PSIT - Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology

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India

Engineering Physics
Laboratory Practical File

(List of Experiments as prescribed by Dr APJ AKTU, Lucknow w.e.f. 2023)

(Session: 2024-25)
(BAS-151/251)

Department of Basic Science and Humanities

Physics
PSIT, Kanpur-209305
(Institute Code-164)

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India

INDEX

STUDENT NAME:………………………… Roll No/ID…………………

BRANCH:……………………………… SEM: ……………………...

Page Practical Date of

S. No. Name of Experiment Signature Remarks
No. date submission

10

11

12

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Experiment No. 1 Date:
Newton’s Ring
Objective: -To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s Ring.

Apparatus: - A Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, optical arrangement for

Newton’s rings, plane glass plate, sodium lamp and traveling microscope.

Theory: The optical arrangement for Newton’s Ring is shown in Fig 1 (a). A wedge shape air film
in formed between Plano-convex lens and glass plate. Interference takes place between light
reflected from concave surface of lens and upper surface the plate. In this experiment the fringes
are of equal thickness. The path difference between reflected rays from lens and plate is 2𝜇𝑡.
Fringes as shown in Fig 1 (b) are circular as locus of points having the same thickness of the film
forms a circle. The central fringe is dark as it is the point of contact where air film thickness is zero.

Figure 1: (a) Ray diagram for Newton’s ring Experimental set up (b) Newton’s rings or fringes.

Formula used: The wavelength of Sodium light is given by,

(𝐷2𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷2𝑛 )
𝜆=
4𝑝𝑅

Where,
D2n = Diameter of nth ring
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 = Diameter of (n+p) th ring
p = An integer numbers of the ring.
R = Radius of curvature of the curved face of the Plano convex lens.

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Procedure:
1. If a point source is used only then we require a convex lens otherwise using an extended source,
the convex lens is not required.
2. Before starting the experiment, the glass plates G1, G2 & the Plano convex should be
thoroughly cleaned.
3. The center of lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G1 at 45 deg.
4. Focus the eyepiece on the crosswire and move the microscope in the vertical plane by means
of rack & pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct clamp the microscope in the vertical
scale.
5. According to the theory, the center of the interference fringes should be dark but sometimes
the center appears white, this is due to the presence of dust particles between glass plate G2 and
Plano convex lens L2. In this case lens should be again cleaned.
6. Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes. Fix up the cross-wire
tangent to the ring and note this reading. Again, the microscope is moved in the horizontal plane
and the crosswire is fixed tangentially to the successive bright fringes noting the Vernier
reading till the other side is reached.
Observations:
Value of one division on main scale (θ) =
Number of divisions on Vernier scale (N) =
Least count of the travelling microscope (θ/N) = 0.01mm

TABLE FOR DEERMINATION OF 𝑫𝟐𝒏+𝒑 − 𝑫𝟐𝒏

No Diameter
𝐷2 − 𝐷2 Mean
of D = (a-b)mm D2 = (a - b)2 𝑛+𝑝 𝑛 p
Microscope reading (𝐷 2 − 𝐷2 2
rings 𝑛+𝑝 𝑛)(mm)

Left end Right

(a) mm end (b)
mm
2
4
6
8
10 2
12
14
16
18
20

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Microscope reading = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading x Least count

Calculations: The wavelength of sodium light is given by-

𝐷2 − 𝐷2
𝑛+𝑝 𝑛
𝜆=
4𝑝𝑅

Dividing the slope of the graph (D2 versus n) by 4R.

Result:
1. The mean wavelength of sodium light = -------------------- Å (by formula)
2. The mean wavelength of sodium light = -------------------- Å (by graph)
3. Standard value of wavelength of sodium light = 5893 Å

Percentage error: % Error = Standard value ~ Measured value x100

Standard value
Square of diameter of ring (Dn )
2

2 2
Slope = (Dn+p - D n )

0 5 10 15 20
Number of rings (n
Precautions:
1. Use large radius Plano-convex lens to obtain large diameter interference ring pattern.
2. Use an extended source to see the entire film simultaneously.
3. Clean the Plano-convex lens and the glass plate thoroughly in order to get perfect dark zero
order minima.
4. Arrange the cross wire tangentially to the respective ring whose diameter is to be measured.
5. Move the micrometer only in single direction to avoid back lash error.
6. Do not disturb the instrument setting while taking the readings.
7. Start counting the order of dark rings from the central dark spot as zero.
8. Bright fringes can also be used to find the wavelength of monochromatic source. The first
bright fringe after the central minima is of order 1.
Viva-voce:
1. What is interference?
2. What are coherent sources?
3. State ways to obtain coherent sources for interference with examples.
4. What monochromatic light source is used for the above experiment? What will happen to the
interference pattern if the monochromatic source is replaced with white light source?
5. Why the fringes obtained in Newton’s rings experiment are circular?
6. What is the standard wavelength of the yellow light source used in the experiment?
7. Why the central fringe is dark in the Newton’s ring fringe pattern?
8. State applications of the Newton’s ring experiment?

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Experiment No. 2 Date:

Fresnel’s Biprism

Objective: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Fresnel’s Biprism.

Apparatus: Optical bench with uprights, Sodium lamp, Fresnel’s bi-prism, Variable slit, a convex
lens, Micrometer eyepiece.

Formula Used: In the case of Biprism experiment the mean wavelength is given by;

2𝑑
𝜆=𝜔
𝐷

Where,
𝜔 =fringe width
2d=distance between the two virtual sources
D = distance between the slit and the eyepiece
Distanced between the vertical sources is given by
2d= √ (d1.d2)
Where,
d1=distance between the two image formed by the convex lens in the first position.
d2= distance between the two image formed by the convex lens in the second position

S1

2d Telescope

S2

Fig1: Determination of fringe width

Fig 2: Determination of 2d

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PROCEDURE:
I. Adjustment
1. The height of the slit biprism and eyepiece is adjusted at the same level.
2. The biprism upright is placed near the slit. The slit is made narrow and vertical. It is illuminated
with sodium light. Looking through the biprism two images of the source will be seen. The eye
is moved sideways when one of the images will appear to cross the edge of the biprism
from one side to the other. If the refracting edge of the biprism is parallel to the slit, the images
as a whole will appear to cross the edge. Otherwise, when adjustment is faulty, either the top
or the bottom of the image will cross the edge first. The biprism is adjusted by rotating it in
its own plane to affect the sudden transition of the full image.
3. The eyepiece is placed near biprism and the biprism upright is moved perpendicular to the
biprism till fringes or a patch of light is visible. If the fringes are not seen the biprism is rotated
in its cross plane.
4. If fringes are not clear reduce the slit width slightly.
5. The vertical cross wire is adjusted on one of the bright fringe at the center of the fringe system
and the eyepiece is moved away from the biprism. In doing, if fringes give a lateral shift,
it must be removed in the following way. From any position, the eyepiece is moved away from
the biprism and at the same time a lateral shift is given to the biprism with its base screw so
that the vertical cross-wire remains on the same fringe on which it was adjusted. The eyepiece
is now moved towards the biprism and this procedure is repeated few times till the lateral shift
is removed.

