Text Book for

INTERMEDIATE
Second Year

Physics
Permission & Support by:

National Council of Educational Research and Training

New Delhi

Board of Intermediate Education, Andhra Pradesh

Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh
Intermediate
Second Year

Physics
Text Book

Pages : xviii + 638 + iv

© National Council of Educational

Research and Training, 2007

Reprint : 2023

Copies : 20,000

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 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted,
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 Published by Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh under the Centrally
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University level of the Government of India in the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, New Delhi.

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Board of Intermediate Education, A.P.
Vijayawada.
Published, Printed & Distributed by
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.

Price: Rs. 319.00

Printed in India
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Published and Printed by
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on behalf of Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY AMARAVATI
CHIEF MINISTER
ANDHRA PRADESH

MESSAGE
I congratulate Akademi for starting its activities with printing of textbooks from
the academic year 2021 – 22.
Education is a real asset which cannot be stolen by anyone and it is the foundation
on which children build their future. As the world has become a global village, children
will have to compete with the world as they grow up. For this there is every need for
good books and good education.
Our government has brought in many changes in the education system and more
are to come. The government has been taking care to provide education to the poor
and needy through various measures, like developing infrastructure, upgrading the skills
of teachers, providing incentives to the children and parents to pursue education. Nutritious
mid-day meal and converting Anganwadis into pre-primary schools with English as medium
of instruction are the steps taken to initiate children into education from a young age.
Besides introducing CBSE syllabus and Telugu as a compulsory subject, the government
has taken up numerous innovative programmes.
The revival of the Akademi also took place during the tenure of our government
as it was neglected after the State was bifurcated. The Akademi, which was started on
August 6, 1968 in the undivided state of Andhra Pradesh, was printing text books,
works of popular writers and books for competitive exams and personality development.
Our government has decided to make available all kinds of books required for
students and employees through Akademi, with headquarters at Tirupati.

I extend my best wishes to the Akademi and hope it will regain its past glory.

(Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY)

Dr. NANDAMURI LAKSHMIPARVATHi
M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Chairperson, (Cabinet Minister Rank)
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.

Message of Chairperson, Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.

In accordance with the syllabus developed by the Board of Intermediate, State

Council for Higher Education, SCERT etc., we design high quality Text books by recruiting
efficient Professors, department heads and faculty members from various Universities and
Colleges as writers and editors. We are taking steps to print the required number of these
books in a timely manner and distribute through the Akademi’s Regional Centers present
across the Andhra Pradesh.
In addition to text books, we strive to keep monographs, dictionaries, dialect texts,
question banks, contact texts, popular texts, essays, linguistics texts, school level dictionaries,
glossaries, etc., updated and printed and made available to students from time to time.
For competitive examinations conducted by the Andhra Pradesh Public Service
Commission and for Entrance examinations conducted by various Universities, the contents
of the Akademi publications are taken as standard. So, I want all the students and
Employees to make use of Akademi books of high standards for their golden future.
Congratulations and best wishes to all of you.

(NANDAMURI LAKSHMIPARVATHI)
J. SYAMALA RAO, I.A.S., Higher Education Department
Principal Secretary to Government Government of Andhra Pradesh

MESSAGE
I Congratulate Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi for taking up the initiative of
printing and distributing textbooks in both Telugu and English media within a short
span of establishing Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi.

Number of students of Andhra Pradesh are competing of National Level for

admissions into Medicine and Engineering courses. In order to help these students
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi consultation with NCERT redesigned their Textbooks
to suit the requirement of National Level Examinations in a lucid language.

As the content in Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi books is highly informative

and authentic, printed in multi-color on high quality paper and will be made available
to the students in a time bound manner. I hope all the students in Andhra Pradesh
will utilize the Akademi textbooks for better understanding of the subjects to compete
of state and national levels.

(J. SYAMALA RAO)

 THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all
its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith

and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and

to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the

individual and the [unity and integrity of the
Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
 Textbook Development Committee (NCERT)

CHAI RPERSON, A DVISORY GROUP FOR T EX TBOOK S I N SCI ENCE AND M ATHEM ATI CS
J .V. Nar l i k ar, Emeritus Professor, Int er -Un iver si ty Cen tr e for Ast r onom y and
Ast r oph ysics (IUCAA), Ganesh k hi nd, Pu ne Un iver si ty Cam pu s, Pu n e

CHI EF A DVI SOR

A.W. J osh i , Honorary Visiting Scientist, National Centr e for Radio Astr ophysics
(NCRA), Pu ne Univer sity Cam pu s, Pu ne (For m er ly Professor at Depar tm ent of
Physics, Univer sity of Pu ne)

M EMBERS
A.K . Gh at ak , Emeritus Professor, Depar tm ent of Physics, In dian Inst itu te of
Technology, New Delhi
Al i k a K h ar e, Professor, Depar tm ent of Physics, Indian Institu te of
Techn ology, Gu wahati
An j al i K sh i r sagar, Reader, Depar tm ent of Physics, Univer sity of Pu ne, Pu ne
An ur adh a M at h ur, PGT , Moder n School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi
At ul M ody , Lecturer (S.G.), VES College of Ar ts, Science and Com m er ce, Mu m bai
B.K . Sh ar m a, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Ch i t r a Goel , PGT, Rajk iya Pr atibha Vik as Vidyalaya, Tyagr aj Nagar, New Delhi
Gagan Gupt a, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H .C. Pr adh an , Professor, H om i Bh abh a Cent r e of Scien ce Edu cat ion (TIFR),
M u m bai
N. Pan ch apak esan , Professor (Retd.), Depar tm ent of Physics and Astr ophysics,
Univer sity of Delhi, Delhi
R. J osh i , Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.K . Dash , Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S. R ai Ch o u d h ar y , Pr of essor, D ep ar t m en t of Ph ysi cs an d Ast r op h ysi cs,
Univer sity of Delhi, D elhi
S.K . Upadh y ay , PGT, J awahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Mu zaffar Nagar
S.N. Pr abh ak ar a, PGT, DM School, Regional Institu te of Edu cation (NCERT),
M ysor e
V.H . Ray bagk ar, Reader, Nowr osjee Wadia College, Pu ne
Vi sh waj eet K ul k ar n i , Teacher (Grade I ), Higher Secondar y Section, Sm t.
Par vatibai Chowgu le College, Mar gao, Goa

M EMBER -COORDINATOR
V.P. Sr i v ast av a, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
 TEXT BOOK DEVELOPMENT SUBJECT COMMITTEE
COMMITTEE - A.P. EDITION MEMBERS - BIE, A.P.

