ANNA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

GUINDY CHENNAI-600025

NAME : CLASS : M.E. P.E.M (1st Year)

ROLL NO. :

Certified that this is the bonafide record work done by the above student in the

POWER ENGINEERING LABORATORY during the period Oct 2022 – Jan 2023.

Submitted for the practical examination conducted on ____________________

SIGNATURE OF THE LAB-IN-CHARGE INTERNAL EXAMINER

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sl. Page
Date Experiment Name
No. No.

Power flow analysis by Newton Raphson

1. 12.10.2022 3
method

Power Flow Analysis by Fast Decoupled

2. 19.10.2022 12
Method

Distributed Load Flow Analysis by Ladder

3. 26.10.2022 18
Iterative Method

Contingency Analysis: Generation Shift Factors

4. 09.11.2022 22
and Line Outage Distribution Factors

State Estimation by Weighted Least Square

5. 16.11.2022 28
Method

6. 23.11.2022 Voltage Stability: PV and VQ Curves 36

7. 30.11.2022 Characteristics of Solar PV System 40

Characteristics of Wind Energy Conversion

8. 07.12.2022 43
System

Characteristics of Fuel Cell based Energy

9. 14.12.2022 48
Sources

10. 21.12.2022 Power Management in Hybrid Power System 51

2
Ex. No. 1
Power Flow Analysis by Newton Raphson Method
Date:12.10.2022

1. Aim:
To write MATLAB code to solve load flow problem using Newton Raphson method
and to determine amount of reactive power support needed to maintain voltage profile
in a PQ bus.

2. Formulae:
1. Real Power at bus ‘i’:
𝑛
𝑃𝑖 = ∑ |𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ cos(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗=1
2. Reactive Power at bus ‘i’:
𝑛
𝑄𝑖 = − ∑ |𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗=1
3. Real and Reactive Power Mismatch:
Δ𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑑 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
Δ𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑑 − 𝑄𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
4. Correction Matrix:
Δ𝛿 𝐽 𝐽 −1 Δ𝑃
[ ] = [ 1 2] ∗ [ ]
Δ|𝑉| 𝐽3 𝐽4 Δ𝑄
5. Jacobian:
5.1 J1 :
𝜕𝑃𝑖
Diagonal: = ∑𝑛𝑗=1;|𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕𝛿 𝑖
𝑗≠𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝑖
Non-Diagonal: 𝜕𝛿 = −|𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗

5.2 J2 :
𝜕𝑃𝑖
Diagonal: = (2 ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑖 | ∗ cos 𝜃𝑖𝑖 ) + ∑𝑛𝑗=1;|𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗
𝜕𝑉𝑖
𝑗≠𝑖
cos(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕𝑃
Non-Diagonal: 𝜕𝑉 𝑖 = |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ cos(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗

5.3 J3 :
𝜕𝑄𝑖
Diagonal: = ∑𝑛𝑗=1;|𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ cos(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕𝛿𝑖
𝑗≠𝑖
𝜕𝑄𝑖
Non-Diagonal: 𝜕𝛿 = −|𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ cos(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗

5.4 J4 :
𝜕𝑄𝑖
Diagonal: = (−2 ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑖 | ∗ sin 𝜃𝑖𝑖 ) − ∑𝑛𝑗=1;|𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗
𝜕𝑉𝑖
𝑗≠𝑖
sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝜕𝑄
Non-Diagonal: 𝜕𝑉 𝑖 = −|𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗

3
 6. Line Flows:
𝑆𝐿,𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗 + 𝑆𝑗𝑖 𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝐼𝑖𝑗∗ 𝑆𝑗𝑖 = 𝑉𝑗 ∗ 𝐼𝑗𝑖∗
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑗 ) ∗ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝐼𝑗𝑖 = −𝐼𝑖𝑗

3. Algorithm:

Step-1: Start
Step-2: Read the bus and line data
Step-3: Compute the Y Bus using the given line data
Step-4: Set the iteration count ‘k’ to 0 and initialize the bus voltages to 1∠0 for PQ bus and
voltage angle (δ) to 0 for PV bus.
Step-5: Compute power mismatch vector using the appropriate formulae
Step-6: Check for convergence. If converged, go to Step-12.
Δ𝑃𝑘
[ ]≤ 𝜀
Δ𝑄 𝑘
Step-7: Compute Qi for all PV buses.
Step-8: Check for Q limit violation. If there is a violation, convert those PV buses to PQ
buses.
Step-9: Calculate Jacobian matrix.
Step-10: Determine the corrected values.

𝑉𝑖𝑘+1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑘 + Δ𝑉𝑖𝑘

Step-11: Set k=k+1 and go to step-5.
Step-12: Compute the power loss, reactive power generation and line flows.

4. System Data:

Base MVA=100MVA
Line Details:

4
Bus Details:
Bus No. Type P Q |V| δ
Pg Pd Qg Qd
1 Slack - - - - 1.05 0
2 PQ 0 4 0 2.5 - -
3 PV 2 0 - - 1.04 -

5. Program:
clc
% sb eb r x
linedata = [1 2 0.02 0.04
1 3 0.01 0.03
2 3 0.0125 0.025];
% bus type V del Pg Qg Pd Qd Qmin Qmax
busdata = [ 1 1 1.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;
2 2 1 0 0 0 4 2.5 0
100;
3 3 1.04 0 2 0 0 0 0 0];
%Ybus matrix
sb = linedata(:,1);
eb = linedata(:,2);
r = linedata(:,3);
x = linedata(:,4);
z = r + 1i*x;
y = 1./z;

nbus = 3;
nl = max(eb);
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);

for k = 1:nl
Y(sb(k),eb(k)) = Y(sb(k),eb(k)) - y(k);
Y(eb(k),sb(k)) = Y(eb(k),sb(k))-y(k);
Y(sb(k),sb(k))= Y(sb(k),sb(k))+y(k);
Y(eb(k),eb(k))= Y(eb(k),eb(k))+y(k);
end
Y

[thetha, rho] = cart2pol(real(Y), imag(Y));

rho= abs(Y);
thetha= rad2deg(angle(Y));

bus= busdata(:,1);
type= busdata(:,2);
V = busdata(:,3);
del = busdata(:,4);
Pg = busdata(:,5);
Qg = busdata(:,6);
Pl = busdata(:,7);
Ql = busdata(:,8);
Qmin = busdata(:,9);
Qmax = busdata(:,10);
Psp = Pg - Pl;
Qsp = Qg - Ql;
G= real(Y);
B= imag(Y);

5
pv = find(type == 3);
pq = find(type == 2);
npv = 1;
npq = 1;

Tol=0.001;
Iter=1;
while(Tol>0.0001)
Iter=Iter
Vcomp=zeros(nbus,1);
P= zeros(nbus,1);
S= zeros(nbus,1);
for i = 1:nbus
Vcomp(i)= V(i)*exp(i*del(i));
end
Q= zeros(nbus,1);
for i= 2:nbus %to calculate Pcal and Qcal
for k= 1:nbus
P(i)=P(i)+(V(i)*V(k)*(G(i,k)*cos(del(i)-del(k)) +
B(i,k)*sin(del(i)-del(k))));
S(i)= S(i)+ conj(Vcomp(i))*Vcomp(k)*Y(i,k);
Q(i)= Q(i)+(V(i)*V(k)*(G(i,k)*sin(del(i)-del(k)) -
B(i,k)*cos(del(i)-del(k))));
end

end
delP=Psp-P;
delQ=Qsp-Q;
k = 1;
dQ = zeros(npq,1);
for i = 1:nbus
if type(i) == 2
dQ(k,1) = delQ(i);
k = k+1;
end
end
dP= delP(2:nbus);
M=[dP;dQ]; %delta P and delta Q
M
%J1
J1 = zeros(nbus-1,nbus-1);
for i = 1:(nbus-1)
m = i+1;
for k = 1:(nbus-1)
n = k+1;
if n == m
for n = 1:nbus
J1(i,k) = J1(i,k) + V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-
del(n)) + B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
end
J1(i,k) = J1(i,k) - V(m)^2*B(m,m);
else
J1(i,k) = V(m)* V(n)*(G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) -
B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
end
end
end

