Steam Nozzles and Types

Nozzle is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid increases at the expense of
pressure drop. if the fluid is steam, then the nozzle is called as Steam nozzle.
The flow of steam through nozzles may be taken as adiabatic expansion. The steam
possesses a very high velocity at the end of the expansion, and the enthalpy decreases as
expansion occurs. Friction exists between the steam and the sides of the nozzle; heat is
produced as the result of the resistance to the flow. The phenomenon of super saturation
occurs in the steam flow through nozzles. This is because of the time lag in the
condensation of the steam during the expansion.

The area of such duct having minimum cross-section is known as throat.

A fluid is called compressible if its density changes with the change in pressure brought
about by the flow.

If the density changes very little or does not change, the fluid is said to be incompressible.
Generally the gases and vapours are compressible, whereas liquids are incompressible.

Types of Nozzles:

There are three types of nozzles

1. Convergent nozzle

2. Divergent nozzle

3. Convergent-divergent nozzle.

Convergent Nozzle:

A typical convergent nozzle is shown in the Fig.1. In a convergent nozzle, the cross sectional
area decreases continuously from its entrance to exit. It is used in a case where the back
pressure is equal to or greater than the critical pressure ratio.

Fig 1. Convergent nozzle

Divergent nozzle:

The cross sectional area of divergent nozzle increases continuously from its entrance to
exit. It is used in a case where the back pressure is less than the critical pressure ratio.

Fig 2. Divergent nozzle

Convergent – Divergent nozzle:

In this condition, the cross sectional area first decreases from its entrance to the throat and
then again increases from throat to the exit. This case is used in the case where the back
pressure is less than the critical pressure. Also, in present day application, it is widely used
in many types of steam turbines.

Fig 3. Convergent-Divergent nozzle

Flow of steam Through Nozzle

Supersaturated flow or metastable flow of in Nozzles: As steam expands in the nozzle, the
pressure and temperature in it drop, and it is likely that the steam start condensing when it
strikes the saturation line. But this is not always the situation. Due to the high velocities,
the time up to which the steam resides in the nozzle is small, and there may not be
sufficient time for the needed heat transfer and the formation of liquid droplets due to
condensation. As a result, the condensation of steam is delayed for a while. This
phenomenon is known as super saturation, and the steam that remains in the wet region
without holding any liquid is known as supersaturated steam. The locus of points where
condensation occursregardless of the initial temperature and pressure at the entrance of
the nozzle is called the Wilson line. The Wilson line generally lies between 4 and 5 percent
moisture curves in the saturation region on the h-s diagram in case of steam, and is often
taken as 4 percent moisture line. The phenomenon of super saturation is shown on the h-s
chart below:

Fig 4. The h-s diagram for the expansion of steam in the nozzle

Effects of Supersaturation:

The following are the effects of supersaturation in a nozzle.

1. The temperature at which the steam becomes supersaturated will be less than the
saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure. Therefore, supersaturated
steam will havethe density more than that of equilibrium condition which results in
the increase in the mass of steam discharged.
 2. Supersaturation causesthe specific volume and entropy of the steam to increase.

3. Supersaturation reduces the heat drop. Thus the exit velocity of the steam is
reduced.

4. Supersaturation increases the dryness fraction of the steam.

Effect of Friction on Nozzles:

1. Entropy is increased.

2. The energy available decreases.

3. Velocity of flow at the throat get decreased.

4. Volume of flowing steam is decreased.

5. Throat area required to discharge a given mass of steam is increased.

Continuity and steady flow energy equations through a certain section of the nozzle:

Where m denotes the mass flow rate, v is the specific volume of the steam, A is the area of
cross-section and C is the velocity of the steam.

For steady flow of the steam through a certain apparatus, principle of conservation of
energy states:

h1 + C12/2 + gz1 + q = h2 + C22/2 + gz2 + w

For nozzles, changes in potential energies are negligible, w = 0 and q = 0.

h1 + C12 /2 = h2 + C22 /2

which is the expression for the steady state flow energy equation.
Things to remember

 Nozzle is a duct by flowing through which the velocity of a fluid increases at the
expense of pressure drop. if the fluid is steam, then the nozzle is called as Steam
nozzle.

 A fluid is said to be compressible if its density changes with the change in pressure
brought about by the flow.