II. Measurement of 𝝎: (Fringe width)

1. The eye piece is fixed about 100 cm away from the slit.
2. The vertical crosswire is set on one of the bright fringes and the reading on the eyepiece scale
is noted.
3. The crosswire is moved on the next bright fringe and the reading is noted. In this way
observations are taken for about 20 fringes.

III. Measurement of D: (distance between source and screen)

The distance between the slit and eyepiece gives D.

IV. Measurement of 2d: (distance between the two sources on screen)

1. For this part the distance between the eyepiece and slit should be kept slightly more than four
times the focal length of lens. If necessary, the position of the slit and the biprism should not
be altered.
2. The convex lens is introduced the biprism and eyepiece and is placed near to the eyepiece. The
lens is moved towards the biprism till two sharp images of the slit are seen. The distance d1
is measured by the micrometer eyepiece.
3. The lens is moved towards the biprism till two images are again seen the distance between
these two images give d2.
4. At least two sets of observation for d1 and d2 are taken.

Observations:
Least count of Main Scale =
Number of divisions on Vernier Scale (n) =
Least count of Vernier Scale (𝜃 /n) =

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Measurement of D:
Position of the slit (a) =------- cm
Position of eyepiece (b) =------cm
Value of D (b-a) = ------ cm

Measurement of 2d:

Micrometer Reading
Observation for d1 Observation for d2 2d=√d1d2
Position of I Image Position of II Position of I Image Position of II image Mean
Image 2d
MS VS Total MS VS Total MS VS Total MS VS Total

Measurement of ω :

Micrometer Micrometer Fringe

reading(a) reading(b) Width
Mean (mm)
No of No of
Total Total Difference for
fringe MS VS fringe MS VS ω = [Mean/10]
(mm) (mm) for10 fringes 10
fringe
1 11

2 12

3 13

4 14

5 15

6 16

7 17

8 18

9 19

10 20

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Calculations:
2𝑑
𝜆=𝜔 Å
𝐷

Result:
The wavelength of sodium light (monochromatic) is................ Å

Standard value = 5893 Å (mean wavelength of sodium light)

Standard value ~ Measured value
Percentage Error = x 100
Standard Value

Precautions:
1. Micrometer screw should be moved in one direction to avoid backlash error.
2. The distance between the slit and the eyepiece (D) should be large (more than four times
of the focal length of the lens).
3. The cross wire should be adjusted on the bright fringe instead of dark fringe.
4. The distance 2d between two coherent sources should be very small.

Viva voce:

1. What is a biprism?
2. What are coherent sources?
3. Can two independent sources be coherent?
4. The Fresnel’s biprism experiment is based on which type of interference?
5. What do you mean by monochromatic source of light?
6. What is nature of light wave?
7. What is an electromagnetic wave?

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Experiment No. – 3 Date:

Polarimeter
Objective: To determine specific rotation of sugar solution using Laurent’s half shade Polarimeter.
Apparatus required: A half shade Polarimeter, Polarimeter tube filled with water, Sodium lamp,
Polarimeter tubes filled with 5%, 10% and 15% sugar solution

Formula Used:
The specific rotation of the plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water can be determined by the
following formula
10𝜃
𝑆=
𝐿𝐶
Where,
θ = rotation produced in degrees.
L= length of the tube in centimeter.
C = concentration of sugar solution in g/cc.
OR,
Graphically S can be determined as
10
𝑆= (slope of straight line obtained by plotting θ versus C)
𝐿

Fig 1: Schematic sketch of the polarimeter experimental set-up

Procedure:
1. If the Polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source should be used
and if biquartz device is used then white light can be used.
2. Take the Polarimeter tube and clean well both sides such that it is free from dust. Now fill the
tube with pure water and see that no air bubble is enclosed in it. Place the tube in its position
inside the Polarimeter.
3. Switch on the source of light and look through the eyepiece. Two halves of unequal intensity
are observed. Rotate the analyzer until two halves of the field appear equally bright. Take the
reading of the main scale as well as the Vernier scale and find out the total reading.
4. Fill the rest of the three Polarimeter tubes with 5%, 10% and 15% sugar solution.
5. Place the 5% Polarimeter tube inside the Polarimeter.
6. Rotate the analyzer to obtain the equal intensity position, first in a clockwise direction and then
in the anti-clockwise direction. Note down the position of the analyzer on main and Vernier
scales in the two directions. Find the mean reading. The difference between this and the previous
reading gives the specific rotation.
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7. Repeat the experiment with sugar solutions of different concentrations.

8. Measure the length of the tube in centimeters.

Observations:
Room temperature = …..
Mass of sugar dissolved (m) = ….
Volume of solution (V) = ….
Initial concentration of cane sugar (C) = m/V =.................. g/cc
Length of the polarimeter tube l =..... cm
Value of one division of the main scale =................................
Total number of divisions on Vernier scale =.............
Least count of Vernier =...........

Measurement of S:

S. With water With sugar solution Angle of rotation θ (deg.) θ /C Mean

No. 1st 2nd Conc. 1st 2nd (C-A) (D-B) θ θ 1 θ 2
=( + )/2 θ/C
position position position position θ1 θ2 (deg/gm
(A) (B) (C) (D) /cc)

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Calculations:
1. Using Formula:
The specific rotation (S) of given cane sugar solution is calculated by using the equation:

10𝜃
S=
LC
10
2. Using Graph: multiplied by the slope of the graph drawn between 𝜃 on the y-axis and C on
L
x –axis gives S.

Result:
The specific rotation for cane sugar at a temperature ........ oC is
= .................. deg cm-1 (gm/cc)-1 (using formula)
= .................. deg cm-1 (gm/cc)-1 (using graph)

Error analysis:
Standard value of specific rotation of cane sugar solution = 66.5 deg cm-1 (gm/cc)-1
Percentage Error = Standard value ~ Measured value x 100
Standard value

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Precaution:
1. The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned.
2. Water used should be dust-free.
3. Whenever a solution is changed, rinse the tube with the new solution under examination.
4. There should be no air bubbles inside the tube.
5. The position of the analyzer should be set accurately.
6. The temperature and wavelength of light used should be stated.
7. Reading should be taken when halves of the field of view become equally illuminated.

Viva-voce

1. What do you mean by polarized light?

2. What does polarization of light tell about the nature of light?
3. Define optic axis and principal section.
4. What is specific rotation?
5. What is polarimeter?
6. Is there any arrangement that can work with white light?
7. What is a bi-quartz plate?
8. Can you find from your experiment, the direction of rotation of polarimeter?
9. What do you mean by optical activity? Name some optically active materials.
10. What are daily life examples of polarization?