% J2
J2 = zeros(nbus-1,npq);
for i = 1:(nbus-1)

6
 m = i+1;
for k = 1:npq
n = pq(k);
if n == m
for n = 1:nbus
J2(i,k) = J2(i,k) + V(n)*(G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) +
B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
end
J2(i,k) = J2(i,k) + V(m)*G(m,m);
else
J2(i,k) = V(m)*(G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) +
B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
end
end
end

% J3
J3 = zeros(npq,nbus-1);
for i = 1:npq
m = pq(i);
for k = 1:(nbus-1)
n = k+1;
if n == m
for n = 1:nbus
J3(i,k) = J3(i,k) + V(m)* V(n)*(G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-
del(n)) + B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
end
J3(i,k) = J3(i,k) - V(m)^2*G(m,m);
else
J3(i,k) = V(m)* V(n)*(-G(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)) -
B(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)));
end
end
end

% J4
J4 = zeros(npq,npq);
for i = 1:npq
m = pq(i);
for k = 1:npq
n = pq(k);
if n == m
for n = 1:nbus
J4(i,k) = J4(i,k) + V(n)*(G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) -
B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
end
J4(i,k) = J4(i,k) - V(m)*B(m,m);
else
J4(i,k) = V(m)*(G(m,n)*sin(del(m)-del(n)) -
B(m,n)*cos(del(m)-del(n)));
end
end
end

J = [J1 J2; J3 J4];

J %jacobian matrix
X= J\M;
X %state Vector
ddel = X(1:nbus-1);
ddel %change in voltage angle
dVmag = X(nbus:end);

7
 dVmag %change in voltage magnitude
%for 2nd iteration:
% Update State Vectors
del(2:nbus) = ddel + del(2:nbus)
k = 1;
for i = 2:nbus
if type(i) == 2
V(i) = dVmag(k)*V(i) + V(i)
k = k+1;
end
end
Tol=max(abs(M));
Iter=Iter+1;
end

% Bus Current Injections

Iij = zeros(nbus,nbus);
Sij = zeros(nbus,nbus);

%Line Current Flows..

for n = 1:nl
p= sb(n);
q = eb(n);
Iij(p,q) = (Vcomp(p) - Vcomp(q))*Y(p,q);
Iij(q,p) = (Vcomp(q) - Vcomp(p))*Y(q,p);
end
cIij= conj(Iij); %taking conjugate
cIij
Iijr = real(Iij);
Iiji = imag(Iij);
% Line Power Flows..
for m = 1:nl
p=sb(m);
q=eb(m);
Sij(p,q) = Vcomp(p)*(cIij(p,q));
Sij(q,p)=Vcomp(q)*(cIij(q,p));
end
Sij
Pij = real(Sij);
Qij = imag(Sij);
% Line Losses..
Lij = zeros(nl,1);
for m = 1:nl
p = sb(m); q = eb(m);
Lij(p,q) = Sij(p,q) + Sij(q,p);
end
Lij
Lpij = real(Lij);
Lqij = imag(Lij);
%slack bus power
SBP=0;
for i=1
for j=2:nl
SBP=SBP+Sij(i,j);
end
end
SBP

8
 6. Output:
Ybus matrix:

20.0000 -50.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i -10.0000 +30.0000i

-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -52.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i
-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i 26.0000 -62.0000i

Iteration 1:

Mismatch
-2.8600
1.4384
-0.2200

Jacobian
54.2800 -33.2800 24.8600
-33.2800 66.0400 -16.6400
-27.1400 16.6400 49.7200

State Vector
-0.0453
-0.0077
-0.0265

New Delta
0
-0.0453
-0.0077

New Voltage magintude

1.0500
0.9735
1.0400
Iteration 2:
Mismatch
-0.0992
0.0217
-0.0509

Jacobian
51.7247 -31.7656 21.3026
-32.9816 65.6564 -15.3791
-28.5386 17.4028 48.1036

State Vector
-0.0018
-0.0010
-0.0018

New Delta
0

9
 -0.0471
-0.0087

New Voltage magnitude

1.0500
0.9717
1.0400
Iteration 3:
Mismatch
-0.0012
0.0008
-0.0024

Jacobian
51.5992 -31.6954 21.1499
-32.9355 65.5992 -15.3516
-28.5496 17.3978 47.9597

State Vector
1.0e-04*

-0.0385
-0.0239
-0.5133

New Delta
0
-0.0471
-0.0087

New Voltage magnitude

1.0500
0.9717
1.0400
Iteration 4:
Mismatch
1.0e-04 *

-0.3076
0.2228
-0.6971

Jacobian
51.5965 -31.6937 21.1472
-32.9338 65.5975 -15.3516
-28.5482 17.3969 47.9546

State Vector
1.0e-05 *

-0.0001
-0.0001
-0.1454

10
 New Delta
0
-0.0471
-0.0087

New Voltage magnitude

1.0500
0.9717
1.0400
Power flow in the lines:
S12 S13 S23 S21 S31 S32
1.7936 + 0.3906 + -2.2903 - -1.7097 - -0.3888 - 2.3888 +
1.1873i 0.2212i 1.4805i 1.0194i 0.2157i 1.6774i

Line Losses:
SL12 SL13 SL23
0.0839 + 0.1679i 0.0018 + 0.0055i 0.0985 + 0.1969i

Slack bus power:

-2.1862 - 1.4078i

7. Result:
MATLAB code to solve load flow problem using Newton Raphson has been
successfully executed and reactive power support for maintaining voltage profile is also
determined.

11
Ex. No. 2 Power Flow Analysis by Fast Decoupled Method
Date: 19.10.2022
1. Aim:
To write MATLAB code to solve load flow problem using Fast Decoupled method
and to determine amount of reactive power support needed to maintain voltage profile
in a PQ bus.

2. Formulae:
7. Real Power at bus ‘i’:
𝑛
𝑃𝑖 = ∑ |𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ cos(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗=1
8. Reactive Power at bus ‘i’:
𝑛
𝑄𝑖 = − ∑ |𝑉𝑗 | ∗ |𝑉𝑖 | ∗ |𝑌𝑖𝑗 | ∗ sin(𝜃𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑗 − 𝛿𝑖 )
𝑗=1
9. Real and Reactive Power Mismatch:
Δ𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑑 − 𝑃𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
Δ𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑑 − 𝑄𝑖,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
10. Correction Matrix:
[Δ𝛿] = [𝐵′]−1 ∗ [∆𝑃/|𝑉|]
[Δ𝑉] = [𝐵"]−1 ∗ [∆𝑄/|𝑉|]
B' corresponds to suceptances of all buses except slack bus.
B'' corresponds to susceptances of PQ buses.
11. Line Flows:
𝑆𝐿,𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗 + 𝑆𝑗𝑖 𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝐼𝑖𝑗∗ 𝑆𝑗𝑖 = 𝑉𝑗 ∗ 𝐼𝑗𝑖∗
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑗 ) ∗ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝐼𝑗𝑖 = −𝐼𝑖𝑗
3. Algorithm:

Step-1: Start
Step-2: Read the bus and line data
Step-3: Compute the Y Bus using the given line data
Step-4: Compute the B' and B'' matrix from Y Bus
Step-5: Set the iteration count ‘k’ to 0 and initialize the bus voltages to 1∠0 for PQ bus
and voltage angle (δ) to 0 for PV bus.
Step-6: Compute power mismatch vector using the appropriate formulae
Step-7: Check for convergence. If converged, go to Step-12.
∆𝑃𝑘
[ 𝑘] ≤ ε
∆𝑄
Step-8: Compute Qi for all PV buses.