 If the density does not changes or changes very little, the fluid is said to be
incompressible. Usually the gases and vapors are compressible, whereas liquids are
incompressible.

 There are three types of nozzles

1. Convergent nozzle

2. Divergent nozzle

3. Convergent-divergent nozzle.

 Effect of Friction on Nozzles:

1. Entropy is increased.

2. The energy available decreases.

3. Velocity of flow at the throat getdecreased.

4. Volume of flowing steam is decreased.

5. Throat area requiredto discharge a given mass of steam is increased.

Thermal Engineering
By Sarkar
Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering
By J.Selwin Rajadurai
A nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross-sectional area in which a steadily flowing fluid can be made to
accelerate by a pressure drop along the duct.

Applications: Steam and Gas Turbines, Jet Engines, Rocket Motors, Flow Measurement.

Assumption: The flow of fluid is assumed to be one-dimensional and steady.

In one-dimensional flow it is assumed that the fluid velocity, and the fluid properties, change only in the
direction of the flow. This means that the fluid velocity is assumed to remain constant at a mean value across
the cross-section of the duct.

Nozzle shape
Consider a stream of fluid at pressure p1, enthalpy h1, and with a low velocity V1. It is required to find the
shape of duct which will cause the fluid to accelerate to a high velocity as the pressure falls along the duct.
Assumptions: The heat loss from the duct is negligibly small (i.e. adiabatic flow, Q = 0), and it is clear that
no work is done on or by the fluid (i.e. W = 0).
Applying the energy equation between section 1 and any other section X-X where the pressure is p, the
enthalpy is h, and the velocity is V, we have
2
V V2
h1  1  h 
2 2
i.e. V  2(h1  h)  V1
2 2

or, V  {2(h1  h)  V1
2
(1)
If the area at section X-X is A, and the specific volume is v , then,
VA
Mass flow, m
v
A v
Or, Area per unit mass flow,  . (2)
m V
Then substituting for the velocity V, from equation (1),
v
Area per unit mass flow = (3)
{2(h1  h)  V1
2

It can be seen from equation (3) that in order to find the way in which the area of the duct varies it is
necessary to be able to evaluate the specific volume, v , and the enthalpy, h , at any section X-X. In order to
do this, some information about the process undergone between section 1 and section X-X must be known.
For the ideal frictionless case, since the flow is adiabatic and reversible, the process undergone is an
isentropic process, and hence
s1  (entropy at section X  X )  s, say
Now using equation (2) and the fact that s1  s , it is possible to plot the variation of the cross-sectional area
of the duct against the pressure along the duct. For a vapour this can be done using tables; for a perfect gas
the procedure is simpler, since we have pv  Constant, for an isentropic process. In either case, choosing
fixed inlet conditions, then the variation in the area, A, the specific volume, v , and the velocity, V, can be
plotted against the pressure along the duct. Typical curves are shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the area
decreases initially, reaches a maximum, and then increases again.
This can be seen from equation (2),
v
i.e. Area per unit mass flow =
V

When v increases less rapidly than V, then the area decreases; when v increases more rapidly than V, then
the area increases.

A nozzle, the area of which varies as in Fig. 1, is called a convergent-divergent nozzle (Fig. 2). The section
of minimum area is called throat of the nozzle. It will be shown later that the velocity at the throat of a
nozzle operating at its designed pressure ratio is the velocity of sound at the throat conditions. The flow upto
the throat is subsonic; the flow after the throat is supersonic. It should be noted that a sonic or a supersonic
flow requires a diverging duct to accelerate it.
The specific volume of a liquid is constant over a wide pressure range, and therefore the nozzles for liquids
are always convergent, even at very high exit velocities (e.g. a fire-hose uses a convergent nozzle).

