COURSE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

COURSE CODE: CHE 256

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the course the students should be able to

1.0. Discuss the concept of research

2.0. Describe the method of data collection
3.0. Discuss the methods of data analysis and presentation
4.0. Demonstrate skills in research report writing

UNIT: 1.0

Topic: The Concept, Nature and Importance of Research

 Instructional materials
- Pictures
- Charts

Teaching methods

 Brainstorming
 Lecture

Types of Assessment

 Assignment
 Practical Assignment

At the end of the course the students should be able to

 Explain meaning, nature and importance of research

 Discuss various types of research
What is Research: Definition?

This is a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or

problem using scientific methods.

According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a

systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Aromolaran (1998) define research as the process of arriving at a

dependable solution to problems through the planned and systemic
collection of data, analysis and interpretation of data collected for effectively
to his environment in order for him to accomplish his purpose and resolve his
conflict
 Nzeribe and Ilogu (1996) define as “any organized inquiry carried out to
provide information for the solution of a problem.”

Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of

existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new
concepts, methodologies and understandings

Research is the process of solving problems and finding facts in an

organised way. ..

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and

procedures are an integral part of the process that set the objective.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and
deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual
observations in natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data
helps create more opportunities for research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data
so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The
information that is obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For
example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data.
Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

What Is the Purpose of Research?

 There are three purposes of research:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is

conducted to explore a group of questions. The answers and analysis may
not offer a final conclusion to the perceived problem. It is conducted to
handle new problem areas which haven’t been explored before. This
exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive research and
data collection.
2. Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge
on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies
are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive
study, only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three main
purposes of descriptive research are describing, explaining, and validating
the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level
management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive
a huge sum of money from the company profit.
3. Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is conducted
to understand the impact of certain changes in existing standard
procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form of casual
research. For example, a study conducted to understand the effect of
rebranding on customer loyalty.

1.2 Types of research

The typology of research can be seen under two major categories

 By purpose
 By methods

Research based on purpose include the following

 Basic research
 Applied research
 Action research
  Evaluation research
 Research and development

Research based on methods include the following

 Historical research
 Descriptive research
 Experimental research

Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance

knowledge. The main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-
commercial research that doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything.
For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact.

Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-

life problems. This type refers to the study that helps solve practical
problems using scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving
issues that impact the overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a
specific cure for a disease.

Action research: this is the act of gaining insight into a problem by creating
a change and observing the effect. Action research is suitable for real life
situation. Action research allows the practitioner to study their local problem
scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and
actions. It focuses on immediate application and not on the development of
theory or general application. It provides immediate answer to problems that
cannot wait for theoretical solutions.

Evaluation research: this involves assessing developmental changes at

various levels. Evaluation research is carried out to implement changes in
the programme. For example a teaching programme or method can be
evaluated at several stages. The initial stage is called the formative
evaluation which help to correct lapses at the initial stage while at the end of
the programme is summative evaluation which makes a comprehensive
assessment and evaluation of the entire programme

Research and development (R&D) this is the process by which a

company works to obtain new knowledge that it might use to create new
technology, products, services, or systems that it will either use or sell.

Research and development (R&D) is a process intended to create new or

improved technology that can provide a competitive advantage at the
business, industry, or national level.

In education, research and development (R&D) refers to the production of

materials for use in schools, it ensures and encourage quality products
designed to meet educational needs

Historical research

Historical research involves studying, understanding and interpreting past

events. The purpose of historical research is to reach insights or conclusions
about past persons or occurrences. Historical research entails more than
simply compiling and presenting factual information; it also requires
interpretation of the information.

Typically, histories focuses on particular individuals, social issues and links

between the old and the new. Some historical research is aimed at
reinterpreting prior historical works by revising existing understandings and
replacing them with new, often politically charged ones.

Descriptive research:

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the

characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology
 focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the
research subject. It is concern with the collection and analysis of data for the
purpose of describing, evaluating or comparing current or prevailing
practices, events or occurrences

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature

of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular
phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the
research, without covering “why” it happens.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They

are:

 Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this
research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative
observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is

primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or
depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are
derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies
observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age,
shape, weight, volume, scale, etc.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but

instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes
the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable
environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a
descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a
complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an
observer, or a full participant.
 Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups.

Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a
phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause
and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a
bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a
reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an
atypical respondent in the survey. Describing, may leads to weak
generalizations and moving away from external validity.

 Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or
polls. They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from
respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey
questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close
ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline,
making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is
enormous.

Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or

more independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more
dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter. The effect of the
independent variables on the dependent variables is usually observed and
recorded over some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable
conclusion regarding the relationship between these 2 variable types.
Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using
two sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which is use to
measure the differences of the second set. Experimental research is
regarded as the most sophisticated, robust and powerful research designed
or method. It is used to define, explain or test cause and effect relationship

Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses

experimental methods. The success of experimental studies hinges on
researchers confirming the change of a variable is based solely on the
manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a
notable cause and effect.
Types of Experimental Research Design

The types of experimental research design are determined by the way the
researcher assigns subjects to different conditions and groups.

They are of 3 types, namely;

 Pre-Experimental experimental research design

 Quasi-Experimental experimental research design

 True Experimental research experimental research design

Pre-experimental Research Design

In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent

groups are observed for the effect of the application of an independent
variable which is presumed to cause change. It is the simplest form of
experimental research design and is treated with no control group.

Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of

the true-experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is
further divided into three types

 One-shot Case Study Research Design

In this type of experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is

considered. The study is carried out after some treatment which was
presumed to cause change, making it a posttest study.

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design:

This research design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying
out a test on a single group before the treatment is administered and after
the treatment is administered.

 Static-group Comparison:
In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are placed under
observation, where only one of the groups is subjected to some treatment
while the other groups are held static. All the groups are post-tested, and the
observed differences between the groups are assumed to be a result of the
treatment.

Quasi-experimental Research Design

The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-
experimental research bearing a resemblance to th true experimental
research, but not the same. In quasi-experiments, the participants are not
randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings where
randomization is difficult or impossible.

This is very common in educational research, where administrators are

unwilling to allow the random selection of students for experimental
samples.

Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time

series, no equivalent control group design, and the counterbalanced design.

True Experimental Research Design

The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to

approve or disprove a hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of
experimental design and may be carried out with or without a pretest on at
least 2 randomly assigned dependent subjects.

The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a

variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution
must be random. The classifications of true experimental design include:

 The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects

are randomly selected and assigned to the 2 groups (control and
experimental), and only the experimental group is treated. After close
 observation, both groups are post-tested, and a conclusion is drawn
from the difference between these groups.
 The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group
design, subjects are randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are
presented, but only the experimental group is treated. After close
observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of
change in each group.

 Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-

only and the pretest-posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly
selected subjects are placed into 4 groups.

The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method,
while the other two are tested using the pretest-posttest method.

STUDENTS ACTIVITY

Topic: the concept, nature and importance of research

Learners outcome; explain the meaning, nature and the importance of

research, and identify types of research

Task; list and explain various type of research

Unit 2.0

 TOPIC: Method of Data Collection

 Instructional materials
- Pictures
- Computers

Teaching methods

 Lecture
 Discussions and presentations

Types of assessment

 Assignment
 Practical observation

Learning objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to;

 Define data
 State the types of data
 Explain the methods of data collection
 Discuss sampling and sampling techniques

2.1. Definition of Data

Data can be defined as a systematic record of a particular quantity. It is the

different values of that quantity represented together in a set. It is a
collection of facts and figures to be used for a specific purpose such as a
survey or analysis. Any data when arranged in an organized form, can be
called information. The source of data (primary data, secondary data) is also
an important factor.

2.2. Types of Data

Depending on the source, it can classify as primary data or secondary data.

Primary Data

These are the data that are collected for the first time by an investigator for
a specific purpose. Primary data are ‘pure’ in the sense that no statistical
operations have been performed on them and they are original.

