers.

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Fig. 7. Wheat crops essentials

Farmers: These are the principal and main (biosensor, gas sensor) available in the market
users of this system. In Pakistan, the farmers [38]. By incorporating these sensors, this work
are either uneducated or have little education. can easily be enhanced.
That’s why in this system a simple GUI tool is
used to display the results. By this, users can
easily understand the results and take 7.3.3 Dynamic Controller
necessary actions accordingly. In this research, we haven’t used any sort
of dynamic (mechanical) controller. Dynamic
Experts: The other users of this system controllers are helpful to perform mechanical
might be highly professionals or agricultural tasks such as sprinklers, irrigation monitoring,
experts. These people belong to research or water flow control using valves, injection of
agricultural training institutes. They can pesticides, vibrators and so on [7], [8], [15].
analyze the data in form of graphs, charts or
statistical views. That’s why, the results are
also provided in form of charts and graphs, 7.3.4 Networking
according to the need of the user. In the wireless sensor network field,
7.3 Future Directions networking plays a pivotal role in all
application domains in which a different
Sensor network technology is growing day
number of sensor nodes are being employed.
by day, and numerous platforms and tools are
The researchers and application designers
introduced to minimize and reduce human
decide the networking according to the
interactions and contributions. This research
application and requirement scenarios.
work can be enhanced by using some/any of
Classical networking (star, tree, P2P, mesh,
the following fields.
bus topologies) [5], [7], [28], [44],
opportunistic networking [3], [5], [45], and
7.3.1 Wireless Platforms cognitive radios [46] are different classes of
We can implement different sensor networking. Drones can also be used for
network platforms, such as, Wasp mote networking purposes, such as measuring,
Platform [19], Libelium Platform [19], Fleck intruder detection, and localization [43], [66],
Platform [5] and other platforms [5], [20], [21] [67].
for future correspondences. In this paper, we presented various sensing
technologies that enable smart agriculture. In
addition, we have performed a case study on
7.3.2 Sensors Wheat crops. This work aims to minimize
There are various other sensing devices, efforts and problems, which are being faced by
like physical sensors (humidity sensor, soil the farmers while cultivating their crops. This
moisture, watermark sensor, and leaf wetness work is based on the real-time deployment of
sensor), mechanical sensors (flow sensors, sensor nodes in an irrigated Wheat field. We
injectors, and valves) and chemical sensors use IRIS motes as the WSN platform for
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