12
Step-9: Check for Q limit violation. If there is a violation, convert those PV buses to PQ
buses.
Step-10: Determine the corrected values.
𝑉𝑖𝑘+1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑘 +∆𝑉𝑖𝑘

𝛿𝑖𝑘+1 = 𝛿𝑖𝑘 +∆𝛿𝑖𝑘

Step-11: Set k=k+1 and go to step-5.
Step-12: Compute the power loss, reactive power generation and line flows
4. System Data:

Base MVA=100MVA
Line Details:

Bus Details:
Bus Type Voltage Delta Pg Qg Pd Qd Qmin Qmax

1 1 1.05 0 - - - - - -

2 2 1 0 0 0 4 2.5 - -

3 3 1.04 0 2 0 0 0 0 100

Line data:
Starting Bus Ending Bus Resistance Reactance
1 2 0.02 0.04
2 3 0.01 0.03
1 3 0.0125 0.025

13
 5. Program:
clc
% sb eb R X
linedata = [ 1 2 0.02 0.04
1 3 0.01 0.03
2 3 0.0125 0.025];
% Bus Type V del Pg Qg Pl Ql Qmin
Qmax
busdata = [1 1 1.05 0 0 0 0 0
0 0;
2 2 1 0 0 0 4 2.5
0 100;
3 3 1.04 0 2 0 0 0
0 0];

sb = linedata(:,1);
eb = linedata(:,2);
r = linedata(:,3);
x = linedata(:,4);
z = r + 1i*x;
y = 1./z;

nbus = 3;
nl = max(eb); %no of lines
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);

for k = 1:nl
Y(sb(k),sb(k))= Y(sb(k),sb(k))+y(k);
Y(eb(k),eb(k))= Y(eb(k),eb(k))+y(k);
Y(sb(k),eb(k)) = Y(sb(k),eb(k))- y(k);
Y(eb(k),sb(k)) = Y(eb(k),sb(k))-y(k);
end

[thetha, rho] = cart2pol(real(Y), imag(Y));

rho= abs(Y);
thetha= rad2deg(angle(Y));
G= real(Y);
B= imag(Y);
Y

bus= busdata(:,1);
type= busdata(:,2);
V = busdata(:,3);
del = busdata(:,4);
Pg = busdata(:,5);
Qg = busdata(:,6);
Pl = busdata(:,7);
Ql = busdata(:,8);
Qmin = busdata(:,9);
Qmax = busdata(:,10);
Psp = Pg - Pl;
Qsp = Qg - Ql;
slackbus= find(bus==1);
pv = find(bus == 3);
pq = find(bus == 2);
npv = 1;
npq = 1;

Tol=0.001
Iter=1;
while(Tol>0.0001)
Iter=Iter
Vcomp=zeros(nbus,1);
P= zeros(nbus,1);
for i=1:nbus
Vcomp(i)= V(i)*exp(i*del(i));

14
 end
for i= 2:nbus
for k= 1:nbus
P(i)=P(i)+(V(i)*V(k)*(G(i,k)*cos(del(i)-del(k)) + B(i,k)*sin(del(i)-
del(k))));
end
end

%finding del P by V
for i=1:nbus
delP(i,1)= (Psp(i)-P(i));
dPbyV(i,1)= delP(i,1)/V(i,1);
end
delPbyV=dPbyV(2:3);
delPbyV
%B prime
bp= -B;
bp(slackbus,:) = [];
bp(:,slackbus) = [];
bp
xdel=inv(bp)*delPbyV;
xdel
%Update state vector
del(2:nbus)=del(2:nbus)+xdel
ddel=del(2:nbus)*(180/pi)
%to calculate Qcal
Q= zeros(nbus,1);
for i= 2:nbus
for k= 1:nbus
Q(i)= Q(i)+(V(i)*V(k)*(G(i,k)*sin(del(i)-del(k)) - B(i,k)*cos(del(i)-
del(k))));
end
end
%finding del Q by v
c=0;
for i=1:nbus
if type(i)==2
c=c+1;
delQ(c,1)= (Qsp(i)-Q(i));
dQbyV(c,1)= delQ(c,1)/V(i,1);
end
end
dQbyV
%to find B double prime
bpp= -B;
K=[find(type==1);find(type==3)];
bpp(K,:)=[];
bpp(:,K)=[];
bpp
cVmag= inv(bpp)*dQbyV;
cVmag
%update the state vector
k = 1;
for i = 2:nbus
if type(i) == 2
V(i) = cVmag(k) + V(i)
k = k+1;
end
end
M=[xdel;cVmag];
M
Tol=max(abs(M));
Iter=Iter+1;
end
% Bus Current Injections
Iij = zeros(nbus,nbus);
Sij = zeros(nbus,nbus);

15
%Line Current Flows
for n = 1:nl
p= sb(n);
q = eb(n);
Iij(p,q) = -(Vcomp(p) - Vcomp(q))*Y(p,q);
Iij(q,p) = -(Vcomp(q) - Vcomp(p))*Y(q,p);
end
cIij= conj(Iij); %taking conjugate
cIij
Iijr = real(Iij);
Iiji = imag(Iij);
% Line Power Flows
for m = 1:nl
p=sb(m);
q=eb(m);
Sij(p,q) = Vcomp(p)*(cIij(p,q));
Sij(q,p)=Vcomp(q)*(cIij(q,p));
end
Sij
Pij = real(Sij);
Qij = imag(Sij);
% Line Losses
Lij = zeros(nl,1);
for m = 1:nl
p = sb(m);
q = eb(m);
Lij(p,q) = Sij(p,q) + Sij(q,p);
end
Lij
Lpij = real(Lij);
Lqij = imag(Lij);
%slack bus power
SBP=0;
for i=1
for j=2:nl
SBP=SBP+Lij(i,j);
end
end
SBP

6. Output:
Ybus Matrix
20.0000 -50.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i -10.0000 +30.0000i

-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -52.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i

-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i 26.0000 -62.0000i

B prime
52 −32
[ ]
−32 −6
B double prime
[ 52 ]

16
 Iteration results
Iteratio Del P by V Change in delta Del Q by Change in
n no (in radians) V Voltage
Δ𝑃2 /𝑉2 Δ𝑃3 /𝑉3 Δ𝛿2 Δ𝛿3 Δ𝑄2 /𝑉2 Magnitude
𝑉3𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑉3𝑜𝑙𝑑 +
Δ𝑉3

1 -2.8600 1.3831 -0.0605 -0.0089 - 0.9655

1.7951
2 0.8382 -0.5023 -0.0442 -0.0086 0.3887 0.9730
3 - -0.0477 - 0.9714
0.1778 0.1032 0.0087 -
0.0804
4 0.0375 -0.0215 -0.0469 -0.0087 0.0171 0.9717
5 -0.0080 0.0046 -0.0471 -0.0087 -0.0036 0.9717
6 0.0017 -0.0010 -0.0471 -0.0087 7.6869e- 0.9717
04

Line Power Flow

S12 S13 S21 S23 S31 S32
-1.7943 - -0.3907 - 1.7103 + 2.2913 + 0.3888 + -2.3898 -
1.1873i 0.2212i 1.0194i 1.4804i 0.2157i 1.6775i

Line Losses
SL12 SL13 SL23
-0.0840 - 0.1680i -0.0018 - 0.0055i -0.0985 - 0.1971i

Slack Bus Power

-2.1850 - 1.4085i

7. Result:
MATLAB code to solve load flow problem using Fast Decoupled has been
successfully executed and reactive power support for maintaining voltage profile is also
determined.

17
Ex. No. 3 Distributed Load Flow Analysis by Ladder Iterative
Date: 26.10.2022 Method
1. Aim:
To write MATLAB code to solve distributed load flow problem using ladder iterative
method.

2. Formulae:
• Backward sweep:

Node Current:
𝐼∗ = 𝑆 ∗/ 𝑉 ∗
• Forward sweep:
Line drop
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 x 𝑍𝐿

Receiving end voltage

𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑠 - 𝑉𝐿
3. Algorithm:

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 : Set the iteration count 'k' equal to 0. Initialize the initial current to zero and Initial
voltage to 1+j0.