Critical pressure ratio

It is stated earlier that the velocity at the throat of a correctly designed nozzle is the velocity of sound. In the
same way, for a nozzle that is convergent only, then the fluid will attain sonic velocity at exit if the pressure
drop across the nozzle is large enough. The ratio of the pressure at the section where sonic velocity is
attained to the inlet pressure of a nozzle is called the critical pressure ratio.
Consider a convergent-divergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 3 and let the conditions at inlet and at any other
section X-X be as shown in the figure.
In most practical applications the velocity at the inlet to a nozzle is negligibly small in comparison with the
A v
exit velocity. It can be seen from equation (2),  , that a negligibly small velocity implies a very large
m V
area, and most nozzles are in fact shaped at inlet in such a way that the nozzle converges rapidly over the
first fraction of its length; this is illustrated in the diagram of a nozzle inlet shown in Fig. 4.
Now from equation (1), neglecting V1, wd have
V  {2(h1  h)} (4)
Since enthalpy is usually expressed in kilojoules per kilogram, then an additional constant of 10 3 will appear
within the root sign if V is to be expressed in m/s. Then
A v v
Area per unit mass flow,  
m V {2(h1  h)
For a perfect gas, it is possible to simplify the above equation by making use of the perfect gas laws.
For a perfect gas, h  c pT . Therefore,
A v v v
Area per unit mass flow rate,   
m V {2c p (T1  T )   T 
2c pT1 1  
  T1 
But v  RT / p , therefore,

RT / p
Area per unit mass flow rate,  .
  T 
2c pT1 1  
  T1 
Let the pressure ratio, p / p1  x . Then for an isentropic process for a perfect gas:
(  1) / 
T  p
   x ( 1) / 
T1  p1 
T
Substituting for p  xp1 , T  T1 x ( 1) /  , and  x ( 1) /  , we have
T1

RT1 x ( 1) / 
Area per unit mass flow rate,  .
 
p1 x 2c pT1 1  x ( 1) /  
For fixed inlet conditions (i.e. p1 and T1 fixed), we have
x ( 1) / 
Area per unit mass flow rate, = constant 
x 1  x ( 1) /   
1
= constant 
x 1/ 
1  x ( 1) /  
cons tan t
=
x  x 2 /  x ( 1) /  
2/

Therefore,
 cons tan t
Area per unit mass flow rate = (5)
x
 x ( 1) /  2/

To find the value of the pressure ratio, x, at which the area is a minimum it is necessary to differentiate
equation (5) with respect to x and equate the result to zero. i.e. for minimum area
d  1 
 2/ ( 1) /  1 / 2 
0
dx  ( x  x ) 
 2 ( 2 /  )1    1  ( 1) /  1 
 x    x 
      0
i.e.  2/ ( 1) /  3 / 2
2( x  x )
Hence the area is a minimum when
2 ( 2 /  )1    1  ( 1) /  1
x    x
   
2
x ( 1) /  1( 2 /  )1  , Therefore
 1
 /( 1)
 2  pc
x    ……….CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO = (6)
  1 p1

For AIR, γ = 1.4, therefore,

1.4 / 0.4
pc  2 
   0.5283
p1  1.4  1 

Hence for air at 10 bar, say, a convergent nozzle requires a back pressure of 5.283 bar, in order that the flow
should be sonic at exit and for a correctly designed convergent-divergent nozzle with inlet pressure of 10
bar, the pressure at the throat is 5.283 bar.
Foe carbon dioxide, γ = 1.3, therefore,
1.3 / 0.3
pc  2 
   0.5457
p1  1.3  1 
Hence for carbon dioxide at 10 bar, a convergent nozzle requires a back pressure of 5.457 bar for sonic flow
at exit, and the pressure at the throat of a convergent-divergent nozzle with inlet pressure 10 bar is 5.457 bar.

(  1) / 
T p  2
Similarly, the critical temperature ratio, c   c   (7)
T1  p1   1
Equations (6) and (7) apply to perfect gases only, and not to vapours.
However, it is found that sufficiently close approximation is obtained for a steam nozzle if it is assumed that
the expansion follows the law pv k  constant. The process is assumed to be isentropic and therefore the
index k is an approximate index for steam. Usually,
k  1.135 for steam initially dry saturated;
k  1.3 for steam is initially superheated.
Note that equation (7) cannot be used for a wet vapour undergoing an isentropic process.

For a PERFECT GAS, the critical velocity,

Vc   R Tc = Velocity of sound, a (8)
The critical velocity given by equation (8) is the velocity at the throat of a correctly designed convergent-
divergent nozzle, or the velocity at the exit of a convergent nozzle when the pressure ratio across the nozzle
is the critical pressure ratio.

Examples:
1). Air at 8.6 bar and 190oC expands at the rate of 4.5 kg/s through a convergent-divergent nozzle into a
space at 1.03 bar. Assuming that the inlet velocity is negligible, calculate the throat and the exit cross-
sectional areas of the nozzle. Take cp for air = 1.005 kJ/kg K.