Coordinator Dr. S. Sreehari Sastry

Dr. S. Sreehari Sastry Professor, Department of Physics,
Acharya Nagarjuna University (ANU)
Professor, Department of Physics,
Acharya Nagarjuna University (ANU) Dr. K. Gnana Prasoona
Professor, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open University,
Editors Hyderabad.
Dr. Mudigonda Salagram Dr. V. V. R. Narasimha Rao
Professor of Physics (Retd.), Professor (Retd), Dept. of Physics,
RGUKT, IIIT, Nuzvid, Krishna Dist. Sri Venkateshwara University,
Osmania University, Hyderabad. Thirupathi, Chittoor Dist
Dr. B. Krishnarajulu Naidu Dr. T. Ramanujappa
Professor of Physics (Retd.), Professor, Dept of Physics,
Osmania University, Hyderabad. Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ananthapur (A.P)
Dr. S. Ramana Murthy
Members
Professor (Retd.), Dept of Physics,
Dr. Mudigonda Salagram Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Professor of Physics (Retd.),
RGUKT, IIIT, Nuzvid, Krishna Dist. Dr. K. Nageshwar, Reader (Retd.),
Osmania University, Hyderabad. Dr. K. Subramanyam Naidu
Reader, P. V. K. N Govt. Degree College,
Dr. B. Krishnarajulu Naidu
Chittoor Dist.
Professor of Physics (Retd.),
Osmania University, Hyderabad. K. Prasada Rao
Principal, Govt Junior College,
D. Kameswar Rao Sattenapalli, Guntur Dist
Jr. Lecturer, Dr. L. Bullayya Junior College,
Visakhapatnam.
Y. Sudhakar
Principal, Govt. Junior College,
V. V. R. Lakshmi Mallial, Karimnagar Dist.
Jr. Lecturer, Govt. Junior College, Dr. P. Eswara Kumar
Maredpally, Secunderabad. Lecturer, S. V. A Govt. Degree College (Men),
Sri Kalahasthy, Chittoor Dist
B. Surendranath Reddy
Lecturer, Ramayya I.I.T Institute, Hyderabad. V. V. R. Lakshmi
Jr. Lecturer, Govt. Junior College,
Dr. N. Bhaskara Rao Maredpally, Secunderabad.
Lecturer, Narayana Junior College,
S.R. Nagar, Hyderabad. D. Kameswar Rao
Jr. Lecturer, Dr. L. Bullayya Junior College,
K.G. Deekshitulu Visakhapatnam.
Lecturer (Retd.), Agarwal Junior College, N. Chenna Keshava Chowdary
Charkaman, Hyderabad. Jr. Lecturer, KSR. Govt Jr. College (G),
Ananthapur
 Text Book Review Committee

Sri M. Veerabhadra Rao Sri K. Venugopala Sarma

Retired Principal & Former Head Principal, GJC Girls
Department of Physics Gooty, Anantapur Dt.
P.R.Govt College, Kakinada, E.G. Dt.

Sri Seethiraju Nagabhushanam Smt. T. Gnaneswari

J.L. in Physics J.L. in Physics, GJC
APTWR College of Excellence Veldurthy, Kurnool Dt.
Vissannapet, NTR Dt.
Sri Kotwala Naveen
J.L. in Physics, GJC, Peapully
Nandyal Dt.

Coordinating Committee of Board of Intermediate Education, A.P.

Sri M.V. Seshagiri Babu, I.A.S., Secretary
Board of Intermediate Education, Andhra Pradesh

Educational Research & Training Wing (Text Books)

Dr. A. Srinivasulu Sri. M. Ravi Sankar Naik
Professor Assistant Professor

Dr. M. Ramana Reddy Sri J.V. Ramana Gupta

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi Coordinating Committee

Sri V. Ramakrishna, I.R.S.

Director

Dr. M. Koteswaramma, M.Com., Ph.D.

Research Officer

Dr. S.A.T. Rajyalakshmi M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D.

Research Assistant

Dr. K. Glory Sathyavani, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Ed.

Research Assistant
 Foreword

The Government of India vowed to remove the educational disparities and adopt a common
core curriculum across the country especially at the Intermediate level. Ever since the Government
of Andhra Pradesh and the Board of Intermediate Education (BIE) swung into action with the task
of evolving a revised syllabus in all the Science subjects on par with that of COBSE, approved by
NCERT, its chief intention being enabling the students from Andhra Pradesh to prepare for the
National Level Common Entrance tests like NEET, ISEET etc for admission into Institutions of
professional courses in our Country.
For the first time BIE AP has decided to prepare the Science textbooks. Accordingly an
Academic Review Committee was constituted with the Commissioner of Intermediate Education,
AP as Chairman and the Secretary, BIE AP; the Director SCERT and the Director Telugu Akademi
as members. The National and State Level Educational luminaries were involved in the textbook
preparation, who did it with meticulous care. The textbooks are printed on the lines of NCERT
maintaining National Level Standards.
The Education Department of Government of Andhra Pradesh has taken a decision to
publish and to supply all the text books with free of cost for the students of all Government and
Aided Junior Colleges of newly formed state of Andhra Pradesh.
We express our sincere gratitude to the Director, NCERT for according permission to
adopt its syllabi and curriculum of Science textbooks. We have been permitted to make use of their
textbooks which will be of great advantage to our student community. I also express my gratitude to
the Chairman, BIE and the honorable Minister for HRD and Vice Chairman, BIE and Secretary
(SE) for their dedicated sincere guidance and help.
I sincerely hope that the assorted methods of innovation that are adopted in the preparation
of these textbooks will be of great help and guidance to the students.
I wholeheartedly appreciate the sincere endeavors of the Textbook Development Committee
which has accomplished this noble task.
Constructive suggestions are solicited for the improvement of this textbook from the students,
teachers and general public in the subjects concerned so that next edition will be revised duly
incorporating these suggestions.
It is very much commendable that Intermediate text books are being printed for the first time
by the Akademi from the 2021-22 academic year.

Sri. V. Ramakrishna I.R.S.

Director
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi,
Andhra Pradesh
 Preface
This Textbook on Physics for the students of Intermediate Second year in A.P. State is
being brought into regular use from 2013-14 academic year onwards. It is a continuation of
Intermediate First Year Physics which contained broadly three main branches of Physics, viz.,
Mechanics, Properties of Matter and Heat. The II Year book, like the I Year Physics textbook, is
a modified version of the NCERT Physics textbooks – Part I and Part II of XII Class of CBSE
Curriculum. The book now contains 16 chapters, in comparison to the 12 chapters of earlier II
year Physics text book published by Telugu Academy, Govt. of A.P. One significant omission from
those 12, is a chapter on ‘Thermoelectricity’. Otherwise, the 16 chapters in this Text, conform to
the core subject contents of the 11 chapters of the previous text book.