Step 3 : Compute the Node current using the appropriate formulae

Step 4 : Compute the Branch current Ib using Kirchhoff current law
Step 5 : Calculate the Line drop
Step 6 : Compute the Bus voltages based on the line drop

Step 7 : Check for convergence: if V≤ 𝜀,if converged got to next step or set k=k+1 and
go to step-3

4. System Data:
LINE DATA:

STARTING BUS ENDING BUS RESISTANCE REACTANCE

1 2 0.08 0.06
2 3 0.1 0.09
2 4 0.12 0.1
LOAD DATA:
Bus No Voltage Delta Pg Pd
1 1 0 0.6 0.2
2 0.98 0 0.5 0.2
3 0.98 0 0.3 0.1
4 0.98 0 0.5 0.2

18
 5. Program:
clc
% sb eb R X
linedata= [ 1 2 0.08 0.06;
2 3 0.1 0.09;
2 4 0.12 0.1];
% Bus Type V del Pg Qg Pd Qd
Qmin Qmax
busdata = [1 1 1 0 0 0 0.6 0.2
0 0;
2 2 0.98 0 0 0 0.5 0.2
0 0;
3 2 0.98 0 0 0 0.3 0.1
0 0;
4 2 0.98 0 0 0 0.5 0.2
0 0];
sb= linedata(:,1);
eb= linedata(:,2);
R=linedata(:,3);
X=linedata(:,4);
Z= R+1i*X;
Y= 1./Z;
V= busdata(:,3);
del= busdata(:,4);
Pd= busdata(:,7);
Qd= busdata(:,8);
S=Pd+1i*Qd;
nline=size(linedata);
nline=nline(1);%no of lines
nbus= size(busdata);
nbus=nbus(1);%no of buses

Iter=1;
while(Iter<5)
Iter=Iter
Iij=zeros(nline,1);
I=conj(S./V);
I
for i=nline:-1:1
crb=eb(i);%current recieving bus
icrb=find(sb==crb);%Current recieving bus as sending bus
Iij(i)=I(crb)+sum(Iij(icrb));
end
Iij
Voldmag=V
for i=2:nbus
cbus=find(eb==i);%currentbus/recieving bus
s_cbus=sb(cbus);%currentbus as sending bus
V(i)=V(s_cbus)-(Iij(cbus).*Z(cbus));
end
V %New Voltage
if(all(abs((Voldmag-V)./Voldmag)<0.001))
break;
end
Iter=Iter+1;

19
 end
%Line Current FLow
Iij=zeros(nbus,1);
for i=1:nline
p=sb(i);
q=eb(i);
Y=inv(Z(i));
Iij(p,q)=(V(p)-V(q)).*Y;
Iij(q,p)=(V(q)-V(p)).*Y;
end
cIij=conj(Iij)
%Line Power Flow
Sij=zeros(nbus,1);
for i=1:nline
p=sb(i);
q=eb(i);
Sij(p,q)= V(p).*(cIij(p,q));
Sij(q,p)= V(q).*(cIij(q,p));
end
Sij
%Line Losses
Lij=zeros(nbus,nbus);
for i=1:nline
p=sb(i);
q=eb(i);
Lij(p,q)=Sij(p,q)+Sij(q,p);
end
Lij

5. Output:
Bus Current
Iteration 𝐼2 𝐼3 𝐼4
1 0.5102 - 0.3061 - 0.5102 -
0.2041i 0.1020i 0.2041i
2 0.5676 - 0.3544 - 0.6140 -
0.2572i 0.1456i 0.3072i
3 0.5879 - 0.3715 - 0.6579 -
0.2646i 0.1521i 0.3279i
4 0.5932 - 0.3758 - 0.6697 -
0.2691i 0.1560i 0.3400i

Branch Current
Iteration 𝐼12
1 1.3265 - 0.5102i
2 1.5361 - 0.7099i
3 1.6173 - 0.7446i
4 1.6387 - 0.7650i

20
 Voltage Magnitude
Iteration 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉4
1 0.8633 - 0.0388i 0.8235 - 0.0561i 0.7816 - 0.0653i
2 0.8345 - 0.0354i 0.7860 - 0.0527i 0.7301 - 0.0599i
3 0.8259 - 0.0375i 0.7751 - 0.0557i 0.7142 - 0.0639i
4 0.8230 - 0.0371i 0.7714 - 0.0553i 0.7086 - 0.0633i

Line Power Flow

𝑆12 𝑆23 𝑆24 𝑆21 𝑆32 𝑆42
1.6387 + 0.3151 + 0.5638 + -1.3770 - -0.2985 - -0.4961 -
0.7650i 0.1145i 0.2549i 0.5688i 0.0996i 0.1985i

Line Losses
𝐿12 𝐿23 𝐿24
0.2616 + 0.1962i 0.0166 + 0.0149i 0.0677 + 0.0564i

6. Result:
The distribution load flow analysis of a given network is performed using Ladder
iterative method in MATLAB.
1) The Bus voltages.
2) Line flows.
3) Line losses are determined.

21
Ex. No.4 Contingency Analysis: Generation Shift Factors and Line Outage

Date: 09.11.2022 Distribution Factors

AIM:

To perform contingency analysis for Generator shift factors and line outage
distribution factor.

FORMULAE:

1. Basic required matrices:

[X]=[B’]-1
θ= XP
2. PTDF:

3. LODF:

4. Change in power flow:

5. Required change to reduce outage.

For Generator Outage:

For Transmission Line Outage:

∆𝑓𝑙 = [𝑃𝑇𝐷𝐹𝑖,𝑗,𝑙 + 𝑃𝑇𝐷𝐹𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 𝐿𝑂𝐷𝐹𝑙,𝑘 ] ΔP𝑖,𝑗

ALGORITHM:

Step 1 : Set system model to initial conditions

Step 2 : Set i=1
Step 3 : Simulate an outage of generator i using the system model.
Step 4 : Check any line flows exceed limits, if yes display alarm message and go to Step 5. Or else go
to Step 5 directly.
Step 5 : Check any bus voltages outside limit, if yes display alarm message and go to Step 6. Or else
go to Step 6 directly.
Step 6 : Check last generator done. If no go to Step 3. If yes go to Step 7
Step 7 : Set l=1.

22
 Step 8 : Simulate an outage of line l using the system model.
Step 9: Check any line flows exceeds limit. If yes display alarm message and go to Step 10. Or else
go to Step 10 directly.

Step 10: Check any bus voltage outside limit. If yes end the process. If no set l=l+1 and go to Step 8.

SYSTEM DATA:

FROM BUS TO BUS REACTANCE MW LIMIT

1 2 0.20 35.0
1 3 0.30 35.0
1 4 0.30 25.0
2 3 0.30 40.0
3 4 0.40 25.0

STARTING ENDING MW LINE LINE GENERATOR POWER

NODE NODE RESISTANCE REACTANCE LIMIT OUTAGE NUMBER CHANGE SHIFT
1 2 0 0.2 0.35 0 1 0 1
1 3 0 0.3 0.35 0 2 1 0
1 4 0 0.3 0.25 0 3 0 0
2 3 0 0.3 0.4 0 4 0 0
3 4 0 0.4 0.25 0 5 0 0
PROGRAM:

clc
%FROM TO REACTANCE MW LIMIT
linedata=[1 2 0.20 35.0
1 3 0.30 35.0
1 4 0.30 25.0
2 3 0.30 40.0
3 4 0.40 25.0 ];
% sb eb R X Half MW Limit Line Line Gen
Power_Shift
% charge outage No Change

23
busdata=[1 2 0 0.2 0 0.35 0 1 0 1
1 3 0 0.3 0 0.35 0 2 1 0
1 4 0 0.3 0 0.25 0 3 0 0
2 3 0 0.3 0 0.4 0 4 0 0
3 4 0 0.4 0 0.25 0 5 0 0
];
s = linedata(:,1);
e = linedata(:,2);
x = linedata(:,3);
z = 1i*x;
y = 1./z;
nbus = max(max(busdata(:,1)),max(busdata(:,2))) %no of bus
nl = max(e)+1; %no of lines
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);

for k = 1:nl
Y(s(k),s(k))= Y(s(k),s(k))+y(k);
Y(e(k),e(k))= Y(e(k),e(k))+y(k);
Y(s(k),e(k)) = Y(s(k),e(k))- y(k);
Y(e(k),s(k)) = Y(e(k),s(k))-y(k);
end