2). A fluid at 6.9 bar and 93oC enters a convergent nozzle with negligible velocity, and expands
isentropically into a space at 3.6 bar. Calculate the mass flow per square meter of exit area:

(i) when the fluid is helium (cp = 5.19 kJ/kg K);

(ii) when the fluid is ethane (cp = 1.88 kJ/kg K).

Assume that both helium and ethane are perfect gases, and take the respective molar masses as 4 kg/kmol
and 30 kg/kmol.

The steam nozzle

The properties of steam can be obtained from tables or from an h  s chart, but in order to find the critical
pressure ratio, and hence the critical velocity and the maximum mass flow rate, approximate formulae may
be used. It is a good approximation to assume that steam follows an isentropic law pv k  constant, where k
is an isentropic index for steam (  a ratio of specific heats). As already mentioned,
p
k  1.135 for steam initially dry saturated, and c  0.577
p1
pc
k  1.3 for steam initially sup erheated, and  0.546
p1
The temperature at the throat, i.e. the critical temperature can be found from steam tables at the value of
pc and sc  s1 . The critical velocity can be found as before:
Vc  {2(h1  hc )}
Where hc is read from tables or the h  s chart at p c and s c .
For isentropic flow, since vdp  dh and vp1 / k  constant, we can write between any two states 1 and 2:
 vp1 / k
 
2
h1  h2   vdp 
(1 / k ) 1 (1 / k ) 1
p2  p1
1
 (1 / k )  1

p1v1  p2 v 2   V2  V1
2 2
k
i.e. h1  h2  (9)
k 1 2

Supersaturation

When a superheated vapour expands isentropically, condensation within the vapour begins to form when the
saturated vapour line is reached. As the expansion continues below this linen into the wet region, then
condensation proceeds gradually and the dryness fraction of the steam becomes progressively smaller. This
is illustrated on T  s and h  s diagrams in Figs. 5(a) and 5(b). Point A represents the point at which
condensation within the vapour just begins.
It is found that the expansion through the nozzle is so quick that condensation within the vapour does not
occur. The vapour expands as a superheated vapour until some point at which condensation occurs suddenly
and irreversibly. The point at which condensation occurs may be within the nozzle or after the vapour leaves
the nozzle.
Up to the point at which condensation occurs the state of the steam is not one of stable equilibrium, yet it is
not one of unstable equilibrium, since a small disturbance will not cause condensation to commence. The
steam in this condition is said to be in a metastable state; the introduction of a large object (e.g. measuring
instrument) will cause condensation to occur immediately’
Such an expansion is called a supersaturation expansion.
Assuming isentropic flow, as before, a supersaturation expansion in a nozzle is represented on a
T  s and h  s diagrams in Figs. 6(a) and 6(b) respectively. Line 1-2 on both diagrams represents the
expansion with equililibrium throughout the expansion. Line 1-R represents supersaturated expansion. In
supersaturated expansion the vapour expands as if the vapour line did not exist, so that line 1-R intersects
the pressure line p2 produced from the superheat region (shown chain-dotted). It can be seen from Fig. 6(a)
that the temperature of the supersaturated vapour at p2 is tR, which is less than the saturation temperature t2,
corresponding to p2. The vapour is said to be supercooled and the degree of supercooling is given by (t2 –
tR). Sometimes a degree of supersaturation is defined as the ratio of the actual pressure p2 to the saturation
pressure corresponding to the temperature tR.

It can be seen from Fig.6(b) that the enthalpy drop in supersaturated flow h1  hR is less than the enthalpy
drop under equilibrium conditions. Since the velocity at exit, V2  2(h1  h2 ) , it follows that the exit
velocity for supersaturated flow is less than that for equilibrium flow. Nevertheless, the difference in
enthalpy drop is so small, and since the square rootn of the enthalpy drop is used for finding V2, then the
effect on exit velocity is small.
If the approximations for isentropic flow are applied to the equilibrium expansion, then for the process
illustrated in Figs. 6(a) and 6(b), the expansion from 1 to A obeys the law pv1.3 =constant, and the expansion
from A to 2 obeys the law pv1.135 = constant. The equilibrium expansion and the supersaturated expansion
are shown on a p  v diagram in Fig. 7, using the same symbols as in Fig. 6. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that
the specific volume at exit with supersaturated flow, v R , is considerably less than the specific volume at exit
with equilibrium flow, v2 . Now the mass flow through a given exit area, A2, is given for equilibrium flow
AV
m 2 2
v2
And for supersaturated flow
AV
ms  2 R .
vR
It has been pointed out that V2 and VR are nearly equal; therefore, since v R < v2 , it follows that the mass
flow with supersaturated flow is greater than the mass flow with equilibrium flow. It was this fact, proved
experimentally that led to the discovery of the phenomenon of supersaturation.

