Information Technology Department

Data Communication and Computer Networking

Handout 1 – Introduction to Computer Networking

1. History and Overview

1.1 What is a computer network?

A computer network is a system in which a number of independent computers are linked

together to share data and peripherals, such as files and printers. In the modern world,
computer networks have become almost indispensable. All major businesses and
governmental and educational institutions make use of computer networks to such an extent
that it is now difficult to imagine a world without them.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur,the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combinationof
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectivenessof a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must bereceived by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have beenaltered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late
areuseless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data asthey are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significantdelay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitterrefers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay inthe
delivery of audio or video packets.

1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of computer networks

The reason for the popularity of computer networks is that they offer many advantages.
Information such as important files, video and audio, and email can be easily shared between
users. Peripherals such as printers and modems can also be shared over the network. For
example, Figure 1 shows a printer being used in a stand-alone environment and in a
networked environment. By connecting many computers to a print server any of them may
make use of the printer directly, instead of the single computer in the stand-alone
environment. Also, software such as word-processors and spreadsheets can be made available
to all computers on the network from a single central server. Finally, administration and
support is simplified.

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 Figure 1 – A printer in a stand-alone environment (left) and in a networked
environment (right)

However, with these advantages come a number of potential disadvantages. Making

important and sensitive information available to every user of the network is not normally
desirable. For example, information about employees’ salaries should not be freely available
for anybody to look at. Data security is therefore an important concern in a networked
environment. Secondly, the danger of computer viruses entering the network is greatly
increased. A virus can infect the any of the computers on the network, and can quickly spread
throughout the network causing significant damage.

2. LAN, MAN and WAN

Computer networks can be classified into one of two groups, depending on their size and
geographical location. A local area network(LAN) is the basic building block of any
computer network. A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to
complex (hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation).
The distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined to a limited geographic area.

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
singleoffice, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organizationand the type of
technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer insomeone's home office;
or it can extend throughout a company and include audio andvideo peripherals. Currently,
LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or
workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g.,
an application program), or data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business
environments, links a workgroup of task-related computers, for example, engineering
workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be given a largecapacity disk
drive and may become a server to clients. Software can be stored on this central server and
used as needed by the whole group. In this example, the size of the
LAN may be determined by licensing restrictions on the number of users per copy of
software, or by restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating system. In

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addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission
media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium.

Figure 2 – A Local Area Network (LAN)

A wide area network (WAN), on the other hand, has no geographical limit (see Figure 3). It
can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up
of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet.

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio,and
video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent,or
even the whole world. A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet
or assimple as a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet. We normally
referto the first as a switched WAN and to the second as a point-to-point WAN.The switched
WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router (internetworkingconnecting
device) that connects to another LAN or WAN. The point-to-pointWAN is normally a line
leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects ahome computer or a small LAN
to an Internet service provider (lSP). This type of WANis often used to provide Internet
access.

Figure 3 – A Wide Area Network (WAN)

This distinction between LANs and WANs is made because of the locality principle. The
locality principle in computer networking states that computers are much more likely to want

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to communicate with other computers that are geographically close, than with those that are
distant. For example, if you want to request a printout from your PC, it makes much more
sense to use the printer in the next room rather than one that is hundreds of kilometres away.
Because of the locality principle network designers tend to use higher performance hardware
within a LAN compared to the connections between different LANs that form a WAN.

You may sometimes hear about other classifications of networks, apart from LANs and
WANs. Although these terms are less commonly used than LAN and WAN, but it is still
useful to know them. A CAN is a Campus Area Network: this is a collection of LANs linked
together with high performance hardware within a university or college campus. Similarly a
MAN, or Metropolitan Area Network, is a collection of LANs linked together within a town
or city.

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and aWAN. It
normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customerswho need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpointsspread over a city or part of
city. A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephonecompany network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer. Anotherexample is the cable TV network that
originally was designed for cable TV, but todaycan also be used for high-speed data
connection to the Internet.

Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in isolation; they are connectedto one
another. When two or more networks are connected, they become aninternetwork, or
internet.As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the eastand the
other on the west. The established office on the west has a bus topologyLAN; the newly
opened office on the east has a star topology LAN. The president ofthe company lives
somewhere in the middle and needs to have control over the companyfrom home. To create a
backbone WAN for connecting these three entities (twoLANs and the president's computer),
a switched WAN (operated by a service providersuch as a telecom company) has been leased.
To connect the LANs to this switchedWAN, however, three point-to-point WANs are
required.

3. Network configuration

All networks have certain components, functions and features in common, shown in Figure 4.
These include:
 Servers - computers that provide shared resources for network users
 Clients - computers that access shared resources provided by servers
 Media - the wires that make the physical connections
 Shared data - files provided to clients by servers across the network
 Shared peripherals - additional hardware resources provided by servers

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 Figure 4 – A typical network configuration

Even with these similarities, networks are divided into two broad categories:
 Peer-to-peer networks
 Server-based networks

3.1 Peer-to-peer networks

In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Peer-to-peer networks are also sometimes called workgroups.

Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple. Because each computer functions as a client and
a server, there is no need for a powerful central server or for the other components required
for a high-capacity network. Peer-to-peer networks can be less expensive than server-based
networks. Also, the networking software does not require the same standard of performance
and level of security as the networking software designed for dedicated servers.
In typical networking environments, a peer-to-peer implementation offers the following
advantages:
 Computers are located at users' desks
 Users act as their own administrators and plan their own security
 They are cheap and easy to set up and administer for small groups of users

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:

 There are 10 users or fewer

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  Users share resources, such as printers, but no specialised servers exist
 Security is not an issue
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the
foreseeable future

Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a
server-based network.

3.2 Server-based networks

In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network - with computers acting as
both servers and clients - will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have
dedicated servers. A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as
a client or workstation. Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not themselves
clients, and because they are optimised to service requests from network clients quickly and
to ensure the security of files and directories. Server-based networks have become the
standard models for networking.

As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the physical
distance and traffic between them, grows), more than one server is usually needed. Spreading
the networking tasks among several servers ensures that each task will be performed as
efficiently as possible. Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large
networks have become specialized to accommodate the expanding needs of users. For
example, a network may have separate servers for file storage, printing, email and for storing
and running application software.

Although it is more complex to install, configure, and manage, a server-based network has
many advantages over a simple peer-to-peer network.
 Server-based data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled. Because these
shared resources are centrally located, they are easier to find and support than
resources on individual computers.
 Security is often the primary reason for choosing a server-based approach to
networking. In a server-based environment, one administrator who sets the policy and
applies it to every user on the network can manage security.
 Backups can be scheduled several times a day or once a week depending on the
importance and value of the data. Server backups can be scheduled to occur
automatically, according to a predetermined schedule, even if the servers are located
on different parts of the network.
 A server-based network can support thousands of users. This type of network would
be impossible to manage as a peer-to-peer network.

4. Network Topologies

The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or
physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is
the standard term that most network professionals use when they refer to the network's basic

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design. In addition to the term "topology," you will find several other terms that are used to
define a network's design:
 Physical layout
 Design
 Diagram
 Map

A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will
have an impact on the:
 Type of equipment that the network needs
 Capabilities of the network
 Growth of the network
 Way the network is managed

Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding the
capabilities of the different types of networks.

Before computers can share resources or perform other communication tasks they must be
connected. Most 8/**networks use cable to connect one computer to another. However, it is
not as simple as just plugging a computer into a cable connecting to other computers.
Different types of cable—combined with different network cards, network operating systems,
and other components—require different types of arrangements. To work well, a network
topology takes planning. For example, a particular topology can determine not only the type
of cable used but also how the cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and walls. Topology can
also determine how computers communicate on the network. Different topologies require
different communication methods, and these methods have a great influence on the network.

There are four basic types of computer topology: bus, star, ring and mesh.

