Lecture III 5

Lecture III: Quantising the Classical Field

Having established that the low energy properties of the atomic chain are represented by a
free scalar classical field theory, we now turn to the formulation of the quantum system.

⊲ Canonical Quantisation procedure: recall point particle mechanics

1. Define canonical momentum p = ∂ẋ L

2. Construct Hamiltonian H = pẋ − L(p, x)
3. Promote position and momentum to operators with canonical commutation relations

x 7→ x̂, p 7→ p̂, [p̂, x̂] = −i~, H 7→ Ĥ

1. Canonical momentum: natural generalisation to continuous field

∂L
π(x) ≡
∂ φ̇(x)

applied to atomic chain, π = ∂φ̇ (mφ̇2 /2) = mφ̇

2. Classical Hamiltonian:

Hamiltonian density H(φ, π)

Z zh }| i{
H[φ, π] ≡ dx π φ̇ − L(∂x φ, φ̇)

1 2 ks a2
i.e. H(φ, π) = π + (∂x φ)2
2m 2
3. Canonical Quantisation:

(a) promote φ(x) and π(x) to operators: φ 7→ φ̂, π 7→ π̂

(b) generalise the canonical commutation relations

[π̂(x), φ̂(x′ )] = −i~δ(x − x′ )

N.B. [δ(x − x′ )] = [Length]−1 (exercise)

Operator-valued functions φ̂ and π̂ referred to as quantum fields

Comments: Ĥ represents a quantum field theoretical formulation of elastic chain, but

not yet a solution. In fact, the development of a variety of methods for the analysis of
quantum field theoretical models will represent major part of course. Here, objective is
merely to exemplify how physical information can be extracted from this particular model.

Lecture Notes October 2005

Lecture III 6

As with any fn, operator-valued fns. can be expressed as Fourier series expansion:
   Z L=N a 
φ̂(x) = 1 X e±ikx φ̂k , φ̂k ≡ 1 dx e∓ikx φ̂(x)
π̂(x) L1/2 k π̂k π̂k L1/2 0 π̂(x)
P
k runs over all quantised wavevectors k = 2πm/L, m ∈ Z
Exercise: confirm [π̂k , φ̂k′ ] = −i~δkk′

Advice: Maintain strict conventions(!) — we will pass freely between real and Fourier
space (and we will not care to write a tilde in each case).

Hermiticity: φ̂† (x) = φ̂(x), implies φ̂†k = φ̂−k (similarly π̂). Using

δk+k′ ,0
Z L z Z L }| { !
X 1 ′
X X
dx (∂ φ̂)2 = (ik φ̂k )(ik ′ φ̂k′ ) dx ei(k+k )x = k 2 φ̂k φ̂−k = k 2 |φ̂k |2
0 L 0 k k
′k,k

mωk2 /2
z }| {
Xh 1 ks a2 2 i
Ĥ = π̂k π̂−k + k φ̂k φ̂−k
k
2m 2

ωk = v|k|, v = a(ks /m)1/2

In Fourier representation, ‘modes k’ decoupled

Comments:

• Ĥ provides explicit description of the low energy excitations of the system (waves)
in terms of their microscopic constituents (atoms)
• However, it would be much more desirable to develop a picture where the
relevant excitations appear as fundamental units...
to learn how, noting the structural similarity, let us digress and discuss/revise the...

⊲ Quantum Harmonic Oscillator (Revisited)

p̂2 1
Ĥ = + mω 2 q̂ 2
2m 2
Although a single-particle problem, its property of equidistant


energy level separation, ǫn = ~ω n + 12 suggests alternative interpretation:

State with energy ǫn can be viewed as an “assembly” of n elementary, structureless (i.e.

the only ‘quantum number’ is their energy ~ω), bosonic particles (state can be multiply
occupied) each having an energy ~ω

Lecture Notes October 2005

Lecture III 7

⊲ Formally, defining the ladder operators

r   r  
mω i † mω i
â ≡ x̂ + p̂ , â ≡ x̂ − p̂
2~ mω 2~ mω
❀ canonical commutation relation [â, ↠] = 1 (characteristic of bosons)
 
† 1
Ĥ = ~ω â â +
2
~ω
If we find state |0i: â|0i = 0 ❀ Ĥ|0i = 2
|0i, i.e. |0i provides ground state
1
Using commutation relations, one may show |ni ≡ â†n |0i
(n!)1/2
is (normalised) eigenstate with eigenvalue ~ω(n + 21 )

Comments: a-representation affords a many-particle interpretation

• |0i represents ‘vacuum’, i.e. state with no particles
• ↠|0i represents state with a single particle of energy ~ω
• â†n |0i is many-body state with n particles
i.e. ↠is an operator that creates particles
• In ‘diagonal’ form Ĥ = ~ω(â†a + 21 ) simply counts number of particles,
i.e. ↠â|ni = n|ni, and assigns an energy ~ω to each

⊲ Returning to quantum harmonic chain, let us then introduce new representation:

r   r  
mωk i † mωk i
ak ≡ φ̂k + π̂−k , ak ≡ φ̂−k − π̂k
2~ mωk 2~ mωk
N.B. By convention, drop hat from operators a
−i~δkk′
z }| {
i  
with [ak , a†k′ ] = [π̂−k , φ̂−k′ ] −[φ̂k , π̂k′ ] = δkk′
2~
i.e. bosonic commutation relations

⊲ And obtain (exercise — PS I)

 
X † 1
Ĥ = ~ωk ak ak +
k
2

Lecture Notes October 2005

Lecture III 8

Elementary collective excitations of quantum chain (phonons)

created/annihilated by bosonic operators a†k and ak
Spectrum of excitations is linear ωk = v|k| (cf. relativistic)
Lessons:
• Low-energy excitations of discrete model involve slowly varying collective modes;
i.e. each mode involves many atoms
• Low-energy (k → 0) 7→ long-wavelength excitations
— i.e. universal, insensitive to microscopic detail;
• This fact allows many different systems to be mapped onto a few (hopefully simple)
classical field theories;
• Canonical quantisation procedure for point mechanics generalises to
quantum field theory;
• Simplest model actions (such as the one considered here) are quadratic in the fields
— known as free field theory;
• More generally, interactions ❀ non-linear eqs. of motion
and interacting quantum field theories

⊲ Other examples? † Quantum Electrodynamics

EM field — specified by 4-vector potential A(x) = (φ(x), A(x)) (c = 1)
Z
1
Classical action : S[A] = d4 x L(A), L = − Fµν F µν
4
Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ — EM field tensor
Classical equation of motion:
Euler − Lagrange eqns. Maxwell′ s eqns.
z }| {
∂L z }| {
β
∂Aα L − ∂ =0 7→ ∂α F αβ = 0
∂(∂ β Aα )
Quantisation of classical field theory identifies elementary excitations: photons
for more details, see handout, or go to QFT!

Lecture Notes October 2005