Erbil Polytechnic University

Erbil Technology College

Construction and Materials Technology Engineering

Student name:
Zhala Saifaddin Hasan

Shahla Abdulstar

Fifth Semester

Supervisor Lecturer:

M. Ghazala Y. Asaad

2024 - 2025
Table of content:

Content Page

chapter one
Soil permeability and one-dimensional flow 2
1-1 Introduction
1-2 Hydraulic Gradient: 3
1-3 Darcy’s law 4
Tests to Find the Hydraulic Conductivity 4
1-4 Pumping from Wells 9
Chapter Tow
12
2-1 Two-Dimensional Flow
2-2 Seepage through Earth Dam 13
2-3 Flow around sheet pile wall 18
Chapter Three
21
3-1 Conclusion
References 22

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 chapter one

Soil permeability and one-dimensional flow

1-1 Introduction

The flow processes take place in the water-saturated soil layers, the
groundwater and accumulated water, as well as above the groundwater, in the
seepage water. The cause of water movements in the soil are differences in
potential. In this case, the water always moves from points of higher potential,
i.e. higher potential energy, to points with lower potential. The water moves
until an equilibrium between the potential is established. Precipitation,
groundwater extraction and evapotranspiration (evaporation from the free
surface and release of water vapor from plants) constantly disrupt a potential
equilibrium. Soil water is rarely in a static state of equilibrium. The movement
of water also depends on the permeability of the soil being flowed through.1

1
- https://www.gunt.de/images/download/seepage-flow_english.pdf

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1-2 Hydraulic Gradient:
When water flows through a saturated soil mass, there is a certain resistance to
the flow because of the presence of solid matter. However, the laws of fluid
mechanics which are applicable for the flow of fluids through pipes are also
applicable to flow of water through soils. As per Bernoulli's equation, the total
head at any point in water under steady flow condition may be expressed as:
(Total head = pressure head + velocity head + elevation head).2

𝑢𝜐2
ℎ𝑡 = + +𝑧
𝑤 2𝑔

Where:

ht = total head

u= pore water pressure

w = unit weight of water

υ = velocity

g = acceleration due to gravity (this value is very small = 0)

z= hp + he (pressure head + Evaluation head)

In the example, there is a

difference in elevation heads
and pressure head, and also
difference in total head. So that
there is flow.

2
- https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ahmed-Al-Obaidi-
2/publication/322990440_Dr_Ahmed_Soil_Mechanics_Notes_Chapter_Five_Permeability_and_Seepage_thro
ugh_Soil/links/5a7b2eaeaca272f27dbb7691/Dr-Ahmed-Soil-Mechanics-Notes-Chapter-Five-Permeability-and-
Seepage-through-Soil.pdf

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1-3 Darcy’s law
states the principle which governs the movement of fluid in the given substance.
Darcy’s law equation describes the capability of the liquid to flow via any
porous media like a rock. The law is based on the fact according to, the flow
between two points is directly proportional to the pressure differences between
the points, the distance, and the connectivity of flow within rocks between the
points. Measuring the inter-connectivity is known as permeability.3

Q = Aυt = A(ki)t

Where:

Q = Volume of water collected.

A= Area of cross-section of the soil sample

t = duration of water collection.

1.3.1 Tests to Find the Hydraulic Conductivity:

1-3-1-1 Lab tests:
The four most common laboratory methods for determining the permeability
coefficient of soils are the following:

a. Constant – head test.

b. Falling – head test.

c. Indirect determination from consolidation test

d. Indirect determination by the horizontal capillary test.

3
- Darcy's Law - Definition, Equation, Application & Limitations

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a- Constant – head test:

In this test a direct measure of permeability using Darcy's Law It’s suitable for
cohesionless soils with permeability > 10-4 cm/sec A typical arrangement of the
constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure. In this type of laboratory
setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference
of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period.
After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated flask
for a known duration. The total volume of water collected may be expressed as:

Q = Aυt = A(ki)t

𝒉
Since i=
𝑳

Where:

L= Length of the specimen, so that

𝑸𝑳
Or k=
𝑨𝒉𝒕

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b- Falling-Head Test:

A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in Figure.

Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head difference h1 at
time t = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil specimen
such that the final head difference at time t = t2 is h2. The rate of flow of the
water through the specimen at any time t can be given by:

ℎ 𝑑ℎ
q=𝑘 𝐴 = -a
𝐿 𝑑𝑡

Where:

q= flow rate.

a= cross sectional area of the standpipe.

A= cross sectional area of the soil specimen

𝑎𝐿 𝑑ℎ
dt = ( )
𝐴𝑘 ℎ

1-3-1-2 field tests:

There are many useful methods to determine the (k) in the field such as:

1. Pumping from wells

2. Borehole test

3. Open – end test

4. Packer test

5. Variable – head tests by means of piezometer observation well

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Example (1.1):

Draw elevation head, pressure head, and total head for the system shown and
then find the heads for point c

Solution :

Find the he for all points, (2) find hp for points A, B, D, E (3) find ht for points
A, B, D, E. (4) from figure find hp and ht for point c.