However, besides the extent, the manner and style in which the 16 chapters – comprising
the familiar 5 broad branches of Physics, that is, Sound, Optics, Electricity, Modern Physics and
Electronics are presented, are entirely different. The chapters deal with the main subject branches
qualitatively, mostly, not excluding the necessary mathematical treatment of various physical phe-
nomena under these branches.

The language and arguments presented in each chapter are straight forward and lucid
leading to the logical development of concepts, meanings of new terms related to various Physical
phenomena under the subject and other relevant laws or principles – with the support of necessary
mathematical steps, expressions or equations. At the end of each chapter, ‘Summary’ followed by
‘Points to Ponder’ are given. Then, model questions in Intermediate Public Examination (IPE)
pattern including some numerical problems have been provided at the end of each chapter. Then,
Exercises and Additional Exercises of the Original Text book are included at the end of each
chapter.

The qualitative and descriptive way of dealing with the subject makes the book apparently
bulky. The students and teachers of Physics are advised not to get afraid of the voluminous look
of the book. In fact, it is so because of great positive aspect, that is, self-explanatory content-
facilitating self-study of the subject by the students as well as the teachers. Therefore, very rarely
they need to seek the help of any guide or consulting other books, as far as the contents are
concerned.

The book caters to the needs of Intermediate students, attempting pursuit of any stream of
higher education through any competitive examination (NEET, ISEET). The book provides a
sufficiently strong base to the students so as to enable them to take up any higher education or
employment with enough confidence.

Dr. Mudigonda Salagram.

Dr. Bandi Krishnarajulu Naidu.
 A HELPFUL PRIOR GLANCE
AT
THE OUTLINES OF INTERMEDIATE SECOND YEAR
PHYSICS TEXT BOOK (2013-14)
For the benefit of Physics Teachers of A.P. State
The text book is apparently voluminous, but its essential contents are not very much different
from the Telugu Academy 2nd year Physics Text book, which is in use till the end of this academic
year, 2013. Of course, in the new Text book, a few more topics have been included, which fact
should be appreciated by every one as it is in tune with the changing needs of the time.

A brief comparison of usually studied chapters in Physics at Intermediate Second Year level
will be appropriate and helpful too.

In the first chapter on ‘Waves’, which replaces chapter on ‘Wave Motion’, all the earlier
contents have been included, with the exception of (building) Acoustics which has been dropped. A
few advanced ideas on ‘Normal Modes’ and on ‘Musical Pillars’ (box item) have been introduced.
These will not only add to the knowledge and application of Physics concepts but also will be interesting
to both students and teachers.

This trend continues in the text in all its 16 chapters, which replace earlier 11 chapters (with
the exception of chapter on “Thermoelectricity’ being dropped altogether). The number seems to be
more not because of inclusion of any totally new chapters but simply because the earlier chapters
have been conveniently sub-divided with the contents remaining, more or less, same. For example,
the single chapter on ‘Electrostatics’ has been divided into two chapters, namely, ‘Electric charges
and Fields’ (Ch.4) and ‘Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance’ (Chapter 5). Here, the attention of
A.P. Physics Teachers at Intermediate level is specially drawn to the fact that pure, basic ideas on
the subject of ‘Magnetism’, independent of Electricity, have been completely avoided in this new
text. Internationally, this is a general practice, which is meaningful. However, the students and
teachers can get familiarized with such ideas on ‘Magnetism’ from the lower level Physics text
books. The teachers should note, particularly that topics on ‘Tangent Law’, followed by ‘Deflection
Magnetometer’ and ‘Vibration Magnetometer’ have been omitted in this book. However, they continue
to be important experiments in the Physics Practical Laboratories and the teachers and students are
expected to be in touch with relevant ideas on Magnetism.

Similarly, in the Optics part, the topics on ‘Defects in Images’ and ‘Eye-Pieces’ have not
been dealt in the text. But the scope and their relevance should find appropriate space in the related
laboratory experiments, for example, those involving spectrometers. Then, the earlier, single and
broad-based chapter on ‘Electromagnetics’ is now divided into 3 chapters, namely, ‘Moving charges
and Magnetism’ (Ch.7), ‘Electromagnetic Induction’ (Ch.9) and ‘Alternating Current’ (Ch.10). The
teachers should find that topics on ‘Tangent Galvanometer’, ‘AC through L,C,R circuits’ separately
and ‘Growth and Decay of current in L with D.C. source’ will be missing in these chapters. At the
same time, they can find that interesting topics like ‘Eddy currents and their applications’, A.C.
Generator, and a bit advanced ideas on ‘Phasor diagrams’ have been dealt very lucidly, besides the
inclusion of application-oriented concept like ‘Power Factor’ in the text.
 Further, the earlier chapter on ‘Atomic Physics’ has been conveniently divided into two chapters:
‘Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter’ (Ch.12) and ‘Atoms’ (Ch.13). With inclusion of advanced
ideas on concepts like ‘Probability’, ‘Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle’ and ‘De Broglies’ ideas, the
text would not only lay the basic foundations, in the minds of students, for future study of ‘Quantum
Mechanics’ subject, but also certainly enhance their frontiers of knowledge in ‘Modern Physics’. In
the following chapter (14) on ‘Nuclei’ elementary ideas on a-decay, b-decay and g-decay have been
introduced followed by box-items on ‘India’s Atomic Energy Programme’ and ‘Nuclear Holocaust’
which are expected to increase the general awareness among the students, which should in turn,
create a ‘Scientific Temper’ and ‘approach’ towards the development of our country, India.

Lastly, the contents of earlier chapters (11 and 12) on ‘Semiconductor Devices’ and
‘Communication systems’ are now dealt in this textbook under the titles ‘Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits’ and ‘Communication systems’ more exhaustively with several
additions in the former chapter, like, ‘Optoelectronic junction devices’, ‘Solar cells’, ‘Feedback amplifier
and Transistor Oscillator’ and most important topic on ‘Integrated Circuits (IC’s)’ drawing the attention
of the reader to ‘The future of computer Technology’. And, in the latter chapter on ‘Communication
Systems’, ‘Modulation and Detection’ of electromagnetic waves carrying various signals /messages
in the case of Radio, TV and other transmission based devices including some information on modern
communication technology employed in Internet, Fax and other computer based devices, have been
dealt briefly.

In general, the standard of Physics made available in this Textbook is certainly above the
previous textbooks, as it should be, particularly in view of the fast pace at which technology is
revolutionizing the lives of modern man. Besides, the book certainly meets all the requirements of any
national/state level competitive examinations based on Intermediate Physics subject.