4.1 Bus Topology

The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in
a straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers.
Figure 5 shows a typical bus topology. It consists of a single cable called a trunk (also called
a backbone or segment) that connects all of the computers in the network in a single line.

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 Figure 5 – The bus topology

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular

computer and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To understand how
computers communicate on a bus, you need to be familiar with three concepts:
 Sending the signal
 Signal bounce
 Terminator

4.1.1 Sending the signal

When sending a signal from one computer on the network to another, network data in the
form of electronic signals is in fact sent to all the computers on the network. However, only
the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original signal accepts the
information. All other computers reject the data. Because only one computer at a time can
send data on a bus network, the number of computers attached to the bus will affect network
performance. The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting to
put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be. Computers on a bus
either transmit data to other computers on the network or listen for data from other computers
on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the next.
Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

4.1.2 Signal bounce

Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from one end of
the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing
back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals. Therefore,
the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination address.

4.1.3 Terminator

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To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each end of
the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers
can send data.

In a bus topology, if a break in the cable occurs the two ends of the cable at the break will not
have terminators, so the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop. This is one of
several possible reasons why a network will go "down." The computers on the network will
still be able to function as stand-alone computers; however, as long as the segment is broken,
they will not be able to communicate with each other or otherwise access shared resources.

4.2 Star topology

In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralised
component called a hub. Figure 6 shows four computers and a hub connected in a star
topology. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers
on the network.

Figure 6 – The star topology

Because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a great deal of
cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails, the entire network goes
down. If one computer - or the cable that connects it to the hub - fails on a star network, only
the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data. The rest of the network
continues to function normally.

4.3 Ring topology

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology,
there are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass
through each computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the
next computer. Figure 7 shows a typical ring topology with one server and four workstations.
The failure of one computer can have an impact on the entire network.

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 Figure 7 – The ring topology

4.4 Mesh topology

A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology,
each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. (See Figure 8.) This
configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails,
another will take over the traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability are
definite benefits, these networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling.
Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid
topology.

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Figure 8 – The mesh topology

4.5 Hybrid topologies

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Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies.
Two of the more common are described below.

4.5.1 Star bus topology

The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a star-bus topology, several
star topology networks are linked together with linear bus trunks. Figure 9 shows a typical
star-bus topology.

If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The other computers can
continue to communicate. If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to
communicate. If a hub is linked to other hubs, those connections will be broken as well.

Figure 9 – The star bus hybrid topology

4.5.2 Star ring topology

The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears similar to the star bus. Both the
star ring and the star bus are centred in a hub that contains the actual ring or bus. Figure 10
shows a star-ring network. Linear-bus trunks connect the hubs in a star bus, while the hubs in
a star ring are connected in a star pattern by the main hub.

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 Figure 10 – The star ring hybrid topology

4.5 Physical vs. logical topologies

Until now we have assumed that the word topology is used to refer only to the physical
layout of the network. In fact, we can talk about two kinds of topology: physical and logical.
A network's physical topology is the wire itself. A network's logical topology is the way it
carries signals on the wire. This is an important distinction that will become clearer in the
following discussion of the token ring topology.

4.5.2 Example: Token ring LANs

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special
series of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The
token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send.
Figure 11 shows a token ring topology with the token. The sending computer modifies the
token, puts an electronic address on the data, and sends it around the ring.

The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the
address on the data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data
has been received. After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases

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it on the network. The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send
data.

Therefore the token ring network uses a logical ring topology – the token travels around in a
circle from computer to computer. However, the physical topology of a token ring network is
a star – the wires connecting the computers to each other are connected via a central hub.
This is sometimes referred to as a “star-shaped ring” network.

Figure 11 – The token ring topology

The token ring avoids a common problem with bus topologies. If there are many computers
on the network a bus will often be busy, seriously affecting network performance. However,
with a token ring the network is never busy – each computer must simply wait for the token
to arrive and add its message.

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