[thetha, rho] = cart2pol(real(Y), imag(Y));

rho= abs(Y);
thetha= rad2deg(angle(Y));
G= real(Y);
B= imag(Y);
Y

sb=busdata(:,1);
eb=busdata(:,2);
L=busdata(:,6); %MW Limit
Gsh=busdata(:,9); %Gen Change
ne=length(busdata(:,1));%number of branches in system
ns=max(linedata(:,1));
type= linedata(:,2);
pv=find(type==2|type==3);
slackbus=min(sb);
P=[ 0.30;-0.30;-0.30];
%B prime
bp= -B;
bp(slackbus,:) = [];
bp(:,slackbus) = [];
bp
X= inv(bp)
del= X*P

P_line=zeros(nl,1); %Power Flow

del= [0;
0.0177;
-0.0456;
-0.0710];

for i=1:length(sb)
n=sb(i);
m=eb(i);

24
 Pline(i)=(del(n)-del(m))/x(i)*100;
end
Pline
Xd=zeros(nbus,nbus);
for i=2:nbus
for k=2:nbus
Xd(i,k)=Xd(i,k)+X(i-1,k-1);
end
end
Xd
b=1./x
ptdf=zeros(ne,ne); %PTDF
for i=1:ne
for k=1:ne
ptdf(i,k)=b(i)*((Xd(sb(i),sb(k))- Xd(sb(i),eb(k)))-(Xd(eb(i),sb(k))-
Xd(eb(i),eb(k))));

end
end
ptdf

lodf=zeros(ne,ne); %LODF
for i=1:ne
for k=1:ne
lodf(i,k) = ptdf(i,k)/(1-b(k)*((Xd(sb(k),sb(k))-
Xd(sb(k),eb(k)))-(Xd(eb(k),sb(k))-Xd(eb(k),eb(k)))));
end
end
for i=1:ne
lodf(i,i)=-1;
end
lodf
%change in flow with putage of line 1-2
cif= zeros(ne,1);
cif= Pline(1,1)*lodf(:,1)
net_flow= zeros(ne,1);
net_flow(1,1)=0;
net_flow(2,1)=Pline(1,2)+cif(2,1);
net_flow(3,1)=Pline(1,3)+cif(3,1);
net_flow(4,1)=Pline(1,4)+cif(4,1);
net_flow(5,1)=Pline(1,5)+cif(5,1);
net_flow
if(net_flow>linedata(:,4))
fprintf('There is a limit violation');
else
fprintf('There is no limit violation');
end
%Limit violation in the line 3-4
df=linedata(5,4)-net_flow(5,1);
dP14=df/(-ptdf(5,3))+ptdf(5,4)*lodf(5,1)
fprintf('amount of gen reduced= 3.3558');

25
OUTPUT:

Ybus

0.0000 - 0.0000 + 0.0000 + 0.0000 +

11.6667i 5.0000i 3.3333i 3.3333i
0.0000 + 0.0000 - 0.0000 + 0.0000 +
5.0000i 8.3333i 3.3333i 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.0000 + 0.0000 - 0.0000 +
3.3333i 3.3333i 9.1667i 2.5000i
0.0000 + 0.0000 + 0.0000 + 0.0000 -
3.3333i 0.0000i 2.5000i 5.8333i
B Prime

8.3333 -3.3333 0.0000

-3.3333 9.1667 -2.5000

0.0000 -2.5000 5.8333

0.1437 0.0592 0.0254

0.0592 0.1479 0.0634

0.0254 0.0634 0.1986

Del

0.0177

-0.0456

-0.0710

Pline =

-8.8500 15.2000 23.6667 21.1000 6.3500

PTDF

0.7183 0.2958 0.1268 -0.4225 -0.1690

0.1972 0.4930 0.2113 0.2958 -0.2817

0.0845 0.2113 0.6620 0.1268 0.4507

-0.2817 0.2958 0.1268 0.5775 -0.1690

-0.0845 -0.2113 0.3380 -0.1268 0.5493

26
 LODF

0.0000 0.5833 0.3750 -1.0000 -0.3750

0.7000 0.0000 0.6250 0.7000 -0.6250

0.3000 0.4167 0.0000 0.3000 1.0000

-1.0000 0.5833 0.3750 0.0000 -0.3750

-0.3000 -0.4167 1.0000 -0.3000 0.0000

Net Flow

0.0000

9.0050

21.0117

29.9500

9.0050

dP14 = -47.2805

amount of gen reduced= 3.3558

RESULT:
A MATLAB program to perform contingency analysis for Generator shift factors and
line outage distribution factor is coded and output is verified.

27
Ex no. 5
State Estimation by Weighted Least Square Method
Date: 16.11.2022

1. Aim:

To create a MATLAB program to find the state estimation of a network

2. Formula Used:

ΔX=

3. Algorithm:

28
4. System Data:

LINE DATA:
Line From To Resistance Reactance
1 1 2 0 0.1000
2 2 3 0 0.2500

METER DATA:

S.No Type Value (p.u) SD

1 P12 0.888 0.008
2 P13 1.173 0.008
3 P2 -0.501 0.010
4 Q12 0.568 0.008
5 Q13 0.663 0.008
6 Q2 -0.286 0.010
7 V1 1.006 0.004
8 V2 0.968 0.004

5. Program:
clc
% sb eb r x
linedata = [1 2 0.01 0.03
1 3 0.02 0.05
2 3 0.03 0.08];
% bus type V
busdata = [ 1 1 1.00
2 2 1.0
3 3 1.00];
% Measurement,i Type Value(p.u) From To Rii
measurementdata= [ 1 1 0.888 1 2 0.008
2 1 1.173 1 3 0.008
3 2 -0.501 2 0 0.010
4 3 0.568 1 2 0.008
5 3 0.663 1 3 0.008
6 4 -0.268 2 0 0.010
7 5 1.006 1 0 0.004
8 5 0.968 2 0 0.004];
%Ybus matrix
sb = linedata(:,1);
eb = linedata(:,2);
r = linedata(:,3);
x = linedata(:,4);
z = r + 1i*x;
y = 1./z;

29
nbus = 3;
nl = max(eb);
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);
for k = 1:nl
Y(sb(k),eb(k)) = Y(sb(k),eb(k)) - y(k);
Y(eb(k),sb(k)) = Y(eb(k),sb(k))-y(k);
Y(sb(k),sb(k))= Y(sb(k),sb(k))+y(k);
Y(eb(k),eb(k))= Y(eb(k),eb(k))+y(k);
end
Y

[thetha, rho] = cart2pol(real(Y), imag(Y));

rho= abs(Y);
thetha= rad2deg(angle(Y));
G= real(Y);
B= imag(Y);
G
B
g(1,2)=10;
g(1,3)=6.9;
g(2,3)=4.1;
b(1,2)=-30;
b(1,3)=-17.2;
b(2,3)=-10.9;
P12=measurementdata(1,3);
P13=measurementdata(2,3);
P2=measurementdata(3,3);
Q12=measurementdata(4,3);
Q13=measurementdata(5,3);
Q2=measurementdata(6,3);
V1=measurementdata(7,3);
V2=measurementdata(8,3);
V3=1.0;

%initializing state vector

X0=[ 0 ; 0; 1; 1; 1];
DEL1=0;
DEL2=X0(1,1);
DEL3=X0(2,1);
V1MAG=X0(3,1);
V2MAG=X0(4,1);
V3MAG=X0(5,1);
GS1=0;
BS1=0;
Iter=1;
while( Iter<4)
Iter=Iter

%JACOBIAN MATRIX%
%To calculate Pij
H(1,1)=-V1MAG*V2MAG*((g(1,2)*sin(DEL1-DEL2))-(b(1,2)*cos(DEL1-
DEL2)));
H(1,3)=-V2MAG*((g(1,2)*cos(DEL1DEL2))+(b(1,2)*sin(DEL1-
DEL2)))+2*(g(1,2)+GS1)*V1MAG;
H(1,4)=-V1MAG*(g(1,2)*cos(DEL1-DEL2)+(b(1,2)*sin(DEL1-DEL2)));