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Example (1.2):

The soil profile shown below is typical of Miami-Dad County. Estimate the
equivalent permeabilities (kv(eq)) and (kH(eq)) in cm/sec, and the ratio of
kv(eq)/ kH(eq)

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1-4 Pumping from Wells:
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction
of flow can be determined by performing pumping tests from wells. The figure
shows a case where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic conductivity has
to be determined is underlain by an impermeable layer. During the test, water is
pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated casing.
Several observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test
well. Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the
observation wells are made after the start of pumping until a steady state is
reached. The steady state is established when the water level in the test and
observation wells becomes constant. The expression for the rate of flow of
groundwater into the well, which is equal to the rate of discharge from
pumping, can be written as:
𝒒 𝒓𝟐
k= log
 ((𝒉𝟐 )𝟐 − (𝒉𝟏 )𝟐 𝒓𝟏

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Example (1.2):

At one location on the ground a porous layer lies above an impervious stratum.
The thickness of this porous layer is 7 meters.

Water table also lies in the porous layer and it is at the depth of 1.5 m below the
ground surface.

A test well is drilled into the ground which penetrates the whole thickness of
this permeable layer. Through this well the water is pumped out at the rate of
100 liters per second.

The drawdown of the water table because of this pumping out is observed by
making observation wells at a distance of 7 m and 21 m from the test well.

The drawdown observed at 7 m is 3 m and at 21 m it is 0.8 m.

What is the coefficient of permeability of that porous layer of soil?4

Discharge through test well (q) = 100 Lt/sec = 100×10-3 m3/sec

Distance of first observation well (r1) = 7 m

Water level in first observation well (h1) = 2.5 m

Distance of second observation well (r2) = 21 m

4
https://elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/examples/civil-engineering/soil-mechanics/unconfined-aquifer-
permeability-of-soil-field-test

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Water level in second observation well (h2) = 4.7 m

Coefficient of permeability:
𝑞 𝑟2
k= log
 ((ℎ2 )2 − (ℎ)2 𝑟1

100× 10−3 21
k= log
 ((4.7)2 − (2.5)2 7

k= 0.002207 m/sec = 2.207 mm/sec

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 Chapter Tow
2-1 Two Dimensional Flow:

The figure shows a tube of 1.0*1.0m in cross section by 4.0m high. The values
of total head, pressure head and elevation head are shown in the figure. The
seepage is: Q = kiA = 0.005∗ 4 2.5 ∗ (1∗1) = 0.008 m3/sec/m If we divided the
soil by square mesh 0.25*0.25m as shown in the figure. Each horizontal line
represents equal total heads (equipotential lines) and the vertical lines represent
a flow line, the space between each flow line called flow channel.

The flow through square A is:

9
(𝐻− 𝐻)
qA = kiA AA = k × 10
×b
𝑙

Nd= number of drops in equational lines

𝐻 𝐻 𝐻𝑏
Ia = ➔ qA = k ×b=k
𝑁𝑑 𝑙 𝑁𝑑 𝑙 𝑁𝑑

The quantity of seepage for all element below A is same (equal q)

Total Q = qA × 4 × 1, Nf = 4 No. of flow channels

𝑁𝑓 4
q = kH = 0.005 × 4 × = 0.008 m3/sec/m
𝑁𝑑 10

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2-2 Seepage through Earth Dam:
Earth dams are used to store a large amount of water since the dam is
constructed using soil, thus there is a flow through this soil.

From the figure above it can be seen that the downstream of the dam is unstable
zone, thus always used drain must be used.

Example (2.1):

The section through a dam spillway is shown in Figure. Determine the quantity
of seepage under the dam and plot the distributions of uplift pressure on the
base of the dam, and the net distribution of water pressure on the cut-off wall at
the upstream end of the spillway. The coefficient of permeability of the
foundation soil is 2.5 × 10–5 m/s.

Solution:

The flow net is shown in Figure. The downstream water level (ground surface)
is selected as a datum. Between the upstream and downstream equipotential, the
total head loss is 5.00 m. In the flow net, there are three flow channels and ten
equipotential drops. The seepage is given by

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The calculations are shown in Table, and the pressure diagram is plotted in
Figure. The levels (z) of points 5–8 in Table were found by scaling from the
diagram.