Dr. Mudigonda Salagram.

Dr. Bandi Krishnarajulu Naidu.
 Contents
Foreword
Preface
Chapter One
WAVES
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves 3
1.3 Displacement relation in a progressive wave 5
1.4 The speed of a travelling wave 9
1.5 The principle of superposition of waves 14
1.6 Reflection of waves 16
1.7 Beats 22
1.8 Doppler effect 24
Chapter Two
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors 40
2.3 Refraction 46
2.4 Total Internal Reflection 49
2.5 Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses 53
2.6 Refraction through a Prism 60
2.7 Dispersion by a Prism 62
2.8 Some Natural Phenomena due to Sunlight 63
2.9 Optical Instruments 65
Chapter Three
WAVE OPTICS
3.1 Introduction 83
3.2 Huygens Principle 85
3.3 Refraction and reflection of plane waves using Huygens Principle 87
3.4 Coherent and Incoherent Addition of Waves 92
3.5 Interference of Light Waves and Young’s Experiment 94
3.6 Diffraction 99
3.7 Polarisation 108
Chapter Four
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
4.1 Introduction 119
4.2 Electric Charges 119
4.3 Conductors and Insulators 123
4.4 Charging by Induction 124
4.5 Basic Properties of Electric Charge 126
4.6 Coulomb’s Law 128
4.7 Forces between Multiple Charges 133
4.8 Electric Field 136
4.9 Electric Field Lines 141
4.10 Electric Flux 143
4.11 Electric Dipole 145
4.12 Dipole in a Uniform External Field 149
4.13 Continuous Charge Distribution 150
4.14 Gauss’s Law 151
4.15 Application of Gauss’s Law 155
Chapter Five
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIALAND CAPACITANCE
5.1 Introduction 171
5.2 Electrostatic Potential 173
5.3 Potential due to a Point Charge 174
5.4 Potential due to an Electric Dipole 175
5.5 Potential due to a System of Charges 177
5.6 Equipotential Surfaces 180
5.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges 181
5.8 Potential Energy in an External Field 184
5.9 Electrostatics of Conductors 187
5.10 Dielectrics and Polarisation 191
5.11 Capacitors and Capacitance 193
5.12 The Parallel Plate Capacitor 194
5.13 Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance 195
5.14 Combination of Capacitors 198
5.15 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 200
5.16 Van de Graaff Generator 203
Chapter Six
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
6.1 Introduction 215
6.2 Electric Current 215
6.3 Electric Currents in Conductors 216
6.4 Ohm’s law 217
6.5 Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity 219
6.6 Limitations of Ohm’s Law 223
6.7 Resistivity of various Materials 223
6.8 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity 225
6.9 Electrical Energy, Power 227
6.10 Combination of Resistors — Series and Parallel 229
6.11 Cells, emf, Internal Resistance 232
6.12 Cells in Series and in Parallel 235
6.13 Kirchhoff’s Laws 237
6.14 Wheatstone Bridge 240
6.15 Meter Bridge 242
6.16 Potentiometer 244

Chapter Seven
MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
7.1 Introduction 258
7.2 Magnetic Force 259
7.3 Motion in a Magnetic Field 263
7.4 Motion in Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields 266
7.5 Magnetic Field due to a Current Element,
Biot-Savart Law 269
7.6 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop 271
7.7 Ampere’s Circuital Law 274
7.8 The Solenoid and the Toroid 279
7.9 Force between Two Parallel Currents, the Ampere (Unit) 283
7.10 Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole 286
7.11 The Moving Coil Galvanometer 292

Chapter Eight
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
8.1 Introduction 305
8.2 The Bar Magnet 306
8.3 Magnetism and Gauss’s Law 313
8.4 The Earth’s Magnetism 317
8.5 Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity 321
8.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials 323
8.7 Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets 327

Chapter Nine
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
9.1 Introduction 338
9.2 The Experiments of Faraday and Henry 339
9.3 Magnetic Flux 340
9.4 Faraday’s Law of Induction 341
9.5 Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy 344
9.6 Motional Electromotive Force 346
9.7 Energy Consideration: A Quantitative Study 349
9.8 Eddy Currents 352
9.9 Inductance 353
9.10 AC Generator 358
Chapter Ten
ALTERNATING CURRENT
10.1 Introduction 373
10.2 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor 374
10.3 Representation of AC Current and Voltage by
Rotating Vectors — Phasors 377
10.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor 377
10.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor 381
10.6 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit 384
10.7 Power in AC Circuit: The Power Factor 392
10.8 LC Oscillations 395
10.9 Transformers 400

Chapter Eleven
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
11.1 Introduction 411
11.2 Displacement Current 412
11.3 Electromagnetic Waves 416
11.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum 422

Chapter Twelve
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
12.1 Introduction 432
12.2 Electron Emission 433
12.3 Photoelectric Effect 434
12.4 Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect 435
12.5 Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light 439
12.6 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum
of Radiation 439
12.7 Particle Nature of Light: The Photon 441
12.8 Wave Nature of Matter 444
12.9 Davisson and Germer Experiment 449

Chapter Thirteen
ATOMS
13.1 Introduction 462
13.2 Alpha-particle Scattering and Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
of Atom 463
13.3 Atomic Spectra 468
13.4 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 470
13.5 The Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom 476
13.6 DE Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of
Quantisation 478
Chapter Fourteen
NUCLEI
14.1 Introduction 488
14.2 Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus 488
14.3 Size of the Nucleus 491
14.4 Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy 492
14.5 Nuclear Force 495
14.6 Radioactivity 496
14.7 Nuclear Energy 501

Chapter Fifteen
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICESAND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
15.1 Introduction 519
15.2 Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors 520
15.3 Intrinsic Semiconductor 524
15.4 Extrinsic Semiconductor 526
15.5 p-n Junction 530
15.6 Semiconductor diode 531
15.7 Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier 535
15.8 Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes 537
15.9 Junction Transistor 542
15.10 Digital Electronics and Logic Gates 553
15.11 Integrated Circuits 557

Chapter Sixteen
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
16.1 Introduction 567
16.2 Elements of a Communication System 567
16.3 Basic Terminology Used in Electronic Communication Systems 569
16.4 Bandwidth of Signals 571
16.5 Bandwidth of Transmission Medium 572
16.6 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves 573
16.7 Modulation and its Necessity 576
16.8 Amplitude Modulation 578
16.9 Production of Amplitude Modulated Wave 579
16.10 Detection of Amplitude Modulated Wave 580

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
APPENDICES 586
ANSWERS 588
BIBLIOGRAPHY 628
SYLLABUS 630
MODEL QUESTION PAPER 636
Chapter One