30
 H(2,2)=-V1MAG*V3MAG*((g(1,3)*sin(DEL1-DEL3))-(b(1,3)*cos(DEL1-
DEL3)));
H(2,3)=-V3MAG*((g(1,3)*cos(DEL1-DEL3))+(b(1,3)*sin(DEL1-
DEL3)))+2*(g(1,3)+GS1)*V1MAG;
H(2,5)=-V1MAG*(g(1,3)*cos(DEL1-DEL3)+(b(1,3)*sin(DEL1-DEL3)));
%To calculate Pi
H(3,1)=V2MAG*V1MAG*(-G(2,1)*sin(DEL2-DEL1))+(B(2,1)*cos(DEL2-
DEL1))+V2MAG*V2MAG*(-G(2,2)*sin(DEL2-DEL2))+(B(2,2)*cos(DEL2-
DEL2))+V2MAG*V3MAG*(-G(2,3)*sin(DEL2-DEL3))+(B(2,3)*cos(DEL2-
DEL3))-(V2MAG*V2MAG*B(2,2));
H(3,2)=-V2MAG*V3MAG*(G(2,3)*sin(DEL2-DEL3)+B(2,3)*cos(DEL2-
DEL3));
H(3,3)=V2MAG*(G(2,1)*cos(DEL2-DEL1)-B(2,1)*sin(DEL2-DEL1));
H(3,4)=(V1MAG*(G(2,1)*cos(DEL2-DEL1)+B(2,1)*sin(DEL2-
DEL1)))+(V2MAG*(G(2,2)*cos(DEL2-DEL2)+B(2,2)*sin(DEL2-
DEL2)))+(V3MAG*(G(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3)+B(2,3)*sin(DEL2-
DEL3)))+(V2MAG*G(2,2));
H(3,5)=(V2MAG*(G(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3)+B(2,3)*sin(DEL2-DEL3)));
%To calculate Qij
H(4,1)=V1MAG*V2MAG*((g(1,2)*cos(DEL1-DEL2))+(b(1,2)*sin(DEL1-
DEL2)));
H(4,3)=-V2MAG*((g(1,2)*sin(DEL1-DEL2))-(b(1,2)*cos(DEL1-DEL2)))-
2*(b(1,2)+BS1)*V1MAG;
H(4,4)=-V1MAG*(g(1,2)*sin(DEL1-DEL2)-(b(1,2)*cos(DEL1-DEL2)));

H(5,2)=V1MAG*V3MAG*((g(1,3)*cos(DEL1-DEL3))+(b(1,3)*sin(DEL1-
DEL3)));
H(5,3)=-V3MAG*((g(1,3)*sin(DEL1-DEL3))-(b(1,3)*cos(DEL1-DEL3)))-
2*(b(1,3)+BS1)*V1MAG;
H(5,5)=-V1MAG*(g(1,3)*sin(DEL1-DEL3)-(b(1,3)*cos(DEL1-DEL3)));
%To calculate Qi
H(6,1)=(V2MAG*V1MAG*(G(2,1)*cos(DEL2-DEL1))+(B(2,1)*sin(DEL2-
DEL1)))+(V2MAG*V2MAG*(G(2,2)*cos(DEL2-DEL2))+(B(2,2)*sin(DEL2-
DEL2))+(V2MAG*V3MAG*(G(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3))+(B(2,3)*sin(DEL2-
DEL3))-(V2MAG*V2MAG*G(2,2))));
H(6,2)=-V2MAG*V3MAG*(G(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3)+B(2,3)*sin(DEL2-
DEL3));
H(6,3)=V2MAG*(G(2,1)*sin(DEL2-DEL1)-B(2,1)*cos(DEL2-DEL1));
H(6,4)=(V1MAG*(G(2,1)*sin(DEL2-DEL1)-B(2,1)*cos(DEL2-
DEL1)))+(V2MAG*(G(2,2)*sin(DEL2-DEL2)-B(2,2)*cos(DEL2-
DEL2)))+(V3MAG*(G(2,3)*sin(DEL2-DEL3)-B(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3)))-
(V2MAG*B(2,2));
H(6,5)=V2MAG*(G(2,3)*sin(DEL2-DEL3)-B(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3));
%To find Voltage
H(7,3)=V1MAG;
H(8,4)=V2MAG;
H

%standard deviation, R inverse

R= diag(measurementdata(:,6));
R1=inv(R)*inv(R);
H1=transpose(H);
G1=H1*R1*H
%To calculate residual

31
 r(1,1)=P12-
(V1MAG*V1MAG*(g(1,2)+GS1))+(V1MAG*V2MAG*(g(1,2)*cos(DEL1-
DEL2))+b(1,2)*sin(DEL1-DEL2));
r(2,1)=P13-
(V1MAG*V1MAG*(g(1,3)+GS1))+(V1MAG*V3MAG*(g(1,3)*cos(DEL1-
DEL2))+b(1,3)*sin(DEL1-DEL2));
r(3,1)=P2-(V2MAG*V1MAG*(G(2,1)*cos(DEL2-DEL1)+B(2,1)*sin(DEL2-
DEL1)))-(V2MAG*V2MAG*(G(2,2)*cos(DEL2-DEL2)+B(2,2)*sin(DEL2-
DEL2)))-(V2MAG*V3MAG*(G(2,3)*cos(DEL2-DEL3)+B(2,3)*sin(DEL2-
DEL3)));
r(4,1)=Q12+(V1MAG*V1MAG*(b(1,2)+BS1)+V1MAG*V2MAG*(g(1,2)*sin(DEL1
-DEL2)-b(1,2)*cos(DEL1-DEL2)));
r(5,1)=Q13+(V1MAG*V1MAG*(b(1,3)+BS1)+V1MAG*V3MAG*(g(1,3)*sin(DEL1
-DEL2)-b(1,3)*cos(DEL1-DEL2)));
r(6,1)=Q2-(V2MAG*V1MAG*(G(2,1)*sin(DEL2-DEL1)+B(2,1)*cos(DEL2-
DEL1)))-(V2MAG*V2MAG*(G(2,2)*sin(DEL2-DEL2)+B(2,2)*cos(DEL2-
DEL2)))-(V2MAG*V3MAG*(G(2,3)*sin(DEL2-DEL3)+B(2,3)*cos(DEL2-
DEL3)));
r(7,1)=V1-V1MAG;
r(8,1)=V2-V2MAG;
r
%To calculate right hand side vector t
t=H1*R1*r
DELX=inv(G1)*t
%updating values for next iteration
X=DELX+X0
V1MAG=X(3,1)
V2MAG=X(4,1)
V3MAG=X(5,1)
Iter=Iter+1;
end

6. Output:
Ybus Matrix
16.8966 -47.2414i -10.0000 +30.0000i -6.8966 +17.2414i

-10.0000 +30.0000i 14.1096 -40.9589i -4.1096 +10.9589i

-6.8966 +17.2414i -4.1096 +10.9589i 11.0061 -28.2003i

Iteration 1:
G
107
3.4392 -0.5068 0.0137 0.0000 -0.0137

-0.5068 0.6736 -0.0137 0.0137 0.0000

0.0137 -0.0137 3.1054 -2.9324 -0.1668

0.0000 0.0137 -2.9324 3.4455 -0.5068

-0.0137 0.0000 -0.1668 -0.5068 0.6736

32
 T
105
-4.9489

-1.9987

8.4052

-5.8746

-2.5469

∆x
-0.0213

-0.0452

-0.0004

-0.0256

-0.0576

X (STATE VARIABLE)
-0.0213

-0.0452

0.9996

0.9744

0.9424

Iteration 2:
G
107
3.1770 -0.4423 0.0161 -0.0039 -0.0114

-0.4423 0.5917 -0.0123 0.0119 0.0000

0.0161 -0.0123 3.1965 -2.8883 -0.2159

-0.0039 0.0119 -2.8883 3.3133 -0.4763

-0.0114 0.0000 -0.2159 -0.4763 0.6663

33
 T
105
-3.7776

-2.1627

2.3973

-3.2546

0.8903

∆x
-0.0189

-0.0505

0.0048

-0.0038

0.0119

X (STATE VARIABLE)
-0.0189

-0.0505

1.0048

0.9962

1.0119

Iteration 3:
G
107
3.4179 -0.5076 0.0180 -0.0061 -0.0119

-0.5076 0.6939 -0.0138 0.0136 0.0000

0.0180 -0.0138 3.1373 -2.9360 -0.1709

-0.0061 0.0136 -2.9360 3.4071 -0.4977

-0.0119 0.0000 -0.1709 -0.4977 0.6777

34
 T
105
-3.7231

-2.3780

8.5902

-6.0304

-2.5426

∆x
-0.0181

-0.0470

-0.0004

-0.0263

-0.0572

X (STATE VARIABLE)
-0.0181

-0.0470

0.9996

0.9737

0.9428

7. Result:
A MATLAB program for state estimation has been coded and the residual and
𝑋𝑒𝑠𝑡 value is obtained.

35
Ex. No.6 Voltage Stability: PV and VQ Curves
Date: 23.11.2022

1. Aim:
To analysis the voltage stability by obtaining the PV and QV curves using MATLAB
programming.

2. Theory:
Voltage stability in the power system is defined as the ability of a power system to
maintain acceptable voltages at all bus in the system under normal condition and after
being subjected to a disturbance. Voltage instability stems from the attempt of load
dynamics to restore power consumption beyond the capability of the combined
transmission and generation system. Loads are the driving force of voltage instability, and for
this reason this phenomenon has also been called load instability.

