12/8/2023

Introduction to Sensors

Dr. Manoj Ranaweera

Senior Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering

What is a Sensor
➢A sensor converts a physical phenomenon
into an electrical signal.
➢Thus, sensors represent part of the interface
between the physical world and the world of
electrical devices.
➢The other part of this interface is represented
by actuators, which convert electrical signals
into physical phenomena.

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Types of Sensors
➢There are number of different types of
sensors to sense many physical phenomena.
✓ Acceleration, shock, and vibration sensors
✓ Biosensors
✓ Chemical Sensors
✓ Proximity Sensors
✓ Flow and Level Sensors
✓ Pressure Sensors
✓ Temperature Sensors
✓ Force, Load, and Wight Sensors
✓ Humidity Sensors
✓ Machinery Vibration and Monitoring
✓ Strain Gauges
✓ .etc.

Proximity Sensors

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What are Proximity Sensors?

“Proximity” : Nearness in space, time,

or relationship.

A proximity sensor senses the nearness of an

object (usually called a target) to the sensor

Proximity Sensor Categories

Based on Analog Gives distance

Output Type Digital Only ON/OFF

Inductive

Capacitive
Non contact

Based on Optical
Sensing
Mechanism Ultrasonic
Magnetic
Mechanical Contact

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Inductive & Capacitive Proximity

Sensors

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Operating Principle

Inductive Proximity Sensors

Oscillator together with the coil
produces a magnetic field emer
ging out of the active surface.

When a metallic target enters th

e filed, eddy currents are gener
ated on the target.
Power consumption by eddy cur
rent reduces the amplitude of o
scillation.

Killing of amplitude is detected

by the trigger circuit and indicat
es the presence of a target.
This is called “Eddy current killed
oscillator” principle, or ECKO prin
ciple.

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Inductive Proximity Sensors

Advantages
➢Extremely robust they withstand shocks and
vibrations
➢Suitable for harsh industrial environments
➢Fast sensing response
➢High operating temperature range -50°C to
200°C
➢Not effected by water, oil, dirt, or non-metallic
particles
➢Not effected by target surface or colour

Inductive Proximity Sensors

Disadvantages

➢Can detect only metallic objects: normally, ferrous

metals. However, there are special sensors
dedicatedly design for non-ferrous like aluminum.
➢Short detection distance (usually, from about 0.1
mm to 50 mm)
➢The sensing range of an inductive sensor
dependents on the type of metal being detected
(reduction factor), its shape, and its size.

Let’s talk about “Reduction Factor” next

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Reduction Factor: Inductive

Proximity Sensors
➢The change of
effective sensing
range (Sn) for
different materials
is quantified by the
“Reduction Factor”

Inductive proximity sensors

having the same sensing
distance for all metals are
called “Reduction Factor 1”
or “ R1” sensors

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Operating Principle

Capacitive Proximity Sensors

➢ When any dielectric material enters the sensing zone,

the capacitance changes. This is detected by the sensor
and triggers the presence of a target.

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Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Advantages ➢Can detect both metals and non-metals
➢Robust construction
➢Slightly longer detection range than inductive
proximity sensors
➢These can see-through some containers
(therefore, it can be used for liquid level
measurements)
➢Low power consumption

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Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Disadvantages

➢Sensitive to environmental conditions such as

temperature, humidity, dust, etc.
➢Lower in accuracy compared to inductive
sensors.
➢Slightly higher response time than inductive
sensors.

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Inductive / Capacitive
Shielded and Unshielded Sensors
➢Both inductive and capacitive proximity
sensors come in these two forms.

➢ Unshielded sensors are very sensitive to the

metal near the sensor mounting zone
because, the flux density is highest near the
coil system.
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Inductive / Capacitive

Sensor Mounting
➢Both inductive and capacitive sensors usually
come in one of the following mounting
configurations.
✓ Flush mounting (Embeddable)
✓ Non-flush mounting (Non-Embeddable)
✓ Semi-flush mounting (Quasi-flush)

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Flush Mounting (Embeddable /

Inductive / Capacitive
Shielded)
➢The word “Flush” gives the meaning of
“level”

➢Thus, flush mounting is a way of mounting

such that surface of the device / sensor is in-
line with the mounting surface without
protrusion.