Problem:
A convergent-divergent nozzle receives steam at 7 bar and 200oC and expands it isentropically into a space
at 3 bar. Neglecting the inlet velocity, calculate the exit area required for a mass flow of 0.1 kg/s:
(i) when the flow is in equilibrium throughout;
(ii) when the flow is supersaturated with pv1.3 = constant.
STEAM TURBINE

Classification same as explained earlier for hydraulic turbines.

Impulse Turbine

The most basic turbine takes a high-pressure, high-enthalpy fluid, expands it in a fixed nozzle, and then uses
the rate of change of angular momentum of the fluid in a rotating passage to provide the torque on the rotor.
Such a machine is called an impulse turbine. A simple example of an impulse turbine is shown in Figs. 8 (a)
and 8(b). Since the fluif flows through the wheel at a fixed mean radius, then the change of linear
momentum tangential to the wheel gives a tangential force that causes the wheel to rotate. Assume initially
that the fluid is able to enter and leave the wheel passages in the tangential direction with an absolute
velocity at inlet Vi , and an absolute velocity at exit, Ve , as shown in Fig. 9; the blade velocity is denoted by
U.
The rate of increase of fluid momentum in the tangential direction from left to right in Fig. 9 gives the
tangential force acting on the fluid,
i.e. Force on the fluid from left to right = m(Ve  Vi )
(assuming a constant mass flow rate, m ).
An equal and opposite force, F, must act on the blades,
i.e. F  m(Vi  Ve ) from left to right.
The torque acting on the wheel is then given by
T  mR(Vi  Ve )
Where R is the radius of the wheel, and the rate at which work is done for a rotational speed of N is
W 2 N T  2 N m R (Vi  Ve )  m
U (Vi  Ve )
Where U is the blade tangential speed = 2 N R .

Referring to the Fig. 10, the velocity of the fluid relative to the blade at inlet is Wi  (Vi  U ) and the
velocity of the fluid relative to the blades at outlet in the direction of the blade movement is We  (Ve  U ).
In the absence of friction the relative velocity at inlet is equal in magnitude to the relative velocity at outlet,
i.e. Vi  U  (V eU )
 Ve  Vi  2U
Substituting for Ve in the previous equation for W, we have
W mU (Vi  Vi  2U )
.
 2 mU (Vi  U )

Figure 11.5: Absolute and relative velocies for a simple impulse turbine blade

Figure 11.6: Inlet (a) and (b) outlet blade velocity diagrams for an impulse turbine and a composite diagram
(c)

Figure 11.7: Absolute velocities at inlet and exit and the forces produced
Problem: The velocity of steam leaving the nozzles of an impulse turbine is 900 m/s and the nozzle angle is
20o. The blade velocity is 300 m/s and the blade velocity coefficient is 0.7. Calculate for a mass flow of 1
kg/s, and symmetrical blading;
(i) the blade inlet angle;
(ii) the driving force on the wheel;
(iii) the axial thrust;
(iv) the diagram power, and
(v) the diagram efficiency.

[29o24’; 927.7 N per kg/s; 92.3 N per kg/s; 278.3 kW; 68.7%]

Figure 11.9: Diagram efficiency against blade speed ratio for a single-stage impulse turbine
Figure 11.10: Pressure-compounded impulse turbine showing pressure and velocity variations
 Figure 11.11: Two row velocity compounded impulse turbine showing pressure and velocity
variations

Figure 11.12: Velocity diagrams for a two-row velocity-compounded impulse turbine

Figure 11.13: Diagram efficiency against blade speed ratio for a two-row velocity-compounded impulse
turbine