a. Power-Voltage Relationships

PV CURVES OR NOSE CURVES

For a given load power below the maximum, there are two solutions: one with higher voltage and
lower current, the other with lower voltage and higher current. The former corresponds to "normal"
operating conditions, with voltage V closer to the generator voltage E. Permanent operation at the
lower solutions is unacceptable. As the load is more and more compensated (which corresponds to
smaller tan φ), the maximum power increases. However, the voltage at which this maximum occurs
also increases. This situation is dangerous in the sense that maximum transfer capability may be
reached at voltages close to normal operation values. Also, for a high degree of compensation and a
load power close to the maximum, the two voltage solutions are close to each other and without
further analysis it may be difficult to decide if a given solution is the "normal" one. For over-
compensated loads (tan φ < 0), there is a portion of the upper PV curve along which the voltage
increases with the load power. The explanation is that under negative tan φ, when more active power
is consumed, more reactive power is produced by the load. At low load, the voltage drop due to the

36
former is offset by the voltage increase due to the latter. The more negative tan φ is, the larger is the
portion of the PV curve where this takes place.

b. Generator Reactive Power Requirement

Generators are treated as voltage sources of constant magnitude. The main defect of this
assumption lies in the limited reactive power capability of generators. It is therefore of
interest to determine how the reactive generation increases with load.

In the lossless case R = 0, the generator reactive production as the sum of the load and the
network losses:

The line current I relates to the generator apparent power Sg through:

In the absence of real power losses:

short circuit

normal operating points – lower side

These curves are similar to the PV curves, except that normal operating points now lie on the
lower part of the curves. Starting from open-circuit conditions (P = 0, 𝑄𝑔 = 0) and increasing
the load, the reactive generation increases nonlinearly with P up to the maximum power.
Beyond this point, P decreases while reactive losses continue to increase, up to the point (P =
0, 𝑄𝑔 = E2/x) which corresponds to a short circuit at the load bus. Note finally that all the
maximum power points are characterized by:

37
The reactive power to be absorbed or inject to reach the operating point should be calculated.

3. Program:

PV curve program
%PV curve
clear all
X=0.8;
E=1;
tanpf=-0.2;
temp=1;
temp1=54;
for i=1:1
for P=0:0.03:0.78
Q=P* tanpf;
Vx =sqrt((E^2/4) -(P*X)^2-(X*Q*E^2));
Vhv=sqrt((E^2/2) -(Q* X)+Vx);
Vlv =sqrt((E^2/2) -(Q*X)-Vx);
x1(temp)=P*X/(E^2);
x1(temp1)=P*X/(E^2);
y1(temp)=Vhv/E;
y1(temp1)= Vlv /E;
temp=temp+1;
temp1=temp1 -1;
end
tanpf=tanpf+0.2;
end
plot(x1,y1) ;
legend(" Real Power ");
ylabel("Voltage");
xlabel("Power");

VQ curve program

%VQ curve
clc
clear all
P=0;
E=1;
X=0.1;
V=0.0001;
for j=1:3
P=P+2;
Q=P*tan((25.84*3.1416/180));
V=0.0001;
for i=1:22
theta=asin(P*X/E*V);
Qc=Q+(V*V/X)-(E*V/X)*cos(theta);
V=V+0.05;
x1(j,i)=V/E;
y1(j,i)=Qc*X/(E*E);
yy(i)=0;
end
end
plot(x1(1,:),yy,x1(1,:),y1(1,:),x1(2,:),y1(2,:),x1(3,:),y1(3,:));

38
legend('Reactive Power','V1','V2','V3')
ylabel("Voltage")
xlabel("Reactive Power")

4. Output:
OUTPUT GRAPH FOR PV CURVE

OUTPUT GRAPH FOR VQ CURVE

5. Result:
A MATLAB program for analysing voltage stability is coded and the following
graphs are obtained.
1. P-V Curve.
2. Q-V Curve.

39
Ex no. 7
Characteristics of Solar PV System
Date : 30.11.2022

1. Aim:
To simulate and obtain VI and PV Characteristics of solar cell using MATLAB.

2. Theory:

a. Introduction

The extraction of electrical energy directly from the sun without any intermediate process is
known as solar energy. A solar cell is a semiconductor device used to capture the light from sun.
The working of solar cell depends on photovoltaic effect, hence a solar cell is known as
photovoltaic cell. It is independent of incident light striking on it but the current capacity is almost
proportional to the intensity of incident light as well as to the area of the cell that is exposed to the
light.

b. Equivalent circuit of solar cell

The equivalent circuit of a PV cell consists of a diode in parallel with an ideal current source
along with shunt and series resistors to account for the loss.
𝑰𝑳 = current from the ideal current source
𝑰𝑫 = diode current
𝑰𝒔𝒉 = shunt current
𝑰 = output current
𝑹𝒔𝒉 = shunt resistor
𝑹𝒔 = series resistor
I = IL - ID - Ish

The ideal current source delivers current proportional to amount of solar light falling on the cell.
There are two conditions for the actual PV cell and for the equivalent circuit working, which are:
a. Current that flows when the terminals are short circuited (short circuit current, 𝐼𝑠𝑐 )
b. Voltage across the terminals when the terminals are left open (open-circuit voltage,𝑉𝑂𝐶 )

Short Circuit Current (𝑰𝒔𝒄 )

The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver when short circuiting the output terminals at the
most optimised condition for producing maximum output. The optimised condition here means the
maximum amount of light a cell can capture at a particular position and angle, as the current
production depends on the surface area of the cell exposed to light. This current is known as
Maximum Current Density expressed by

𝐽𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 / A

where A is the area of the solar cell.

Open-circuit Voltage (𝑽𝑶𝑪 )

The open-circuit voltage is measured by measuring the voltage at the terminals when no load is
connected across it. The voltage doesn’t depend on the intensity of the light and the area of the
cell. Normally the open-circuit voltage of a solar cell is approximately 0.5 to 0.6V.

40
 c. I-V and P-V characteristics of solar cell

The solar cell I-V characteristics are plotted by first noting the open-circuit voltage (𝑉𝑂𝐶 ). A load is
then connected and gradually increased, hence some amount of current starts flowing. Load voltage is
noted down for each load current. Then the cell is short circuited and corresponding short circuit
voltage is noted. P-V characteristics are obtained multiplying each value of PV cell voltage with
corresponding current flowing through it.

Maximum Power Point of solar cell

From the characteristics, the maximum power occurs for one particular value of terminal voltage and
current. It will occur at the bend point of the characteristic curve.

Fill Factor of solar cell

Fill Factor is defined as the ratio of product of current and voltage at maximum power point to the
product of short circuit current and open-circuit voltage.

Fill Factor = (𝑉𝑚𝑝 x 𝐼𝑚𝑝 ) / (𝑉𝑂𝐶 x 𝐼𝑠𝑐 )

Efficiency of solar cell

The efficiency of solar cell is defined as ratio of maximum electrical power output to the radiation
power input in the cell. The radiation power is considered as 1000 watt/square meter. If the exposed
area of the cell is A, then total radiation power of the cell will be 1000 A watts.