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Non-Flush Mounting (Non-Embeddable /

Inductive / Capacitive

Non-Shielded)
➢This is the mounting method for unshielded
sensors.
➢Usually, a gap of about 2 or 3 times the
nominal sensing distance to be maintained
between sensing surface and the mounting
surface. (Refer the manufacturer
specifications)

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Inductive / Capacitive
Semi-Flush Mounting (Quasi-flush)
➢This is in between flush and non-flush
mounting.
➢In fact, this is a type of non-flush mounting
configuration where, the distance required
between sensing surface and the mounting
surface can be shorter than with the non-
flush mounting.

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NPN and PNP Configuration

➢ This is the signal configuration for the load in the
“on” state.
➢ PNP sensor provides a “positive” state to the load
(thus, P can be considered for Positive)
➢ NPN sensor provides a “negative” state to the load
(thus, N can be considered for negative)
➢ The “Load” is a PLC, relay, alarm, etc.
➢ This is all about between what wires the “load” is
connected across.

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Sensor Wire Configurations

➢2 Wire Configuration
➢3 Wire Configuration
➢4 Wire Configuration

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Sensor Wire Configuration: 3 Wire

➢ This is the most common type of wiring
configuration.
➢ All 3-wire sensors are wired in the same way
irrespective of the sensing mechanism (inductive,
capacitive, optical, etc.)
➢ Three wires are : 2 power wires and one signal wire.
➢ Connect the power wires to the power supply with
correct polarity.
➢ Connect the signal wire to a required load (a device
being controlled by the sensor: usually, a PLC, relay,
or machine alarm).
➢ Make sure the load rating of the sensor is not
exceeded. A typical 3-wire DC sensor’s output has a
rating of 100mA to 200mA.

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Sensor Wire Configuration: 4 Wire

➢4-wire sensors usually have a complementary
output.
➢One output is for normally-open
configuration while the other is for normally-
closed configuration.
➢Alternatively, it may be having one output in
NPN configuration while the other in PNP
configuration.
➢Purpose of this arrangement is to ensure the
wider compatibility of a given sensor.

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Sensor Wire Configuration: 2 Wire

➢This is an alternative to 3-wire configuration.
➢A 3-wire sensor can be used only as PNP or
NPN, depending on how it is designated.
➢A 2-wire sensor eliminates this constraint and
make a universally applicable sensor for both
NPN and PNP configuration.
➢Load is connected in series with power lines:
either in positive side or ground side
depending on whether NPN or PNP
configuration is needed.

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A typical Comparison
Parameter Capacitive Inductive

Typical Range 0.01 mm – 10 mm 0.1 mm to 15 mm

Resolution 2 nm 2 nm
Required Sensing 130% of probe diameter 300% probe diameter
Area
Typical Probe Size 800% of range 300% of range.
Rotating Targets Unaffected Small errors on ferrous
targets
Target Material Conductive and Non- Conductive materials
Conductive Materials only
Not affected by material Affected by material
difference differences.
Gap Material Senses changes in non- Ignores nonconductive
conductive gap materials gap materials
Cost $$ $
Kretschmar, K., Welsby, S., and Precision, L., (2005), “Capacitive and Inductive Displacement
Sensors”, in Wilson, J.S., (1st Ed), “Sensor Technology Handbook”, Elsevier, pp.204

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Caution
➢Although the general sensing distance is
quite short, there are sensors that have over
50 mm detecting distance. However, such
sensors will be quite expensive.

➢Always, refer a latest product catalog for

exact information as technology updates at
much faster rate.