WAVES
Physics
 Waves



Physics
 Waves

y( x, t )  a sin(kx  t  )


   

  
    




y ( x, t )  a sin( kx  t  )
 Physics

 

 

 


 


 Waves


y ( x, 0)  a sin kx

 
      





 
 


rad m1


x0
 
 

    
  

2
 
    





 



Physics


 






 

 


 

 

j
 Waves


 
 

  

 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
   

Physics


 


  

  
 












60
v   93 s 1
 6.9  10 3 1
 Waves











 
  
 



 Physics
v = B (1.19)

For a linear mediu m like a solid bar, t he lat eral expan sion of th e bar is
n egligible an d we may consider it t o be on ly u n der lon gitu din al strain . In
t h at case, t h e relevan t modu lu s of elast icit y is You n g’s modu lu s, wh ich
h as t h e same dimen sion s as Bu lk modu lu s. Dimen sion al an alysis for
t h is case yields a relat ion lik e Eq. (1.18), with an u ndet ermined C which
t h e exact derivat ion sh ows t o be u n it y. Th u s t h e speed of lon git u din al
waves in a solid bar is given by

v = Y (1.20)

where Y is t he You n g’s modu lu s of th e mat erial of th e bar. Table 1.1 gives
t h e speed of sou n d in some media.
Tabl e 1 .1 Speed of Sou n d i n som e Medi a

Liqu ids and solids generally h ave higher speeds of sou nd than in gases.
[Not e for solids, t h e speed bein g referred t o is t h e speed of lon git u din al
waves in the solid]. This h appen s becau se th ey are mu ch more difficu lt to
compress t h an gases an d so h ave mu ch high er valu es of bu lk modu lu s.
This factor more th an compen sates for t h eir high er densities t han gases.
We can estimate the speed of sou nd in a gas in the ideal gas approximation.
For an ideal gas, t h e pressu re P, volu me V an d t emperat u re T are related
by (see Ch apt er 12 of 1 st Yr. book ).
PV = Nk B T (1.21)
wh er e N is t h e n u mber of molecu les in volu m e V, k B is t h e B olt zm an n
con st an t an d T t h e t emperat u re of t h e gas (in Kelvin ). Th erefor e, for an
isot h ermal ch ange it follows from Eq.(1.21) th at
12 VP + PV = 0
 Waves

 






 


rP
v


1 4  1 01  105 Nm2
v
1 29kgm3

   
 
 



 
  
Physics










 Waves

    




 

   

   kx  t    kx   t     
 a  2sin   cos 
  2  2 
sin A  sin B

  
y  x, t   2a cos sin  kx  t  
2  2



2

 

y  x, t   2a sin  kx  t 

  


Physics





 Waves

y2  x, t   a sin  kx  t 

 




y  y2  yr  0





 

 





Physics


 

 


 





 Waves

v

2L


 Physics
A

(a)
Fundamental
A or first harmonic
A A
(b)
N second harmonic
A A
A A A 
(c)
N N third harmonic
A A A

A A A A 
(d)   
N N N fourth harmonic
A A A A

A A A A A
(e) 
fifth harmonic
A N A N A N A N A

A A A A A A v
(f) 4L
N N N N N sixth harmonic
A A A A A A
v v
4L 4L

v v
 
1 2L
 Waves

v

2





v v
 
1 4
Physics

 

 

 
 

 

         


 

          
     


 Waves

     

  

 


    

Physics


 Waves

 
  

 
  



   
 
 


  
   

 

 
  

v

 
v v   


 
v v  


 
v v   

Physics

  


 v0 
 T0 1 –
 v 0  v 

 
   

 
v    



 Waves

    
      
 

  
vv  
 
Physics

 v  1
v  v0 1  s 
 v 
v
j

v
v

  
v v 
 
 
 

j
 Waves

 

  




v




 
   

T
v


B
v


Y
v

Physics

P
v


  





    
     
 
 
 

 

 

   
 Waves

 

  ~

 

  
   

 

In a w a ve, en ergy a n d
Physics
Waves
Physics



 Waves

P
v



Physics




  
  

 
 Waves


Physics
Chapter Two

RAY OPTICS
AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
Physics
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Physics

   

 
  
  

 


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 

 

  


  
 
     

  


  
 
Physics
 



–

 





 
  




–



 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 
– – .

 .
=
 .


 

Physics

 
 
 .
= 
 . – 

 





 
 
 


   
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
(1)

(2)





(1)


(1)

(2)
Physics
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 

 

 
 Physics
(2)

(1)


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments




Physics


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments


Physics

  

 


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments


 


 

 


 


  
Physics

 
     


 
    

   
  

    



 

 


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 
Physics


      



 
    


 
   
 

 
    
 
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 

 

  

 

 

   
Physics

 

 


 



 

 



 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 







 

 








  




  
Physics


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Physics
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments


 




Physics


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

 

  
Physics


 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

   
      


 
  


 


 
   

Physics


 


     
  

 
  


 
  
 



 

   
    

 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments


 
  


   
    


   
    


  

 


  

Physics



 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

  

 

   
 
 


 

 
Physics


   

 

   

 





 

 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Physics
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Physics
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Physics



 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Physics
 Wave Optics

Chapter Three

WAVE OPTICS
Physics


Wave Optics
 Physics





 Wave Optics











Physics

 

 



 



 

 

 


 Wave Optics


Physics
 Wave Optics

 





 
   
 


 
 
 

 
     

Physics


 Wave Optics

  






  




     


Physics

 

  
  



    

     

     




 Wave Optics

       
        
     
Physics


 


  







 Wave Optics





 


 
 

 
Physics

  


 Wave Optics

 

 


   
Physics

   )

 

 


 Wave Optics


l 
 l 

 




 

 

 

 

 


   


Physics




 
   .
 Wave Optics

 

 
Physics

 
 

 
 Wave Optics

   

 


  


 





 
   

l 

Physics



 
  

min

     
min    
 
 

  



 
 Wave Optics















 
Physics

 
   
 


 Wave Optics


 





Physics

 
 Wave Optics

 
 
   

  
 
Physics

 
 
 Wave Optics

 

 
Physics

 
 

 


Wave Optics
Physics






Wave Optics
Physics


Chapter Four

ELECTRIC CHARGES
AND FIELDS
Physics
Electric Charges
and Fields
Physics
Electric Charges
and Fields
Physics
Electric Charges
and Fields
Physics
 Electric Charges
and Fields


Physics


 Electric Charges
and Fields





 
0
Physics

  




 



 Electric Charges
and Fields




 

  


 



Physics
 Electric Charges
and Fields





 
  
 






Physics

   
 

 
     
  





 Electric Charges
and Fields









  

r̂



Physics


  
 




 Electric Charges
and Fields

 
  

Physics





  
  



 r

 Electric Charges
and Fields

 
Physics
   

 
  
 


 


 

 Electric Charges
and Fields


 



 



 
 

 
 
Physics


  


 

  


 


 
 Electric Charges
and Fields



Physics





 

  



 



   

 


   

 
 Electric Charges
and Fields



  

 

 
 

 
 
Physics

 
       
    


 




 
 


 




 

 







 Electric Charges
and Fields


 .