Efficiency = (𝑃𝑚 / 1000 A) * 100

41
3. MATLAB Model

4. Output

I-V CHARACTERISTICS P-V CHARACTERISTICS

5. Result:
Solar Cell has been modelled and the I-V, P-V characteristics are obtained through
simulation in MATLAB.

42
Ex no. 8
Characteristics of Wind Energy Conversion System
Date : 07.12.2022

1. Aim:
To simulate and obtain Characteristics of Wind Energy Conversion System using MATLAB.

2. Theory:
a. Introduction

The kinetic energy available in wind is captured and converted in rotational mechanical energy by
wind turbine. This mechanical energy of wind turbine is given to generator which converts the
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Where,
ρair(kg/m3) is the density of air,
Rblade (m) is the radius of the blade,
Ablade (m2) is the area covered by the blade,
Cp is the coefficient of performance of turbine,
β (degree) is the pitch angle,
λ is the tip speed ratio, ωw (rad/s) is the wind speed,
ωr(rad/s) is the turbine rotor speed.

b. Types of WECS

1. Based on operational speed:

a. Fixed speed WECS
b. Variable speed WECS
2. Based on Axis:
c. Horizontal Axis
d. Vertical Axis
3. Based on type of Generator:
e. Squirrel Cage (suitable for Fixed speed type)
f. Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
g. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)

c. Parts of WECS

1. Rotor Blade
2. Rotor Hub
3. Nacelle
4. Generator
5. Pitch Control
6. Yaw Control
7. Anemometer
8. Gear Box

43
d. Definitions

1. Cut-in Speed: This is the minimum wind speed required for the wind turbine to start
rotating for power production.
2. Cut-Out Speed: This is the maximum wind speed above which the turbine is completely
stopped so that the turbine is within safe operating conditions.
3. Betz's coefficient: This is the theoretical maximum ratio of power that can be extracted
from the wind energy by wind turbine. Theoretically this value is 16/27 (59.3%).
4. Tip Speed Ratio: It is the ratio of tangential velocity of tip of wind turbine blade to the
wind speed. It is denoted by lambda.
5. Pitch Angle: It is the angle at which wind contacts the blades of the wind turbine. It is
denoted by beta.
6. Co-efficient of Performance: It is the ratio of power output of the unit to the power
available in the wind. It is a function of tip-speed ratio and pitch angle.

e. Variable Speed WECS

To extract maximum power from wind, the wind turbine should run at optimal value of
coefficient of performance. This optimal value of coefficient of performance is obtained at
optimal tip speed ratio which in turn depends on rotor speed for a particular wind speed. This
optimal tip speed ratio is constant for all wind speeds for a given turbine. So, for a particular
wind speed the rotor must rotate at a particular optimal value. Thus rotor speed must be varied
continuously for each wind speed so that Cp is always at its optimal maximum value.

Since the generator's rotor speed is varied, the frequency of the AC output varies. So it cannot
be interfaced directly to grid. For this reason, a back to back converter is employed to convert
variable frequency AC to DC and then inverting this DC to AC of grid frequency.

f. Wind Turbine Power Characteristics

44
3. MATLAB Model:

4. Output:

Rotor Speed, Rotor angle and Torque characteristics

45
 𝑉𝑎𝑏𝑐 and 𝐼𝑎𝑏𝑐 characteristics

𝑉𝑎𝑏𝑐_𝑖𝑛𝑣 and 𝐼𝑎𝑏𝑐_𝑖𝑛𝑣 characteristics

46
 Wind Turbine Characteristics

Generator Characteristics

5. Result:
MATLAB-SIMULINK is used to create a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
based Wind Energy Conversion System model and the results are obtained.

47
Ex no. 9 Characteristics of Fuel Cell based Energy Sources
Date: 14.12.2022

1. Aim:
To simulate and obtain Characteristics of Fuel Cell based Energy Sources using MATLAB.

2. Theory:

a. Introduction
Fuel cells are electrochemical cells which convert chemical energy into electrical energy. The raw
material used is 𝐻2 and the base product is water and heat. The efficiency of conversion in fuel
cells is around 70%.

b. Parts of Fuel Cell

1. Anode: The negative terminal of the fuel cell where oxidation takes place is called as
Anode. It conducts the electrons that are freed from hydrogen molecules so that they can
be used in an external circuit.

2. Cathode: The positive terminal of the fuel cell is called Cathode. It distributes the oxygen
to the surface of the catalyst. Not only that, it conducts electrons back from the external
circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to
form water.

3. Catalyst: A chemical substance which increases the rate of reaction. It is made of platinum
powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth.

4. Electrolyte: It is otherwise known as Proton Exchange Membrane. A substance that

conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell. It conducts only
positively charged ions.

c. Working of Fuel Cell

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes namely anode and cathode. Hydrogen and Oxygen are
fed into the cell. The catalyst at anode causes hydrogen atoms to give up electrons leaving
only the protons. Oxygen ions at cathode attract the hydrogen protons. The protons then pass
through electrolyte membrane. The electrons are redirected to cathode through external circuit
thus producing electric current.

d. Types of Fuel Cell

1. PAFC: Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

2. PEMFC: Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
3. AFC: Alkaline Fuel Cell
4. MCFC: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
5. SOFC: Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

e. Losses in Fuel Cell

1. Activation Losses
2. Ohmic Losses
3. Concentration Losses

48
 Fuel Cell Characteristic Curve

As shown, fuel cell I-V characteristic curve is divided into three regions: R-1, R-2, and R-3.
The point at the boundary of regions R-2 and R-3 is known as maximum power density
point or knee/optimum point. Loading the fuel cells above the maximum power point (MPP)
current will shift the operating point right of the optimum point (region R-3) causing a sudden
collapse of the fuel cell voltage to zero. Therefore, no power could be drawn from the cell.
Extended operation in region R-3 may damage the fuel cell. Fuel cells are generally operated
in the region R-2 of the characteristics shown in the figure.

3. MATLAB Model:

49
 4. Output:
Voltage-Current characteristics of fuel cell

5. Result:
Thus the Characteristics of Fuel Cell based Energy Sources using MATLAB/Simulink
is simulated and obtained.

50
Ex. No. 10 Power Management in Hybrid Power System

Date: 21.12.2022

1. Aim:
To simulate and obtain the Characteristics of Hybrid Power System using
MATLAB.

2. Theory:

A hybrid system is a dynamical system that exhibits both continuous and discrete dynamic
behaviour – a system that can both flow (described by a differential equation) and jump
(described by a state machine or automaton). Often, the term "hybrid dynamical system" is
used, to distinguish over hybrid systems such as those that combine neural nets and fuzzy
logic, or electrical and mechanical drivelines. A hybrid system has the benefit of
encompassing a larger class of systems within its structure, allowing for more flexibility in
modelling dynamic phenomena.

In general, the state of a hybrid system is defined by the values of the continuous variables
and a discrete mode. The state changes either continuously, according to a flow condition, or
discretely according to a control graph. Continuous flow is permitted as long as so-called
invariants hold, while discrete transitions can occur as soon as given jump conditions are
satisfied. Discrete transitions may be associated with events.

With the rapid increase in demand of energy due to the increasing of load, it is very difficult
for the electrical grid to fulfil the energy demand. For supplying the power and to avoid the
failure of grid, the grid system does the load shedding and fulfils the energy demand. But this
process is obvious and fails to fulfil the energy demand of each and every customer. By doing
so, the electrical grid system will be free from the stress of fulfilling the energy demand by
performing the load shedding. This hybrid system is connected with the electrical grid near
the load to fulfil the load demand by supplying the power from the electrical grid to the load.

The hybrid power solution allows for the integration of one or more renewable power
generation assets with tailored energy storage systems. When there is a high demand in load
and generation is not sufficient, this storage system can deliver power to the load thus
maintaining stability. Also when there is high generation and demand is low, the same storage
system can absorb excess generated power.

51
3. MATLAB Model:

Subsystem

52
4. Output:
Battery SOC,Voltage and Current

VSC Voltage and Current

Grid Voltage and Current

53
 Load Voltage and Current

Load, Grid and VSC Power

5. RESULT:
MATLAB-SIMULINK is used to model a Hybrid Power System and the required
output is obtained.

54