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EXPERIMENT No. 4 Date:

Diffraction Grating

Objective: To determine the wavelength of spectral lines of mercury light using plane transmission grating.
Apparatus: Mercury lamp, Spectrometer, spirit level, grating with stand, table lamp, reading lens
Formula used: The wavelength of any spectral line can be obtained from the formula.

(a + b) sin θ
λ=
n
Where,
(a+b) = grating element
θ = angle of diffraction
n = the order of spectrum

Fig. (1) Schematic diagram of plane transmission grating experiment and (2) order of spectrum
formed grating

Procedure:
1. Set the spectrometer by adjusting the position of the eyepiece of the telescope so that the
crosswire is clearly visible. Focus the telescope on a distant object for parallel rays. Level the
spectrometer and prism table with a spirit level.
2. Set the grating stand on the prism table with help of two screws P and Q provided on the
table. Take out the grating from the box carefully, holding it from the edge and without
couching its surface towards the telescope.
3. The telescope is rotated by 90° towards the left side of the direct image and the diffraction
grating is placed on the grating table.
4. The grating should be adjusted by rotating the grating table without touching the telescope
such that the slit gets appeared at the crosswire of the eyepiece.
5. When the slit is seen clearly we rotate the grating table 45° towards the right. So the
diffraction grating become normal to the incident light and ruled surface focus the telescope.
6. Now, the telescope should be again brought in its original position by rotating it 900 towards
the right.

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7. Focus the telescope on different colors such as violet, green, red, etc. (VIBGYOR) by moving
the telescope slowly on either side from the normal position. It was the first-order spectrum.
8. After measuring the first-order spectrum on both sides, i.e.; by nothing V1 and V2 (main scale
and Vernier scale), we turn the telescope to the other side (say, right or left). It is now focused
on the same colors or spectral lines and the reading of the crosswire on the scale is recorded.
9. Finally, the same procedure is repeated for other colors (spectral lines).

Observations:
Value of one division of the main scale =
Total number of divisions on vernier scale =
Least count of spectrometer =
Number of lines per inch on the grating N =
2.54
Grating element (a + b) = cm =………
N

s color Kind Spectrum on left Spectrum on right Sinθ in

Order of of side reading of side reading of degree
of light Vernier telescope (a) telescope (b) θ = (a~b)/2
spectrum
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
Violet V1
V2
Green V1
First
V2
Red V1
V2

Calculation:

Grating element

2.54
(a + b) = cm
N

N =15000 (Number of lines per inch on the grating)

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(Standard value ~ measured value)

% Error = x100
Standard value

Result:
The standard value of wavelength (λ) for the colors

Violet = 4047Å Green= 5469Å Red= 6908Å

(A) The observed wavelength (λ) from the first-order spectrum

Violet = ---------------Å Green= ---------------Å Red=-------------------Å

(B) Percentage error in measuring the wavelength (λ) for the colors in first order:
Violet =……% Green=………% Red= ..... %

Precautions:
1. The ruled surface of the grating should face towards the telescope.
2. The slit should be as narrow as possible
3. Grating should be set normal to the incident light.

Viva voce:

1. What is diffraction?
2. Name two types of diffraction.
3. Define grating element.
4. What is the condition for maxima in a transmission grating experiment?
5. Calculate the maximum possible order of diffraction observed from a grating with 15000 lines
per inch.
6. Why the central maxima observed in the plane transmission grating experiment is white in
colour?
7. What are the conditions necessary for diffraction of light?
8. What kind of diffraction are we studying in this experiment?

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Experiment No. 5 Date:

Carey Foster’s Bridge

Objective: To determine the specific resistance of the material of given wire using Carey-Foster’s
bridge.

Apparatus Required: Carey-Foster’s bridge, Resistance box, Leclanche cell, Galvanometer, Plug
key, Wire of unknown resistance, Rheostat, Thick Copper strip, Jockey, Connecting wires.

Experimental Arrangement: The Carey Foster’s bridge is as shown in the Fig. 1. One meter long
wire of manganin or constantan of uniform cross-section area is stretched along a meter scale. The wire
is connected at both the ends with copper strips. Beside these strips there is one copper strip B fixed
parallel to the meter scale and two L-shaped strips A and C at the ends of the scale. In between these
strips there are four empty spaces ab, cd, ef and gh. In first empty space ab known resistance X, in
second empty space cd a resistance P, in the third empty space a resistance Q and in fourth empty space
gh the known resistance Y are connected. The Leclanche cell E and plug key K are connected in
between A and C. Between the points B and D, galvanometer G is connected. At point D, contact key
is fixed which can move here and there on the wire EF. This key is known as jockey. On pressing
jockey, point D gets connected with the galvanometer.

Fig 1: Carey Foster’s Bridge setup

Formula Used:
1. Resistance per unit length of the wire of bridge
𝜌 = X/ (l2~l1) ohm/cm
Where l1 = balancing length on the bridge wire measured from the left end when known resistance X
is connected in left gap of the bridge and zero resistance is connected in right gap of the bridge and l2
= balancing length of the bridge wire measured from the left end on interchanging the positions of X
and Y.
2. Unknown resistance of the given wire Y = X – (l2 ~ l1) 𝜌
where X = unknown resistance connected in the left gap, Y = resistance of the wire connected in the
left gap, l1 and l2 respectively are the balancing lengths of the bridge wire measured from the left end,
before and after interchanging the positions of X and Y.
3. Specific resistance of the given wire:
Ks = (𝜋r2/l) Y
Where r is the radius and l is the length of the given wire. Value of both the parameters is provided to
the student.

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Procedure:

A. To determine the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire:

1. First the circuit is connected as in the figure. The decimal resistance box X is connected in the
left gap and copper strip Y is connected in the right gap of the bridge. Now both the lower fixed
ends of the rheostat are connected to terminals A and C respectively and its variable end is
connected to terminal B. Thereafter the Leclanche cell E and the plug key K are joined in series
in between the terminals B, its other end is connected to the jockey D.
2. The variable end of the rheostat is adjusted in middle such that both the resistances P and Q are
nearly equal.
3. Now inserting some resistance X through the resistance box, the jockey D is pressed on the
bridge wire and it is slided on it until zero deflection is obtained in the galvanometer. In this
position, the distance l1 of jockey from left end on wire is noted.
4. Thereafter the positions of resistance box X and copper strip Y are interchanged and then
without changing the resistance box, again the position of jockey is adjusted on the bridge wire
in order to obtain zero deflection in the galvanometer. In this position, the length l2 of the jockey
on the wire from the left end is noted.
5. Now the experiment is repeated three-four times by changing the resistance X from the
resistance box and each time the values of l1 and l2 are noted corresponding to the value of X.
6. Then using the relationship 𝜌 = X/ (l2~l1), the value of 𝜌 is calculated for each observation and
its mean value is calculated.
B. To determine the resistance of a given wire:
1. To determine the resistance of a given wire, from the electric circuit as in the fig. The copper
strip connected in the left is withdrawn and in its place the given wire is connected.
2. The above steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 in part (i) of the experiment are repeated.
3. Now using the relation Y = X- 𝜌 (l2~l1), the value of Y is calculated from each observation and
its mean value is obtained.