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Example (2.2): In this figure below, we have the number of flow tubes (Nf) = 5,
and the number of equinoctial drops (Nd) = 5, suppose that the permeability of
the underlying soil is (k=10-5 m/sec) (typical of a fine sand or silt) , find:5

(a) The total flow under the dam if the width of dam = 25m
(b) The pore water pressure at point (p)

Solution:
𝑁𝑓
(a) Q= K × H ×b
𝑁𝑑

H = H1 – H2 ➔ H=15 – 0 ➔ H=15m
5
Q = 10-5 × 15 × × 25
5

Q = 3.75 ×10-3 m3/sec

(b) h(p) = H(on point) – Nd × H

𝐻
H =
𝑁𝑑

15
= 20 – 1 ( )
5

= 17m

U(p) = 17 × w

U(p) = 166. 77 kN/m2

5
- https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/soilmechch10flownets1pdf/265195595

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Example (2.3): An earth dam on a pervious but strong earth foundation has the
cross – section shown. The core of the dam is sealed from the jointed rock
foundation with thin layer of gunite or splush grout.

a. Calculate the seepage through the dam.

b. Calculate the seepage through the foundation.

c. Compute the total seepage.

d. What minimum permeability is required in drain B to prevent saturation from

rising into the random fill zone?6

Solution:

a. Seepage through the dam

Nf = 3.5

Nd =6

H =30
𝑁𝑓
Q=K×H ×b
𝑁𝑑

3.5
Q1 = 0.002 × 30 ×
6

Q1 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝐦𝟑/𝐝𝐚𝐲/𝐦

b. Seepage through the foundation:

Nf = 3

Nd =8

H =30
3
Q2 = 0.3 × 30 ×
8

Q2 = 𝟑.𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝐦𝟑/𝐝𝐚𝐲/𝐦

6
- file:///C:/Users/jalae/Downloads/547947118-Lesson-7-Flow-Nets.pdf

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c. Total seepage :

Q =Q1+Q2

Q =0.035+3.375

Q =𝟑.𝟒𝟏 𝐦𝟑/𝐝𝐚𝐲/𝐦

d. Minimum permeability
𝐾 (ℎ1 2 − ℎ2 2 )
Q=
2𝐿

𝐾 ((1.5)2 − (0)2 )
3.41 =
2(45)

𝐤 =𝟏𝟑𝟔.𝟒 𝐦/𝐝𝐚𝐲

Example (2.4):

Using the flow net shown below, (a) determine the seepage underneath the
(1000 foot) wide concrete dam, and (b) the velocity at point (A) in feet/hr.
where the height of the net’s square is (19 feet). Coefficient of permeability =
0.0015 mm/sec7

7
- file:///C:/Users/jalae/OneDrive/Desktop/300_solved_problems_in_geotechnical_engineering.pdf

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Solution:

2-3 Flow around sheet pile wall:

Example (2.4): A stiff clay layer underlies a 12 m thick silty sand deposit. A
sheet pile is driven into the sand to a depth of 7 m, and the upstream and
downstream water levels are as shown in the figure below. 8

k = 8.6x 10-6cm/sec

e =0.72

Estimate:

a) The seepage beneath the sheet pile in m3/day per meter.

b) What is the pore water pressure at the tip of the sheet pile?

8
-
https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Ffaculty.ksu.edu.sa%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2
Ffiles%2F10._seepage_fall_36-37.pptx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK

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Solution:

Example (2.5):

A flow net for flow around single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil layer is
shown. Gevin that (kx=kz=k=5×10-5) m/sec, determine:

a. How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise if piezometers
are placed at point (a) and (b).
b. The total rate of seepage through the permeable layer per unit length.
c. The approximate average hydraulic gradient at (c).

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Solution:

a. from figure (Nd=6 , H1= 5.6m , H2= 2.2m)

𝐻1−𝐻2 5.6−2.2
𝐻 = 𝑁𝑑
=
6
= 0.567 m

At point (a) we have gone through one potential drops. So the water in the
piezometer will rise to an elevation of

[5.6 – (5)(0.567)] = 2.765 m above the ground surface

𝑘(𝐻1−𝐻2 ) (2.38)(5×10−5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐)(5.6−2.2)
b. q= 2.38× =
𝑁𝑑 6

= 6.74 × 10-5 m3/sec/m

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻 0.567 𝑚
c. i= = = = 0.138
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 (𝑑)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑒) 𝐿 4.1 𝑚

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 Chapter Three

3-1 Conclusion:
o A flow net is a graphical representation of the flow of groundwater
through a porous medium, such as soil or rock. It consists of a network of
flow lines and equipotential lines that intersect each other at right angles.

o Flow nets are commonly used to analyze seepage and evaluate the flow
characteristics in geotechnical and hydrogeological engineering.

o They provide insights into the direction, velocity, and flow patterns of
groundwater within a given area.

o Flow nets are constructed using mathematical equations, numerical

methods, or graphical techniques.

o They are particularly useful in designing and assessing the stability of

structures, such as Dams, Retaining walls, and Foundations, where
seepage control is critical.

o Flow nets help engineers understand the potential for seepage-related

issues and develop appropriate remedial measures.

o By analyzing a flow net, engineers can estimate seepage rates, identify

areas of high groundwater flow, and evaluate the effectiveness of
drainage systems.

o Flow nets are essential tools in groundwater management, ensuring the

safe and efficient utilization of water resources

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Reference:

1- Groundwater and Seepage, Milton E. Harr Purdue University.2003

2- Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, HARRY R. CEDERGREN, JOHN

WlLEY & SONS, INC. New York . London . Sydney

3- Flow of Water in Soils: Seepage, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pelin ÖZENER Civil
Engineering Department Geotechnics Division.

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