Figure 11.14: Pressure compounded two-row velocity-compounded impulse turbine showing

pressure and velocity variations
Problem: The first stage of a turbine is a two-row velocity-compounded impulse wheel. The steam velocity
at inlet is 600 m/s, the mean blade velocity is 120 m/s, and the blade velocity coefficient for all blades is 0.9.
The nozzle angle is 16o and the exit angles for the first row of moving blades, the fixed blades, and the
second row of moving blades, are 18, 21, and 35o respectively. Calculate:
(i) the blade inlet angles for each row;
(ii) the driving force for each row of moving blades and the axial thrust on the wheel, for a mass flow
rate of 1 kg/s;
(iii) the diagram power per kg per second steam flow, and the diagram efficiency for the wheel;
(iv) the maximum possible diagram efficiency for the given steam inlet velocity and nozzle angle.

Figure 11.16: Digram showing blade passage width (a) and length (b) for impulse blading
Problem: For the nozzles and wheel of Example the steam flow is 5 kg/s and the nozzle height is 25 mm.
The specific volume of the steam leaving the nozzles is 0.375 kg/m3. neglecting the wall thickness between
the nozzles, and assuming that all blades have a pitch of 25 mm and exit tip thickness of 0.5 mm, calculate;
(i) thelength of the nozzle arc;
(ii) the blade height at exit from each row.

[0.454 m; l1 = 0.0327 m, lf = 41.5 mm, l2 = 44.2 mm]

Applying the steady flow energy equation to the fixed blades

V  Ve
2 2

h0  h1  i
2
(This assumes that the velocity of steam entering the fixed blade is equal to the absolute velocity of the
steam leaving the previous moving row; it therefore applies to a stage which is not the first).

Similarly for the moving blades,

We  Wi
2 2

h1  h2 
2

From Figure….., We  Vi and Wi  Ve , therefore,

h0  h1  h1  h2 or h0  2 h1  h2

i.e. h0  h2  2 (h1  h2 )
Therefore for this case, the DEGREE OF REACTION
h h 1
 1 2 
h0  h2 2
This type of blading is called the PARSON’S HALF DEGREE REACTION or 50% REACTION TYPE.
The energy input to the moving blade wheel can be written as
W  Wi
2 2 2
Vi
 e
2 2
Therefore, since We  Vi , this becomes
 2
W
Vi  i
2

2
From the velocity triangle:
Wi  Vi  U 2  2Vi U Cos i
2 2

 Vi 2  U 2  Vi U Cos i 
Vi   
2

I.e. Energy input =  2 

 

Vi  U 2  2Vi U Cos i
2

2
Rate of doing work per unit mass flow rate = U V
Also V  ED  2Vi Cos i  U , therefore
Rate of doing work per unit mass flow rate = U (2Vi Cos i  U )
Therefore the diagram efficiency of the 50% reaction turbine is given by
Rate of doing work
d 
energy input
2U (2Vi Cos i  U ) 2 (U / Vi )(2Cos i  U / Vi )
i.e. d  2 =
Vi  U  2Vi U Cos i
2
1  (U / Vi ) 2  2 (U / Vi ) Cos i
where (U / Vi ) is the blade speed ratio.
By equating d d / d (U / Vi ) to ZERO, the value of blade speed ratio for maximum diagram efficiency can be
shown to be given by:
U / Vi  Cos i
 U 
Rate of doing work = U (2Vi Cos i  U ) = U  2Vi  U   U 2 for maximum diagram efficiency
 Vi 

Substituting U / Vi  Cos i in the expression for diagram efficiency, we get

2 Cos 2 i
Maximum diagram efficiency =
1  Cos 2 i
For the optimum blade speed ratio a blade velocity diagram as shown in Fig….. is obtained (i.e.
U  Vi Cos i )
The variation of  d with blade speed ratio for the simple impulse turbine and the reaction stage are shown in
Fig…… It can be seen that for the reaction turbine the curve is reasonably flat in the region of the maximum
value of diagram efficiency, so that a variation in Cos i , and hence U / Vi , can be accepted without much
variation in the diagram efficiency from the maximum value.

The variation of pressure and velocity through a reaction turbine is shown in Fig…… The pressure falls
continuously as the steam passes over the fixed and moving blades of each stage. The steam velocities are
low compared with those of the impulse turbine, and it can be seen from the diagram that the steam velocity
is increased in each set of fixed blades. It is no longer convenient to talk of “nozzles” and “blades”, since in
the reaction turbine both fixed and moving blades act as nozzles. It is usual to refer to the two sets of blades
as the stator blades and the rotor blades.