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Optical Sensors

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Applications
➢In conveyor systems
➢In packaging machines
➢In paper, textile and plastics processing
➢In printing machines
➢For access control

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Categories of Optical Proximity

Sensors

Through Beam

Retro-Reflective

Diffuse Reflective

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Categories of Optical Proximity

Sensors

Through Beam

• Transmitter and receiver are at

the opposite ends.
• Longer distance of operation.
• Alignment could be challenging.

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Categories of Optical Proximity

Sensors
• Both transmitter and receiver
are on the same sensing unit
Retro-Reflective (transceiver)
• A reflective surface is fitted
at the opposite side of the
sensor. The reflected light
beam from this surface is
received at the receiver.

• An object that interrupts the

light beam from the emitter
through the reflector to the
receiver causes the output to
switch.

• Range is usually, 1 -5 m

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Categories of Optical Proximity

Sensors
• Both transmitter and receiver
are on the same sensing unit
Diffuse Reflective (transceiver)

• Instead of having a reflective surface, the object itself reflects

the light back to the receiver. If the intensity of the received light
is sufficient, the output is switched.
• The sensing range depends on the size and color of the object involved as
well as its surface texture.

Diffuse sensors with background suppression

can detect objects up to a specific sensing
range. All objects beyond this range are
suppressed. The focus level can be adjusted.
The background is suppressed due to the
geometric constellation between the emitter
and the receiver.

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Some Common Terms in Optical

Proximity Sensors
➢Dark ON
✓ This output is conducting (current-carrying) when no
light reaches the receiver.
➢Light ON
✓ This output is conducting (current-carrying) when
light reaches the receiver
➢Antivalent
✓ The devices with antivalent output have 2 outputs.
One for dark-ON, and the other for light-ON.
➢Correction factors
✓ The specified sensing ranges of diffuse sensors are
achieved with the specified surfaces by using matte
white standard paper. The correction factors apply to
other surfaces when calculating the detection range.

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Sensor Selection Considerations

➢ Incorrect application of a sensor will result in
generating erroneous data.
➢ Therefore, selecting the best quality, most advanced,
and correctly calibrated sensor alone does not
guarantee the correctness of measurements.

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Sensor Selection Considerations

➢Sensor Characteristics
✓Datasheet provides many information and,
sometimes it may be too much.
✓Consult the manufacturer / sales engineer for
clarifications
✓Confirm if the sensor characteristics meets the
operational requirements
➢Environmental Conditions
✓Temperature, shocks and vibrations,
humidity, dust, etc.
✓Select the correct enclosure
➢Power Supply
✓Will the power supply operate satisfactorily in
the measurement environment?

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Sensor Selection Considerations

➢Cables
✓Cable is usually the weakest in the
measurement system.
✓Interference
➢Mounting
✓Ensure mounting is appropriate and the
sensor supports such mounting
requirements
➢Installation
✓Follow the recommended installation
procedure

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Proximity Sensor Selection

Considerations
➢Sensing Distance Required
✓ In many cases, higher sensing distance is
preferred though cost may be high.
✓ Consider extended / triple range sensors

➢Sensing Material

➢Shielding
✓ Shielded of Un-Shielded Sensors
➢Operating Environment
✓ Select the correct enclosure checking IP (Ingress
Protection) rating.

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Proximity Sensor Selection

Considerations
➢Sensor Output
✓ Analog
✓ Digital : PNP or NPN
➢Wire Configuration: 2, 3, or 4 wire

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Sensor Mounting: Surface Mounting

➢Surface mounted sensors fall into the
category of SMD (Surface Mounted Devices).
The technology if doing so is called Surface
Mount Technology (SMT).
➢The sensor is generally mounted on an
electronic circuit

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Sensor Performance
Characteristics: For further study
➢Transfer Function
➢Sensitivity
➢Span or Dynamic Range
➢Accuracy or Uncertainty / Error
➢Hysteresis
➢Repeatability
➢Nonlinearity (often called Linearity)
➢Noise
➢Resolution
➢Bandwidth
➢Reliability
➢Repeatability
➢Response Time

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