Observations:
1. To determine the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire:

Zero deflection
Position when
resistance box is
Resistance
connected
connected in (l2~l1) 𝜌 = X/ (l2~l1)
S.No.
resistance box X (in cm) (Ohm/cm)
(in ohm) In left In right
gap l1 gap l2
(in cm) (in cm)

Mean 𝜌 =………………..Ohm/cm

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2. For the resistance of the given wire:

Zero deflection
Position when
resistance box is
Resistance connected
connected in (l2~l1) Y = X - ρm (l2~l1)
S.No.
resistance box X ( in cm) (in ohm)
In left In right
(in ohm)
gap l1 gap l2
(in cm) (in cm)

Mean Y = ....................... Ohm

Calculations:
Specific resistance of the given wire is calculated by putting r = 0.0106 cm and l = 20 cm in formula
Ks = (𝜋r2/l) Y.

Result
Specific resistance of the given wire =…………………ohm.cm

Error analysis:
Standard value of specific resistance of material of given wire = 4.33 x10-5 Ohm.cm
(Standard value ~ measured value)
%Error = x100
Standard value

Precautions:
1. For greater sensitivity of the bridge, the resistance connected in the four gaps of the bridge
should be nearly equal.
2. Clean the ends of connecting wires with sand papers.
3. Never allow the flow of current in the circuit for long duration otherwise resistance wire will
get heated which in turn increase its resistance. For this, in the circuit insert the plug in key only
while taking observations.
4. Do not move the jockey on the meter bridge wire by rubbing otherwise thickness of wire will
not remain uniform.
5. Initially shunt should be used while adjusting galvanometer, but near zero deflection position,
it must be removed.
6. Only that resistance plug should be removed from the resistance box for which zero deflection
is observed in the middle of the bridge wire. In this state sensitivity of the bridge is maximum
and percentage error is minimum.
7. Except the resistance removed in the resistance box, all other plugs should be firmly tight.
8. Before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire, plug should be inserted in the plug key attached
with the cell so that electric circuit gets completed before the galvanometer gets connected in
the circuit.

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Viva Voce:

1. What is Leclanche cell? Explain any two types of cell.

2. Why are you using the Carey Foster’s bridge instead of Meter Bridge?
3. Which apparatus are you using to determine the resistance of the wire in your experiment?
4. What do you mean by specific resistance of a material?
5. What is the principle on which the Carey Foster Bridge is based?
6. Why resistances are usually made of constantan or manganin wires?

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Experiment No. 6 Date:

Variation of Magnetic Field

Objective: To study the variation of the magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil
carrying current and then to estimate the radius of the coil.

Apparatus Required: Stewart and Gee type tangent galvanometer, Ammeter, Battery, Rheostat,
Spirit level, Commutator, Plug key, Connecting wires.

Experimental Arrangement:

Fig1: Experimental Setup to Study Variation of Magnetic Field

Formula Used:
The field B along the axis of a coil is given by

𝜇0 𝑛𝑖𝑟 2
𝐵=
2 (𝑟 2 + 𝑥 2 )3/2
Where,
n = number of turns in the coil
r = radius of the coil
i = current in ampere flowing in the coil
x = distance of the point from the center of the coil.

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If B is made perpendicular to H, earth’s horizontal field, the deflection θ of the needle is given by:

B = H tan θ
Thus,

𝜇0 𝑛𝑖𝑟 2
𝐻 tan 𝜃 =
2(𝑟 2 + 𝑥 2 )3/2

In the above equation the only variables are x and θ, so study of variation of magnetic field involves
the study of variation of θ with respect to x.

Procedure:

1. Place the magnetometer compass box on the sliding bench so that its magnetic needle is at the
center of the coil. By rotating the whole apparatus in the horizontal plane, set the coil in the
magnetic meridian roughly. In this case, the coil, needle and its image all lies in the same
vertical plane. Rotate the compass box till the pointer ends read 0-0 on the circular scale.

2. To set the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian set up the electrical connections as in the fig.1
Send the current in one direction with the help of a commutator and note down the deflection
ofthe needle. Now reverse the direction of the current and again note down the deflection. If the
deflections are equal then the coil is in magnetic meridian otherwise turn the apparatus a little,
adjust pointer ends to read 0-0 till these deflections become equal.

3. Using rheostat Rh adjust the current such that the deflections of nearly 70° to 75° is produced
in the compass needle placed at the center of the coil. Read both ends of the pointer. Reverse
the direction of the current and again read both ends of the pointer. The mean of four readings
will give the mean deflection at x = 0.

4. Now shift the compass needle through 2 cm. each time along the axis of the coil and for each
position note down the mean deflection. Continue this process till the compass box reaches the
end of the bench.

5. Repeat the measurements exactly in the same manner on the either side of the coil. Plot a graph
taking x along the axis and tan θ along the y-axis.

6. Mark the points of inflexion on the curve. The distance between the two points will be the radius
of the coil.

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Observations:

Readings for the measurement of deflection 𝜃 on the east arm,

S.
No. Distance of the Current one way Current reversed
needle from Mean θ tan θ
the center (x) θ1 Θ2 θ3 θ4

Readings for the measurement of deflection 𝜃 on the west arm,

S.
No. Distance of the Current one way Current reversed
needle from Mean θ tan θ
the center (x) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

Points of inflexion

Fig. 2. X versus tanθ Plot

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Result:
The graph shows the variation of the magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
The distance between the points of inflexion P, Q and hence the radius of the coil = ……….cm.

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1. The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2. All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable
distance from the apparatus.
3. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value as to produce a deflection of nearly
750.
4. Current should be checked from time to time and for this purpose am ammeter should be
connected in series with the battery.
5. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer. Both ends of the pointer
should be read.
6. The curve should be drawn smoothly.

Viva Voce:
1. What is the direction of the field?
2. What is magnetic meridian?
3. Is the field uniform at the center?
4. How can you get wider region of uniform field?
5. Is it true for any direction of current in the two coils?
6. If any current carrying conductor is placed close to the coil ten will it affect your
measurement?
7. What is meant by point of inflexion?
8. What is the distance between two points of inflexion?

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Experiment No. 7 Date:
Stefan’s Law
Objective: To verify Stefan’s law by electrical method.

Apparatus Required: Experimental kit of Stefan’s law (kit consists of D.C. voltmeter, D. C. ammeter,
electric bulb, variable resistance, A.C. to D.C. converter etc.)

Formula used:
Log10P= 𝛼 Log10T + Log10C
Where,
P = Total power emitted by a body at temperature T,
𝛼 = power of T close to 4
T = temperature of a body
C = some constant depending on the material and area of such a body.