Physics



  
 
   

   
 
   





 
  
 
  




  
 
   




  
 
   

 

 Electric Charges
and Fields


 


 
 
  





 Physics




 








 


  
 







 Electric Charges
and Fields

  



 
 

 

 
 
 

  
 

    


  

Physics
  
 

   
  


   
 

      

 
 Electric Charges
and Fields

 


  

 

 

       

     
Physics
  
  
 

  

  
  


 

 

 
 Electric Charges
and Fields

 





Physics



  







 





 Electric Charges
and Fields
 
 









 

 

 



 
 
 



Physics












 
 Electric Charges
and Fields


  

 

 
    



Physics






 
 Electric Charges
and Fields





 


 



 

 





 

 

 


Physics









 


 

  

  


Electric Charges
and Fields
Physics
 Electric Charges
and Fields

πε


 

ˆ ˆ

2 r 

Physics
2

1 3
4  0 16 2

 


 0 r

e
 0 r

eEx 2
y
2mu 2




   

 
 Electric Charges
and Fields


Physics


Electric Charges
and Fields
Physics

 



Chapter Five

ELECTROSTATIC
POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE
Physics

 

 

   
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

    

    

  
  
Physics

 

 


r

 
  

   

  

  

   

    



 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance









   



    
Physics

 
 
  

   

   
r  a

  
    

 
   

 
   


   
       


   
       


 
 
 
 
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

r̂





 



  
 




 
 
Physics
 
   
  


 

 





   
  
  x  x  

 


 

 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance


Physics

a t a ll p o in ts o n th e su rfa ce. F o r a sin gle ch a rge




x
x
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

 



    




  

 
 
 





Physics







 
 
  

 
 
  

 
  
  
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

 
      
 

   
   
   
  
   


   
    
    
  
   

Physics

     
          
   




  
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

a p oten tia l d ifferen ce of  




 


  


 
Physics


  
   


  
    

  
      

   


 




 
  
    

 

     

 

 

  
        
 
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

        
  




        
     
  

 



Physics
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance








 
 











 

Physics
Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Physics





 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

 





Physics




 
  
 
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

 
  
 

  
   
   




 



 


  
 
 


  

  






Physics

 

 
 

 



 
 

 
  

  


 
 


 



 
  






 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

  

 
 

  


  



 
 


 

 
Physics
 


  

  
 

 

 
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

       

    


 Physics

  

   

 
     

  


    

    



 

     
  
  

     
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
 

     

     



  

    

              
  

  

 
    

  


 







  
Physics


 
 

    
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance










 
   
 

 
   
 

 
  
 
Physics







 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

   











Physics

   

  




Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance
Physics



(40iˆ  30 ˆj )Vm 1

A
V
d
d A
A 
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

A
B 

C1 C2

V C3

 
Physics

 
 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance

  


 


Physics








 Electrostatic Potential
and Capacitance




Physics
Chapter Six

CURRENT
ELECTRICITY
Physics




  


 

 Current
Electricity


Physics

 

  






  
 Current
Electricity






 

 



Physics
 
 


        

   




 




   

   

 

 


 Current
Electricity

  





  

vd 
    
Physics




 Current
Electricity


 


Physics

 


 
 
  

 Current
Electricity




  
 


Physics
 

 

 
 








 Current
Electricity

  





 





  

   



 



Physics

  



 


 

 


 

 
 Current
Electricity


Physics

 
     

 
 Current
Electricity

 
   

  

   

 




 

 
    


  
 
Physics









 Current
Electricity







Physics


 
 

 

  

   


  
  

 

 

   
   




 Current
Electricity

 
   

 

 

 

 

 

            
       
 Physics



   


    

      

     

 

      
       
 

 

 



 Current
Electricity

 
 





 

  
 

  

 

 

  
 


Physics


 Current
Electricity







 

  


Physics

   
     
   
 Current
Electricity

   
Physics

 Current
Electricity





 
 




  
 


 



Physics

 l    l


 

 

 





 


 Current
Electricity




 
  




 






 
 

 
   
Physics


 
   
   


 







 
 Current
Electricity




 







+

   


Physics



   
  








 Current
Electricity

 
  

 




Physics

 



 Current
Electricity




 

  
Physics



  

  



 Current
Electricity






Physics




   
 Current
Electricity

  
 
 





Physics







 Current
Electricity
 Physics

Chapter Seven

MOVING CHARGES
AND MAGNETISM
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism



Physics





 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 


 Physics

 

 
  
 

 





 Moving Charges and
Magnetism


 

Physics



  



   


 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 


Physics

  
     
  

 
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism


 


 





 

v 
Physics

 

 
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism




 


  

 



 



Physics

 



 
       

  

  
 
 

   
  


  i

 


 
   

 
 
 
 


×r   ×     

     
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism







π   








π   
Physics



 
  



 Moving Charges and
Magnetism


× ×
B
×

    
    
 


μ r

 r
μ α

 r

μ 

 r
Physics
 
    
μ θ
 θ
π

  
μ

πs

μ0I
B.d = B d cos = 2π r rdθ

μ0I
= dθ
2π

μ0 I μ0 I
 B.d   2π dθ 
2π   dθ  μ0I

μ0I
B.d  θ AB
2π

 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

μ0I
B.d  θ CD
2π

μ0I μ I
B.d  θ AB  0 θ CD
2π 2π


μ0I
 B.d   2π (θ AB  θ CD  .......)