The pressure drop across the rotor produces an end thrust equal to the product of the pressure difference and
the area of the annulus in contact with the steam. For the 50% reaction turbine the thrust due to the change in
axial velocity is zero, but the side thrust is nevertheless greater than that of an equivalent impulse turbine,
and larger thrust bearings are fitted. The net end thrust can be reduced by admitting the steam to the casing
at the mid-section and allowing it to expand outwards to each end of the casing, passing over identical sets
of blades. This has the additional feature of reducing the blade height at a given wheel for a given total mass
flow of steam.

Losses in Turbine

The losses which are of interest thermodynamically are the internal losses incurred as the fluid passes
through the blades. The losses may be classified in one of the two groups;
(i) friction losses
(ii) leakage losses
Group (i) indicates friction losses in the nozzles, in the blades, and at the discs which rotate in the fluid.
Group (ii) includes losses at admission to the stages and leakage at glands and seals, and the residual
velocity loss.
Overall efficiency, stage efficiency, and reheat factor

Overall efficiency:
It has been shown that as a fluid expands through a turbine, there are friction effects between the fluid and
the enclosing boundary surfaces of the nozzles and blade passages. Further losses are produced by leakage.
Both of these are irreversibilities in the expansion process and there is a reduction in the useful enthalpy
drop in the case of a turbine. Refer to the Fig…….

The overall isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as

h h h
Overall efficiency,  0  1 2 
h1  h2 s hs
The overall efficiency so defined depends only on the change of properties of the fluid during the expansion.

Stage efficiency and reheat factor

The expansion of the fluid through the successive stages of a reaction turbine can be represented on an h-s
diagram as shown in Fig……. The procedure followed above for the whole turbine can be applied to each
stage separately, and the dotted line joins the points representing the state of the steam between each stage.
The dotted line is called the condition curve, although it does not give a continuous state path since in
between the known points the processes are irreversible.

Considering any one stage, the available enthalpy drop of the stage can be represented by hi , wher
subscript I refers to any stage from 1 to n, and the isentropic enthalpy drop between the same pressures can
be represented by hsi . Then a stage efficiency can be defined as

hi
Stage efficiency,  s 
hsi
From an inspection of Fig………, it is seen that BC < h s 2 , etc. since the lines of constant pressure diverge
from left to right on the diagram.

  si  AB  BC  .....  MN
i.e.  hsi  hs 0
But hi   s hsi , and if it can be assumed that the stage efficiency is the same for each stage, then
n n

 hi   s  hsi
1 1
Therefore
n
h0   s  h si
1

Dividing by hs 0 , we have

n

h0 1 hsi
 s
hs 0 hs 0
Or  0   s  ( R.F )
Where RF is the Reheat Factor
n

h si
0
i.e. R.F. = 1

 hs 0 s
n
Since h
1
si is always greater than hs 0 , it follows that R.F. is always greater than unity; R.F. is usually of

the order of 1.04 for a steam turbine.

Problem:

(i) Steam at 15 bar and 350oC is expanded through a 50% reaction turbine to a pressure of 0.14 bar.
The stage efficiency is 75% for each stage, and the R.F. is 1.04. The expansion is to be carried
out in 20 stages and the diagram power is required to be 12 000 kW. Calculate the flow of steam
required, assuming that the stages all develop equal work.
(ii) In the turbine above at one stage the pressure is 1 bar and the steam is dry saturated. The exit
angle of the blades is 20o, and the blade speed ratio is 0.7. If the blade height is one-twelfth of the
blade mean diameter, calculate the value of the mean blade diameter and the rotor speed.
[Answer: 64 770 kg/h; 1.3 m, 2067 rev/min]

Problem:
In a reaction stage of a steam turbine the nozzle angle is 20o, and the absolute velocity of the steam at inlet
to the moving blades is 240 m/s. The blade velocity is 210 m/s. If the blading is designed for 50% reaction,
determine,
(i) the blade angle at inlet and exit
(ii) the enthalpy drop per unit mass of steam in the moving blades and in the complete
stage
(iii) the diagram power for a steam flow of 1 kg/s, and
(iv) the diagram efficiency.