Theory:
For black bodies, Stefan’s law is
E = 𝜎 (T4-T04),
Where E is the net amount of radiation emitted per second per unit area by a body at temperature T and
surrounded by another body at temperature T0. 𝜎 is called Stefan’s constant. A similar relation can also
hold for bodies that are not black. In such case, we can write
P = C(T α − T0α )
Where, P is the total power emitted by a body at temperature T surrounded by another at temperature
T0, 𝛼 is a power quite closed to 4 and C is some constant depending on the material and area of such a
body. Further the relation can be put as
P = CT α (1 − T0α /T α )
If T>>T0 (e.g., T = 1500K, and T0 ≈ 300K), we can write
P = CT α
Or
Log10P = α Log10T + Log10C
The graph between Log10P and Log10T should be a straight line whose slope gives α. Therefore, in
order to verify Stefan’s law, we have to measure the following two parameters:
1. Power radiated P: We use in this experiment tungsten bulb as the radiating body and in the
steady state the electrical power V.I should be equal to the radiation power P (neglecting power
lost in the leads and through the gas in the bulb).
2. Temperature of the radiating body, T: In our experiment we need measure the temperature of
tungsten filament. This is achieved by measuring the resistance of filament, Rt, and then using
the relation
Rt = R0 (1+ αt + βt2)
With α and β being known for tungsten, we can find temperature of the filament. One serious limitation
arises in the measurement of R0 (resistance of filament at 0°C or 273K, one can write R0or R273). At
very small current, V/I ratio will give filament resistance as well as lead resistance. In order to calculate
R0then we measure the resistance (Rg) at the stage when the filament first starts glowing and
temperature at this stage is approximately 800K. At this temperature contribution of lead resistance
becomes smaller by a factor of 4 as compared with that at 273K. Therefore measurement of Rg (=R800)
and using the computed factor, R800/R273, a more accurate value of R273 (=R0) is found.

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Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the figure 1. In order to connect voltmeter across the bulb,
the two wires are soldered to the base points of the bulb.
2. With different increasing and decreasing values of current, we adjust such that the bulb glows
each time. Then for value of V and I, ratio V/I is found which gives Rg. This is the filament
resistance at 800 K. From Rt/R0vs. T graph, we note that
Rt/R0 = R800/R273 = 3.9
Therefore, R800/3.9= R273
Or
Rg/3.9= R0
Graph Rt/R0 vs. T is to be provided to the student (see table3).
3. Now filament current I is increased from a value below glow stage to values high enough to get
dazzling white light, measuring voltage V across bulb every time. From these V and I values,
we deduce power P (=VI) and Rt (=V/I). From Rt using the value R0 (or Rg/3.9) or R273K, we
deduce the temperature T of the filament and obtain a graph in Log10P against Log10T.

Fig 1: Circuit diagram for Stefan’s Law verification.

Observations:

Table 1: Readings for determination of the filament resistance (Rg) at temperature T= 800K:

Current Increasing Current Decreasing R0 =

S.No. Mean
Voltage Current I Rg=V/I Voltage Current I Rg=V/I Ohms Mean Rg/3.9
V volts amp. Ohms V volts amp. Rg

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Table 2: Determination of Power P for different temperature T:

S.No. Voltage Current I Rt=V/I Rt/Ro Temperature Log10T Power Log10P

V( volt) (Amp.) (Ohm) From Table 3 P=VI
or from graph (Watt)
K

Calculations: The graph is plotted between log10P vs. log10T.

Fig 2: log10P vs. log10T plot

Result: Slope of the above mentioned graph gives the value of α =AB/BC
Precautions:
1. Use the bulb having tungsten filament.
2. Increase the current in steps.
3. Note down the voltage reading after every change in current.
4. Choose the rheostat of appropriate range.
5. Connection should be tight.
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Table3. For plotting Rt/Ro versus T graph

Temp. in 0C Rt/Ro Temp. in 0C Rt/Ro

0 1.00 800 5.64
100 1.53 900 6.37
200 2.07 1000 6.94
300 2.13 1100 7.60
400 3.22 1200 8.26
500 3.80 1300 8.90
600 4.40 1400 9.70
700 5.00 1500 10.43

Viva –voce
1. What is a blackbody?
2. What do you mean by blackbody radiation spectrum?
3. State Stefan’s law for blackbody radiation.
4. When does a blackbody radiate?
5. What is unit of Stefan’s constant?
6. Give example of a blackbody.
7. What do you understand by absorption and emission of radiation?
8. What is the value of Planck’s constant?
9. What is the value of Boltzmann constant?
10. Explain Planck’s hypothesis of black body radiation.

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Experiment No. 8 Date:

Potentiometer

Objective: Calibration of Voltmeter and Ammeter with Potentiometer.

Apparatus: Potentiometer, given Voltmeter, given Ammeter, two storage batteries, two rheostats (50,
110 ohm), a standard cell, galvanometer, two one-way key, one two-way key and connection wires.

Formula used:
A. The error in voltmeter reading is given by

𝐸𝐿2
𝑉′ − 𝑉 = −𝑉
𝑙1
𝐸𝐿2
𝑉′ = = 𝑘𝑙2
𝑙1

B. The error in ammeter reading is given by

𝐸𝐿2
𝐴′ − 𝐴 = −𝐴
𝑙1
𝐸𝐿2
𝐴′ = = 𝑘𝑙2
𝑙1

Where,
V= potentiometer difference between two points read by voltmeter
V'= potentiometer difference between the same two points read by potentiometer
E = E.M.F. of the standard cell.
l1 = length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to E.M.F. of standard cell.
l2 = length of the potentiometer wire corresponding to the potential difference (V') measured
by potentiometer.
k = potential gradient of the potentiometer wire
Procedure:
A. For calibration of Voltmeter
1. Make the electrical connections are show in fig (1).
2. Close K1 and insert the plug key between ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminal of key K2. Place the jockey on
the last end ‘B’ of the potentiometer wire. If the deflection is observed in the galvanometer, then
the rheostat (1) is adjusted to get zero deflection (null point). The adjustment of the rheostat is
not changed throughout the experiment.
3. Record the total balancing length (l1) of the potentiometer wire. This is 1000 cm for ten wire
potentiometer. The EM.F. of the standard cell (E) is recorded.
4. Now remove the plug key from the terminal between ‘a’ and ‘b’ points of key K2 and insert it
in between ‘b’ and ‘c’ terminals. Close the key K3. Again adjust the rheostat Variable point
(P)] of the potential divider circuit such that the voltmeter shows a constant reading. Adjust the
jockey on the potentiometer wire such that Null point in the galvanometer is obtained.