μ0I
 B.d 
2π
(sum of angles subtended by all d elements)

 B.d

 B.d

 B.d
Physics

 B.dl 

 B.dl
1

 B.dl
2

 B.dl 
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 
 
Physics

r
.i
a
1 r

2


 


π

 
   


π 

  
 
 π

 Moving Charges and
Magnetism


Physics
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 




 





 
Physics




 
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 









Physics







π
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism


Physics

  

    


 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 

   

 




 

 


Physics




 
    
 
  
 

 
 
   
 


I  

I
   
  
 

I   
 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

  
 π
I      

 
I  

    
    
 I  







  
Physics











π



π

  








   


 

 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

π

v



 

 

 
Physics







 

 
  
 
  


 Moving Charges and
Magnetism





 
 



Physics




    
   
 

 


 
 



 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

  

 
  
  

   

 


 l r
B

 Physics








  



π






 Moving Charges and
Magnetism

 


  

 
Physics
Moving Charges and
Magnetism
Physics


 Moving Charges and
Magnetism



  



Physics
Moving Charges and
Magnetism
Physics


Chapter Eight

MAGNETISM AND
MATTER
Physics
Magnetism and
Matter
Physics
 Magnetism and
Matter



 


    

  


 






 


Physics
 
 

I  




I  


 
I

 I
I
 

4


   

    
 




 





  
 
 Magnetism and
Matter

   



     
Physics


 → 
 









 

  
  

 
  
     
  

   

 Magnetism and
Matter







Physics

  

       

 

  

 Magnetism and
Matter

FIGURE 8.7
Solution
(a) Wrong. Magnetic field lines can never emanate from a point, as
shown in figure. Over any closed surface, the net flux of B must
EXAMPLE 8.6

always be zero, i.e., pictorially as many field lines should seem to

enter the surface as the number of lines leaving it. The field lines
shown, in fact, represent electric field of a long positively charged
wire. The correct magnetic field lines are circling the straight
conductor, as described in Chapter 7.
315
Physics
 Magnetism and
Matter

  

  
Physics






  
  
 
 Magnetism and
Matter
 


Physics


 Magnetism and
Matter


Physics













 

 


 



   
  
 Magnetism and
Matter

 

 


 
    




  



Physics

   
    
   

 
 Magnetism and
Matter




 
Physics

 



 Magnetism and
Matter


  



Physics
 Magnetism and
Matter








    



Physics





  

 

  
 

  

 

   

   

 Magnetism and
Matter

 

  
Physics
 Magnetism and
Matter

 

 


Physics
Magnetism and
Matter
Physics
 Magnetism and
Matter

 



 Physics

Chapter Nine

ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
Electromagnetic
Induction
Physics


 Electromagnetic
Induction

 


       
Physics








 Electromagnetic
Induction

 




  
  
  


  


 



 









Physics
Electromagnetic
Induction
Physics



   


 Electromagnetic
Induction

 


Physics




       

     


   


   
    


  


 Electromagnetic
Induction







 
   

Physics


 



  



 


   
  




  
  
 Electromagnetic
Induction

  

  

  

  
Physics
 Electromagnetic
Induction

 





 
Physics

 

       
 

 

 

       
 Electromagnetic
Induction

 

  

 
 


 


 
 



Physics

    

 
  

 

 
 


  



     
 Electromagnetic
Induction







 

 

   

  

  
Physics

  

 
       

 
    







  
 Electromagnetic
Induction

 

 
  

  


  

  

   
  

 

 
    


  
Physics

 
 Electromagnetic
Induction




  





 



Physics

 




 

  

  
   
   
  
Electromagnetic
Induction
Physics
 Electromagnetic
Induction




Physics


 Electromagnetic
Induction


Physics

 






    




 


  
 

 

 

 Electromagnetic
Induction







 

 
 







   




  


 
 

 


 
 


  



 
Physics




  





 


  

 
 




 Electromagnetic
Induction

  

 


 



  


 


  




 

 
 
Physics
 
 

    

  

 
 
Chapter Ten

ALTERNATING
CURRENT
Physics

 

 t 

 =

 

 


 Alternating Current

  

   

   

  


  

  d

  
        


   
Physics

  

  

 
   

  V

  
 Alternating Current

 


 

 
Physics

  

   

  


 
      

 
    

 


 
 Alternating Current

  
 
 

 
       

    
   

    

   


–
=  =  .   


V
   A

Physics
 Alternating Current

 

 

d

d
d

d
   

 
     

 
    






Physics




 
 

 

    

 

  
 
   F
Alternating Current
Physics
V
   A


  




d
  
d
 Alternating Current

 


 


 

   

  

    


 

  
Physics












  


 Alternating Current

   

 

   

   

        
 

   
  
         


 


 

 


     

  

 

 
     

d
    
d
 
 

 
 
 

Physics

 
 
  

     
 


 



 
  


 
 Alternating Current


 
   
 

  


 


  
 

  
  

  
 



    

 
 
   
  

 
Physics
 
    
 

 
    
 

  


    
  

  
      
  
    

 

   
       
 
   


      
        

     
           


 


 

 








 
 Alternating Current

 




 


   F  
 


    

 
      F

   

 

V
  


   
   

  
Physics


 

   
   

      
     

   

 

 




 

 

 

 
 Alternating Current

 








 


 


Physics
 
 
   

     




   
     

 

 A   W
 

  
 
  


   
 

  
 Alternating Current

 
     A


    

 

 
Physics
 

 

   

 
 

 
   

 


2
mv max

 
 Alternating Current

 

   

 

 

 
 Physics

       

 
 


    

   

 Alternating Current

 
     



 

   

  

    

      


Physics



 


 


 Alternating Current







 

   
   
  
Physics

 

 

 

 


  


 

 




 
 Alternating Current


  
 


   





 


 


 

  

 
 
 

 
 

Physics

 
 

   


 


 

   V
 Alternating Current

 


 
Physics

 

  
 Alternating Current

2io
13


 


 
Physics


 


 Alternating Current
 

 
Physics


Chapter Eleven

ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Physics

 B l  i

 
 Electromagnetic
Waves

 
 

  
     

  
  



Physics

 

   


    
 Electromagnetic
Waves

  

 


 


    





 

 
Physics




  
   
  


     

 
    
 
      
 Electromagnetic
Waves











Physics
  

  
 
 
   
  




 

 



 Electromagnetic
Waves




Physics

  


  
      
 




     
 Electromagnetic
Waves






 
  


    


 

  
  


  
  

 
Electromagnetic spectrum
hhhh: //h h h .hhhh.hhh/hhh/hhhhhhhhh/h hhh/hhhhh
hhhh://hh hhhhh.hhhh.hhhh.hhh/hhhh/hhhhhhh/
Physics







Electromagnetic
Waves
Physics
Electromagnetic
Waves
Physics







 



     
               
   


     
               
   

  

  

 
 
 Electromagnetic
Waves


–2
Physics
 Electromagnetic
Waves


 


Physics





Electromagnetic
Waves
 Physics

Chapter Twelve

DUAL NATURE OF
RADIATION AND
MATTER
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

 

  
Physics

 
Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
Physics


 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

 


Physics

   





 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter


Physics
 

 

 

 
 





 

   
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter


   

  
   



Physics

 

 
   




  




 






 
 


 
  
 

 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

   

 

  








 

 

 

















 

Physics



 





 



 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter



 
Physics




  

 





 
  
   
 

  




   
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

  

 

   

 
  


. 
. 


