Lecture II 1

Lecture II: Collective Excitations: From Particles to Fields

Free Scalar Field Theory: Phonons
The aim of this course is to develop the machinery to explore the properties of quantum
systems with very large or infinite numbers of degrees of freedom. To represent such systems it
is convenient to abandon the language of individual elementary particles and speak about quantum
fields. In this lecture, we will consider the simplest physical example of a free or non-interacting
many-particle theory theory which will exemplify the language of classical and quantum fields.
Our starting point is a toy model of a mechanical system describing a classical chain of atoms
coupled by springs.

⊲ Discrete elastic chain

xn-1 φn ks
m

(n-1)a na (n+1)a

Equilibrium position x̄n ≡ na; natural length a; spring constant ks

Goal: to construct and quantise a classical field theory

for the collective (longitundinal) vibrational modes of the chain

⊲ Discrete Classical Lagrangian:

k.e. p.e. in spring

N  z }| { z }| {

X m 2 ks 2
L=T −V = ẋn − (xn+1 − xn − a)
n=1
2 2

assume periodic boundary conditions (p.b.c.) xN +1 = N a + x1 (and set ẋn ≡ ∂t xn )

Using displacement from equilibrium φn = xn − x̄n

N  
X m ks 2
L= φ̇2n − (φn+1 − φn ) , p.b.c : φN +1 ≡ φ1
2 2
n=1

In principle, one can obtain exact solution of discrete equation of motion — see PS I

However, typically, one is not concerned with behaviour on ‘atomic’ scales:

1. for such purposes, modelling is too primitive!

anharmonic contributions

2. such properties are in any case ‘non-universal’

Aim here is to describe low-energy collective behaviour — generic, i.e. universal

In this case, it is often permissible to neglect the discreteness of the microscopic entities
of the system and to describe it in terms of effective continuum degrees of freedom.

Lecture Notes October 2005

Lecture II 2

φn
Continuum Limit φ(x)

(n-1)a na (n+1)a

⊲ Continuum Lagrangian

Describe φn as a smooth function φ(x) of a continuous variable x;

makes sense if φn+1 − φn ≪ a (i.e. gradients small)
Z L=N a
1/2 3/2
X 1
φn → a φ(x) , φn+1 − φn → a ∂x φ(x) , −→ dx
x=na x=na n
a 0

N.B. [φ(x)] = L1/2

Lagrangian functional Lagrangian density

z Z L }| { z }| {
m 2 ks a2
L[φ] = dx L(φ, ∂x φ, φ̇), L(φ, ∂x φ, φ̇) = φ̇ − (∂x φ)2
0 2 2

N.B. [L] = [energy]/[length]

⊲ Classical action
Z Z Z L
S[φ] = dt L[φ] = dt dx L(φ, ∂x φ, φ̇)
0

• N -point particle degrees of freedom 7→ continuous classical field φ(x)

• Dynamics of φ(x) specified by functionals L[φ] and S[φ]

What are the corresponding equations of motion...?

——————————————–

⊲ Hamilton’s Extremal Principle (HEP): (Revision)

Z
Suppose classical point particle x(t) described by action S[x] = dt L(x, ẋ)

HEP: configurations x(t) that are realised are those that extremise the action
i.e. for any smooth function η(t), the “variation”
1
δS[x] ≡ lim (S[x + ǫη] − S[x]) = 0
ǫ→0 ǫ

to 1st order in ǫ, action must by stationary

Lecture Notes October 2005

Lecture II 3

x εη(t)

x(t)

Extremal condition 7→ Euler-Lagrange equations of motion

Z t Z t
S[x + ǫη] = dt L(x + ǫη, ẋ + ǫη̇) = dt (L(x, ẋ) + ǫη∂x L + ǫη̇∂ẋ L) + O(ǫ2 )
0 0
=0
Z Z z }| {
by parts d
δS[x] = dt (η∂x L + η̇∂ẋ L) = dt ∂x L − (∂ẋ L) η = 0
dt

Note: boundary terms vanish by construction

δL d
(The variation = ∂x L − (∂ẋ L) is an example of functional differentiation.
δx dt
A formal discussion of its legitimacy is included in the lecture notes.)

How does HEP generalise to continuum field x 7→ φ(x)?

φ
φ(x,t)

x
εη(x,t)

T
t
L

Apply same extremal principle: φ(x, t) 7→ φ(x, t) + ǫη(x, t)

with both φ and η both periodic in x
Z t Z L  
S[φ + ǫη] = S[φ] + ǫ dt dx mφ̇η̇ − ks a2 ∂x φ∂x η + O(ǫ2 ).
0 0

Integrating by parts boundary terms vanish by construction: η φ̇|t0 = 0 = η∂x φ|L

0
Z t Z L  
δS = − dt dx mφ̈ − ks a2 ∂x2 φ η = 0
0 0

Since η(x, t) is an arbitrary smooth function, we must have

m∂t2 − ks a2 ∂x2 φ = 0

Lecture Notes October 2005

Lecture II 4

x=-vt Φ- Φ+ x=vt

i.e. φ(x, t) obeys classical wave equation

General solutions are p

of the form: φ+ (x + vt) + φ− (x − vt)
where v = a ks /m is sound wave velocity and φ± are arbitrary smooth functions

More generally, for the Lagrangian density L = L(φ, ∂x φ, φ̇),

∂L d ∂L d ∂L
− − =0
∂φ dt ∂ φ̇ dx ∂(∂x φ)

——————————————–

⊲ Comments

• Low-energy collective excitations — known as phonons — are lattice vibrations

propagating as sound waves to left or right at constant velocity v

• Trivial behaviour of model is a direct consequence of its simplistic definition:

Lagrangian is quadratic in fields 7→ linear equation of motion
Higher order couplings (i.e. interactions) 7→ dissipation and dispersion

• L is said to be a ‘free (i.e. non-interacting) scalar (i.e. one-component) field theory’

• In higher dimensions, field has vector components

7→ transverse and longintudinal modes

Variational principle is example of functional analysis — a useful (but not essential

concept for this course) — see lecture notes

Lecture Notes October 2005