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5. Note down the total length of potentiometer wire in this case (l2).
6. Now repeat the above procedure again and again and record at least 6 -8 different values of
voltmeter reading V and corresponding values of l2.
7. Now, plot a graph between the voltmeter reading (V) along the X-axis and the corresponding
error in the reading (V'- V) along Y-axis. This is the required calibration curve for the given
voltmeter.
B. For calibration of Ammeter
1. Make the electrical connections are show in fig (2).
2. Close K1 and insert the plug key between ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminal of key K2.Place the jockey on the
last end ‘B’ of the potentiometer wire. If the deflection is observed in the galvanometer, then
the rheostat (1) is adjusted to get zero deflection (null point). The adjustment of the rheostat is
not changed throughout the experiment.
3. Record the total balancing length (l1) of the potentiometer wire. This is 1000cm for ten wire
potentiometer. The EM.F. of the standard cell (E) is recorded.
4. Now remove the plug key from the terminal between ‘a’ and ‘b’ points of key K2 and insert it
in between ‘b’ and ‘c’ terminals. Close the key K3. Again adjust the rheostat variable point (P)]
of the potential divider circuit such that the voltmeter shows a constant reading. Adjust the
jockey on the potentiometer wire such that Null point in the galvanometer is obtained.
5. Note down the total length of potentiometer wire in this case (l2).
6. Now repeat the above procedure again and again and record at least 6 -8 different values of
voltmeter reading I and corresponding values of l2.
7. Now, plot a graph between the voltmeter reading (I) along the X-axis and the corresponding
error in the reading (I'- I) along Y-axis. This is the required calibration curve for the given
voltmeter.

Fig1: Circuit diagram for calibration of Voltmeter

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Fig 2: Circuit diagram for calibration of Ammeter

Observations:
E.M.F of standard cell E = .............. V
Balancing length (l1) of the potentiometer wire corresponding to E.M.F. of the standard cell=…….cm
A. Table for calibration of Voltmeter:

S.No. Voltmeter reading (Volts) Balancing length of the Potentiometer Error in Voltmeter
V potentiometer wire (l2) reading reading (V ' -V)
in cm
El 2
V '=
l1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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B. Table for calibration of Ammeter:

S.No. Ammeter reading (Amp) Balancing length of the Potentiometer Error in Ammeter
A potentiometer wire (l2) reading reading (A'- A)
in cm
El 2
A'=
l1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Result:
A. The graph so obtained by plotting the error against the Voltmeter reading is the calibration
curve of the given Voltmeter.
B. The graph so obtained by plotting the error against the Ammeter reading is the calibration
curve of the given Ammeter.

Viva voce:
1. What is the principle of potentiometer?
2. What is e.m.f of the standard cell used in this experiment?
3. What is function of a voltmeter?
4. What does a null deflection in a galvanometer indicate?
5. What is function of a rheostat?
6. What is length of potentiometer wire?

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Experiment No. 9 Date:
Energy Band Gap
Objective: - To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor material by using PN
Junction Diode.

Apparatus- A energy band gap kit consisting of d.c. power supply (0-5 volts), Micro-ammeter (0-100
μA), p-n junction diode, Electrically heated oven, Thermometer, Connecting leads.

Formula- In reverse biased PN junction diode the reverse saturation current, IS is the function of
temperature (T) of the junction diode.

Is = constant T3/2 e –Eg /kT................................. (1)

Where,
Is = saturation current in microampere (μA)
T = temperature of junction diode in Kelvin (K),
Eg = band gap in electron volts (eV)
k = Boltzmann constant
For a small range of temperatures, the relation is expressed as,

5.036 𝑋 103𝐸𝑔................................
log10 IS = constant – (2)
𝑇

Where T is the temperature in Kelvin (K) and Eg is the band gap in electron volts (eV).
The graph between 103 /T as abscissa and log10 IS as ordinate results in a straight line and the slope of
the line is given as,
Slope = 5.036 Eg
Hence band gap Eg in eV will be,
Eg = slope of the line / 5.036
Theory:
A semi-conductor (either doped or intrinsic) always possesses an energy gap between its valence and
conduction bands. For the conduction of electricity, a certain amount of energy is to be givento the
electron so that it can jump from the valence band to the conduction band. The energy so needed is the
measure of the energy gap (Eg) between the top and bottom of valence and conduction bands
respectively. In case of insulators, the value of Eg varies from 3 to 7 eV. However, for semiconductors,
it is quite small. For example, in case of germanium, Eg = 0.72 eV and in case of silicon, Eg = 1.1 eV
In semiconductors at low temperatures, there are few charge carriers to move, so conductivity is quite
low. However, with an increase in temperature, more number of charge carriers get sufficient energy
to be excited to the conduction band. This leads to increase in the number of free charge carriers and
hence increase in conductivity. In addition to the dependence of the electrical conductivity on the
number of free charges, it also depends on their mobility. The mobility of the charge carriers, however
decreases with increasing temperature. But on the average, the conductivity of the semiconductors rises
with rise in temperature. To determine the energy band gap of a semi- conducting material, we study
the variation of its conductance with temperature.

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In reverse bias, the current flowing through the PN junction is quite small and internal heating of
the junction does not take place.
When PN junction is placed in reverse bias as shown in fig.1, the current flows through the junction
due to minority charge carriers only.

Fig 1: Circuit diagram for the experimental set up

The concentration of these charge carriers depend on band gap 𝐸𝑔. The saturation value, Is of reverse
current depends on the temperature of junction diode and it is given by the following equation,

Is = A (Nn e vn + Np e vp ) 𝑒 −𝐸𝑔/𝑘T …….(3)

Where, Nn and Np are the electrons and hole concentrations respectively in N and P-type region,
𝑣𝑛 and 𝑣𝑃 are the drift velocities of electrons and holes respectively,
A is the area of junction,
k = 1.38 x 10−23 J/K, is Boltzmann’s constant and T is absolute temperature of junction.
Taking log of both sides of equation (3), we have,
𝐸𝑔
log 𝑒 𝐼𝑠 = log 𝑒 𝐴(𝑁𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑛 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑒𝑣𝑝 ) −
𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑔
2.303 log10 𝐼𝑠 = 2.303 log10 𝐴(𝑁𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑛 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑒𝑣𝑝 ) −
𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑔
log10 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐶 −
2.303𝑘𝑇
Where C is a constant, which is equal to the first term of RHS of above equation. On substituting the
value of k and converting the units of Eg from eV to Joule, we get

1.6𝑋 10−19𝐸𝑔
log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 −
2.303 𝑋 1.38 𝑋 10−23 𝑇

5.036 𝑋 103𝐸𝑔
log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 −
𝑇

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log10 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 + (− 5.036 𝐸𝑔) 103

𝑇

This is the equation of straight line having negative slope (5.036 𝐸𝑔) for Graph between 103 /T as
abscissa and log10 IS as ordinate.