 
Physics
±
. 

. 
 



 
  




 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

 




 
   
   



.
 

.
 
Physics





.
 

.
 
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter




 

  

   
Physics





 

  


 
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

 
Physics
Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
Physics




 
 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter

     


Physics

h


 

 Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter


Physics
Dual Nature of Radiation
and Matter
 Physics

Chapter Thirteen

ATOMS
 Atoms


Physics




 Atoms





Physics



















 

 

 Atoms








 
 






 
 


 



Physics




  
 

   
 





  



 
  
 

  

 Atoms




 
   



 
    



Physics




 
   


 
   


 
   


 
   







 
=   
 Atoms



 
    


Physics

 


 Atoms





  

   
    









 

      
      
      









 Physics


 Atoms

  

    

 Physics


  
  
 


 Atoms


 
   
  

 
   
  


Physics

 
   
  



 
  
   


.     


   

  




 Atoms

 

  


 
Physics
 Atoms

 
   

 
   

 
   

 
   

 
   








Physics

   
    






 Atoms


Physics
 Atoms

   
Physics


 Atoms


 Physics

Chapter Fourteen

NUCLEI


 Nuclei






 

  


  
Physics


 Nuclei





Physics





 
 Nuclei


    







Physics
 Nuclei


Physics




  

 



  


  

 

 
 Nuclei

 

   

 

 



 





Physics

 


   






  

   

 





 Nuclei


  

 






 


Physics


 
 

  



  


 

 Nuclei
 

 



 


 

 





Physics

    

    

   


Nuclei
Physics

  

 
 Nuclei

  

 

  
Physics

  

 

  

   


     
 
      
 Nuclei


Physics


 Nuclei

 


   
Physics
 

 


 


 Nuclei

 


  


Physics




 Nuclei






Physics


 Nuclei

 
 

 
 
 




 
Physics

 


 Nuclei



   


 
 

  
Physics



Chapter Fifteen

SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS:
MATERIALS, DEVICES
AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Physics


 

 


 


 

 




Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits


Physics

 


Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics

 


Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics

 




  


 
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits



Physics

× 
 
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

 
 
 
 

 
Physics






 
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits





Physics

 
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits



Physics
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits


Physics

 

 
 
 
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

 

 
 
 

 
  




 

  
 

 

 
    

 


Physics
     
 




 

 

 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

 
 

 

 

  
 

   

  
Physics






  

 
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

  
 

  


 








  


 

 


 
Physics


×


×
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

 
 
 π
Physics
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

(b)

FIGURE 15.36 (a) Logic symbol for OR gage (b) Truth table of OR gate.
Apart from carrying out the above mathematical logic operation, this
gate can be used for modifying the pulse waveform as explained in the
following example.

Example 15.11 Justify the output waveform (Y) of the OR gate for
the following inputs A and B given in Fig. 15.37.
Solution Note the following:
 At t < t1; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
 For t1 to t2; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
 For t2 to t3; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
 For t3 to t4; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
 For t4 to t5; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
 For t5 to t6; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
 For t > t6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
Therefore the waveform Y will be as shown in the Fig. 15.37.
EXAMPLE 15.11

FIGURE 15.37

(iii) AND Gate Input Output

An AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output Y of
AND gate is 1 only when input A and input B are both 1. The logic A B Y
symbol and truth table for this gate are given in Fig. 15.38 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
(b)
FIGURE 15.38 (a) Logic symbol for AND gate, (b) Truth table of AND gate. 555
 Physics
Example 15.12 Take A and B input waveforms similar to that in
Example 15.11. Sketch the output waveform obtained from AND gate.
Solution
 For t  t1; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
 For t1 to t2; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
 For t2 to t3; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
 For t3 to t4; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 0
 For t4 to t5; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
 For t5 to t6; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 0
 For t > t6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 0
Based on the above, the output waveform for AND gate can be drawn
as given below.
EXAMPLE 15.12

FIGURE 15.39

(iv) NAND Gate

This is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. If inputs A and B are both
‘1’, the output Y is not ‘1’. The gate gets its name from this NOT AND
behaviour. Figure 15.40 shows the symbol and truth table of NAND gate.
NAND gates are also called Universal Gates since by using these
gates you can realise other basic gates like OR, AND and NOT (Exercises
15.16 and 15.17).
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
(b)

FIGURE 15.40 (a) Logic symbol for NAND gate, (b) Truth table of NAND gate.

Example 15.13 Sketch the output Y from a NAND gate having inputs
A and B given below:
EXAMPLE 15.13

Solution
 For t < t1; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 0
 For t1 to t2; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
 For t2 to t3; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1
 For t3 to t4; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
556
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

 For t4 to t5; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 0

 For t5 to t6; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 1
 For t > t6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1

EXAMPLE 15.13
FIGURE 15.41

(v) NOR Gate

It has two or more inputs and one output. A NOT- operation applied
after OR gate gives a NOT-OR gate (or simply NOR gate). Its output Y is
‘1’ only when both inputs A and B are ‘0’, i.e., neither one input nor the
other is ‘1’. The symbol and truth table for NOR gate is given in
Fig. 15.42.
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
(b)
FIGURE 15.42 (a) Logic symbol for NOR gate, (b) Truth table of NOR gate.
NOR gates are considered as universal gates because you can obtain
all the gates like AND, OR, NOT by using only NOR gates (Exercises 15.18
and 15.19).

15.11 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The conventional method of making circuits is to choose components
like diodes, transistor, R, L, C etc., and connect them by soldering wires
in the desired manner. Inspite of the miniaturisation introduced by the
discovery of transistors, such circuits were still bulky. Apart from this,
such circuits were less reliable and less shock proof. The concept of
fabricating an entire circuit (consisting of many passive components like
R and C and active devices like diode and transistor) on a small single
block (or chip) of a semiconductor has revolutionised the electronics
technology. Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC). The most
widely used technology is the Monolithic Integrated Circuit. The word 557
Physics
 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits





Physics

 

  
 

  
 
 


 
   

 Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits

 


Physics
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics


 

 
  

 
  
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits
Physics
Chapter Sixteen

COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Physics
Communication System
Physics
Communication System
Physics

    

   



  

 Communication System

 
Physics
 Communication System

 
Physics

 

       

     

   
 Communication System








 

  

 
Physics

 
 

 
 
     

    
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Physics
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WAVES 12
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