Slope = 5.036 𝐸𝑔

𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐰𝐧 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 𝑰𝑺 and 𝑻
𝑬𝒈 =
𝟓.𝟎𝟑𝟔
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1 i.e. positive of 0-20 V power supply to N-side of diode
and to positive of voltmeter. Connect negative of power supply to negative of voltmeter and
negative of micro ammeter (µA) and positive of micro ammeter to P-side of diode.
2. Keep the temperature control knob fully anti-clockwise.
3. Switch on the instrument using on/off toggle switch provided on front panel keeping the
temperature control knob fully anticlockwise.
4. Adjust the voltage at 1 to 2 V DC and note down the reverse current.
5. Adjust the temperature control knob at maximum position. Temperature starts increasing and
the reading of the micro ammeter starts increasing.
6. When t h e temperature reaches to 75°C, switch off the oven by rotating the pot
anticlockwisedown to the minimum side. Note down the maximum reading shown by micro
ammeter.
7. As the temperature starts falling, record the values of the micro ammeter reading in
observationtable after some equal drop in temperature.
8. Plot a graph between 103 /T along x axis and log10Is along y axis, and the slope of the line is
determined from the graph.
Observations:
Fix voltage at 1V to 2V.
S.No. Temperature Saturation Temperature 103/T(K) log10Is
T(oC) current (Is) T(K)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

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Calculations:
Taking 103 /T along X- axis and log10Is along Y-axis, plot a graph between log10Is and103/T. The graph
will be a straight line as shown in fig.2. After determining the slope of a straight line from this graph
the band gap can be calculated by using the formula,

Eg (eV) = slope/ 5.036 = ---------------- eV

Result:
The band gap Eg for the given semiconductor is found to be =…………..eV.
Standard value for band gap of Ge = 0.72 eV

(Standard value ~ measured value)

%Error = x100
Standard value

Fig 2: Variation of log10Is v/s 103 /T

Precautions:
1. The diode should be reversed biased.
2. Do not exceed the temperature of the oven above 100 0C to avoid over heating of diode.
3. The voltmeter and ammeter reading should initially be at zero mark.
4. Voltmeter and ammeter reading should be varied in small steps.
5. After doing the experiment switch off the circuit.
Viva voce:
1. What do you mean by a semiconductor? Give example.
2. Define energy band gap of a semiconductor?
3. Why the applied voltage is kept constant throughout the experiment?
4. What kind of doping material is added to make a semiconductor p type?
5. Define absolute zero temperature.
6. Give relation between Kelvin and Celsius scale of temperature.
7. Define electron volt?
8. Give relation between eV and Joules.
9. What is PN junction diode?
10. What do you mean by valence band, conduction band and forbidden band?
11. How many types of semi-conductors are there?
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Experiment No. 10 Date:

Compound Pendulum

Objective: To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by means of a compound pendulum.

Apparatus required: Bar pendulum, Knife–edge with a platform, Sprit level Precision stop
watch, Meter scale and Telescope.

Formula used:
The time period T of a simple pendulum of length L, is given by

𝑇 = 2𝜋 √(𝐿/𝑔) ………………….(1)

𝑔 = 4 𝜋 2 𝐿 /𝑇2……………………(2)

Where,
L= length of the simple equivalent pendulum
g= acceleration due to gravity
T= time period

Description:

The bar pendulum consists of a metallic bar of about one meter long. A series of circular holes each
of approximately 5 mm in diameter are made along the length of the bar. The bar is suspended from
a horizontal knife-edge passing through any of the holes. The knife-edge, in turn, is fixed in a
platform provided with the screws. By adjusting the rear screw the platform can be made horizontal.

Procedure:
(i) Suspend the bar using the knife edge of the hook through a hole nearest to one end of the bar. With
the bar at rest, focus a telescope so that the vertical cross-wire of the telescope is coincident with
the vertical mark on the bar.
(ii) Allow the bar to oscillate in a vertical plane with small amplitude (within 40of arc).

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(iii) Note the time for 20 oscillations by a precision stop-watch by observing the transits of the vertical
line on the bar through the telescope. Make this observation three times and find the mean time t for
20 oscillations. Determine the time period T.
(iv) Measure the distance d of the axis of the suspension, i.e. the hole from one of the edges of the bar
by a meter scale.
(v) Repeat operation (i) to (iv) for the other holes till C.G of the bar is approached where the time period
becomes very large.
(vi) In vertical the bar and repeat operations (i) to (v) for each hole starting from the extreme top.
(vii) Draw a graph with the distance d of the holes as abscissa and the time period T as ordinate. The
nature of graph will be as shown in Fig.2.
Draw the horizontal line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis. Here A, B, D and E represent the points
of intersections of the line with the curves. Note that the curves are symmetrical about a vertical line
which meets the X-axis at the point G, which gives the position of the C.G of the bar. This vertical
line intersects with the line ABCDE at C. Determine the length AD and BE and find the length L of
the equivalent simple pendulum from following formula

𝐿 = (𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐸)/2 = 𝐿𝑑/2

Find also the time period T corresponding to the line ABCDE and then compute the value of g.
Draw several horizontal lines parallel to X-axis and adopting the above procedure find the value of
g for each horizontal line. Calculate the mean value of g. alternatively, for each horizontal line
obtains the values of L and T and draw a graph with T2 as abscissa and L as ordinate. The graph
would be a straight line. By taking a convenient point on the graph, g may be calculated.
Observations:
Values of T and d

Distance d Time for

No. of of the hole 20 Time period
holes from C.G oscillations T= t/20 (sec)
from one (cm) (sec)

One
side of
C.G

Other
side of
C.G

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Result:

Percentage error:

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = [(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)]/(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) 𝑋 100

Precautions:

(i) Ensure that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical plane and the motion of the pendulum
should be rotational.
(ii) The amplitude of oscillation should remain within 40 of arc.
(iii) Use a precision stop-watch and note the time accurately as far as possible.

Viva voce:

1. Define simple pendulum.

2. Define ‘g’.
3. What is the difference between ‘g’ and ‘G’?
4. If the mass of the object is doubled then what will be the effect of time period of the compound
pendulum?
5. If the mass moment inertia of the object is increased to 4 times then what will be the effect of time
period of the compound pendulum?
6. What is the formula for time period in terms moment of inertia?

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Experiments beyond the syllabus

Experiment No. 1
Date:
Refractive Index of Water using Newton’s Ring Experiment

Objective: -To determine the refractive index of water using Newton’s Ring.

Apparatus: - A Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, Optical arrangement for Newton’s
rings, Plane glass plate, Sodium lamp, Traveling microscope, Clean water.

Theory: The optical arrangement for Newton’s Ring is shown in Fig 1 (a). A wedge shape air film in
formed between Plano-convex lens and glass plate. Interference takes place between light reflected from
concave surface of lens and upper surface the plate. In this experiment the fringes are of equal thickness.
The path difference between reflected rays from lens and plate is 2𝜇𝑡. Fringes as shown in Fig 1 (b) are
circular as locus of points having the same thickness of the film forms a circle. The central fringe is dark
as it is the point of contact where air film thickness is zero.

Figure 1: (a) Ray diagram for Newton’s ring Experimental set up (b) Newton’s rings or fringes.

Formula used: The wavelength of Sodium light is given by,

(𝐷2𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷2𝑛 )
𝜆=
4𝑝𝑅
Where,
D2n = Diameter of nth ring
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 = Diameter of (n+p) th ring
p = An integer numbers of the ring.
R = Radius of curvature of the curved face of the Plano-convex lens.

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Procedure:
1. If a point source is used only then we require a convex lens otherwise using an extended
source, the convex lens is not required.
2. Before starting the experiment, the glass plates G1, G2 & the Plano convex should
be thoroughly cleaned.
3. The center of lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G1 at 45
deg.
4. Focus the eyepiece on the crosswire and move the microscope in the vertical plane by means
of rack & pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct clamp the microscope in the
vertical scale.
5. According to the theory, the center of the interference fringes should be dark but sometimes
the center appears white, this is due to the presence of dust particles between glass plate G2
and Plano convex lens L2. In this case lens should be again cleaned.
6. Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes. Fix up the cross
wire tangent to the ring and note this reading. Again the microscope is moved in the
horizontal plane and the crosswire is fixed tangentially to the successive bright fringes
noting the Vernier reading till the other side is reached.
7. Now a small drop of water is introduced between plano convex lens and plate air film will
be replaced by water film. Repeat the procedure and note down the readings.
Observations:
Value of one division on main scale (θ) =
Number of division on Vernier scale (N) =
Least count of the travelling microscope (θ/N) = 0.01mm

2
Table for determination of [ Dn p
- D2n ]air
Mean
No Diameter
2 2
D = (a-b) D2 = (a - b)2 D -D p
of n+ p n (𝐷2 − 𝐷2)𝑎𝑖𝑟 (mm)2
Microscope reading
rings mm 𝑛+𝑝 𝑛

Left end Right

(b) mm end (b)
mm

2
4
6
8
10 2
12
14
16
18
20

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2
Table for determination of (𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 )𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Mean
No Diameter
2 2
D = (a-b) D2 = (a - b)2 D -D p
of
Microscope reading
n+ p n (𝐷2 − 𝐷2)𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ( mm)2
rings mm 𝑛+𝑝 𝑛

Left end Right end

(a) mm (b) mm

2
4
6
8
10
12 2
14
16
18
20

Microscope reading = Main scale reading + (Vernier scale reading)⨯Least count

Calculations: The refractive index of water is given by-

2
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 )𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜆= 2
(𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 )
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Result:

The refractive index of water is = --------------------

The standard value of the refractive index of water = 1.33

Percentage error:

% Error =[(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒~𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)]/(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) × 100

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Precautions:

1. Use large radius Plano-convex lens to obtain large diameter interference ring pattern.
2. Use an extended source to see the entire film simultaneously.
3. Clean the Plano-convex lens and the glass plate thoroughly in order to get perfect dark
zero order minima.
4. Arrange the cross wire tangentially to the respective ring whose diameter is to be
measured.
5. Move the micrometer only in single direction to avoid back lash error.
6. Do not disturb the instrument setting while taking the readings.
7. Start counting the order of dark rings from the central dark spot as zero.
8. Bright fringes can also be used to find the wavelength of monochromatic source. The
first bright fringe after the central minima is of order 1.

Viva-voce:

1. What is interference?
2. What are coherent sources?
3. State ways to obtain coherent sources for interference with examples
4. What monochromatic light source is used for the above experiment? What will happen to
the interference pattern if the monochromatic source is replaced with white light source?
5. Why the fringes obtained in Newton’s rings experiment are circular?
6. What is the standard wavelength of the yellow light source used in the experiment?
7. Why the central fringe is dark in the Newton’s ring fringe pattern?
8. State applications of the Newton’s ring experiment?

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Experiment No. 2 Date:

Dispersive Power of Prism
Object: To determine the dispersive power of the given prism by using the spectrometer.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Prism, Mercury lamp, and Spirit level.

Formula Used:

1. Refractive index of prism for each wavelength of light (λ).

𝐴+𝐷
sin
µ= 2
𝐴
sin
2

Where,
µ= Refractive index of individual wavelength
A = Angle of Prism = 60°
D =Angle of deviation

2. The dispersive power of prism is given by

µ𝑏 − µ𝑟
𝜔=
µ𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 1

Where,
ω = Dispersive power of prism
µb = Refractive index of blue light (λb)
µr = Refractive index of red light (λr)
µavg=Mean refractive index of µb and µr

The average refractive is calculated by using this relation

µ𝑏 − µ𝑟
𝜔=
µ𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 1

Observation Table:
Table-1. Direct ray reading (R)
LC = Least count of the spectrometer

Vernier Main scale (M) Vernier Scale (V) R= M + (LC x V)

Reading Reading

V1

V2

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Table-2. Angle of minimum deviation for prism

Dispersive
Mean D Refractive Power
Colour (degree)
Main Scale Vernier T = M + (LC x D Index
𝝀 Vernier µ𝑏 − µ𝑟
(M) Scale(V) V) (degree) D = R-D 𝜔=
(nm) (D1 + D2)/2 (µ) µ −1
𝑎𝑣𝑔

V1 D1
Blue V2 D2
. . .
D1
V1 . .
Green
V2. D2 . .

Yellow V1 D1

V2 D2

V1 D1

Red V2 D2

Procedure:
1. Set the spectrometer by adjusting the position of the eyepiece of telescope of the telescope so that
the crosswire are clearly visible. Focus the telescope of the spectrometer, that a sharp slit
illuminated with light can be observed.
2. Place the prism on the table, the rough side of prism should in the transverse direction of incoming
light toward telescope of spectrometer
3. Observe the direct ray reading on the both side of Vernier scale
4. Gently turn the prism table back and forth. As you do so, the spectrum should appear to migrate in
one direction until a point at which it reverses its direction (Fig. 2).
5. Lock the prism table. Now, using fine adjustment screw using fine adjustment screw of the
telescope fix the crosswire on one of the spectral lines of wavelength λ1 at an extreme end.
6. Now focus the telescope on the different colors of lights such as Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, orange
and red, by moving the telescope gently in the direction of rough surface part of prism (Fig. 1).
7. Finally, note down the reading on both side of Vernier scales (V A and VB) and calculate the
refractive index for different colors of light and dispersive power of prism.

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Fig. Schematic diagram of dispersive power of prism calculation using white light

Results:

Refractive index of grass prism (Standard) = 1.5

Refractive index of glass prism (calculated):…………………………….

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 - 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

%Error =
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percentage error in measuring the refractive index of prism: …………

Standard value of dispersive power of glass = 0.0164

Dispersive power of prism (Calculated)……………………………………………….

Percentage error in measuring the Dispersive power of prism ---------------------

Precautions:

1. The slit of collimator must in parallel to the telescope crosswire.

2. The slit should be narrow as possible
3. Rough side of prism should be perpendicular to the incoming white light.
Viva Voce:

1. What is dispersion of light?

2. Why dispersion happen in glass prism?
3. What is dispersive power?
4. What is the angle of deviation?
5. What is difference between the ray and wave optics?

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