Secondary Data

They are the data that are sourced from someplace that has originally
collected it. This means that this kind of data has already been collected by
some researchers or investigators in the past and is available either in
published or unpublished form. This information is impure as statistical
operations may have been performed on them already

Data may be qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative Data:

They represent some characteristics or attributes. They depict descriptions

that may be observed but cannot be computed or calculated. For example,
data on attributes such as intelligence, honesty, wisdom, cleanliness, and
creativity collected using the students of your class a sample would be
classified as qualitative. They are more exploratory than conclusive in nature.

Quantitative Data:

These can be measured and not simply observed. They can be numerically
represented and calculations can be performed on them. For example, data
on the number of students playing different sports from your class gives an
estimate of how many of the total students play which sport. This information
is numerical and can be classified as quantitative.
Discrete and Continuous Data

Discrete Data: These are data that can take only certain specific values
rather than a range of values. For example, data on the blood group of a
certain population or on their genders is termed as discrete data. A usual
way to represent this is by using bar charts.

Continuous Data: These are data that can take values between a certain
range with the highest and lowest values. The difference between the
highest and lowest value is called the range of data. For example, the age of
persons can take values even in decimals or so is the case of the height and
weights of the students of your school. These are classified as continuous
data. Continuous data can be tabulated in what is called a frequency
distribution. They can be graphically represented using histograms.

2.3. Data Collection Methods

Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant

sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and
evaluate the outcomes. Data collection methods can be divided into two
categories: secondary methods of data collection and primary methods of
data collection.

Methods
Closed-ended Surveys and Online Quizzes Closed-ended surveys and online
quizzes are based on questions that give respondents predefined answer
options to opt for. There are two main types of closed-ended surveys – those
based on categorical and those based on interval/ratio questions.

Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous

(‘yes/no’), multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be
answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or a specific piece of predefined
information.

Interval/ratio questions, on the other hand, can consist of rating-scale, Likert-

scale, or matrix questions and involve a set of predefined values to choose
from on a fixed scale.
  Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires

 Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended surveys and questionnaires.

The main difference between the two is the fact that closed-ended
surveys offer predefined answer options the respondent must choose
from, whereas open-ended surveys allow the respondents much
more freedom and flexibility when providing their answers.

When creating an open-ended survey, keep in mind the length of your

survey and the number and complexity of questions. You need to carefully
determine the optimal number of question, as answering open-ended
questions can be time-consuming and demanding, and you don’t want to
overwhelm your respondents.

Compared to closed-ended surveys, one of the quantitative data collection

methods, the findings of open-ended surveys are more difficult to compile
and analyze due to the fact that there are no uniform answer options to
choose from.

 1-on-1 Interviews

One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most common types of
data collection methods in qualitative research. Here, the interviewer
collects data directly from the interviewee. Due to it being a very personal
approach, this data collection technique is perfect when you need to gather
highly-personalized data.

Depending on your specific needs, the interview can be informal,

unstructured, conversational, and even spontaneous (as if you were talking
to your friend) – in which case it’s more difficult and time-consuming to
process the obtained data – or it can be semi-structured and standardized to
a certain extent (if you, for example, ask the same series of open-ended
questions).
  Focus groups

The focus groups data collection method is essentially an interview method,

but instead of being done 1-on-1, here we have a group discussion.

Whenever the resources for 1-on-1 interviews are limited (whether in terms
of people, money, or time) or you need to recreate a particular social
situation in order to gather data on people’s attitudes and behaviors, focus
groups can come in very handy.

Ideally, a focus group should have 3-10 people, plus a moderator. Of course,
depending on the research goal and what the data obtained is to be used for,
there should be some common denominators for all the members of the
focus group

For example, if you’re doing a study on the rehabilitation of teenage female

drug users, all the members of your focus group have to be girls recovering
from drug addiction. Other parameters, such as age, education,
employment, marital status do not have to be similar.

 Direct observation

Direct observation is one of the most passive qualitative data collection

methods. Here, the data collector takes a participatory stance, observing the
setting in which the subjects of their observation are while taking down
notes, video/audio recordings, photos, and so on.

Due to its participatory nature, direct observation can lead to bias in

research, as the participation may influence the attitudes and opinions of the
researcher, making it challenging for them to remain objective. Plus, the fact
that the researcher is a participant too can affect the naturalness of the
actions and behaviors of subjects who know they’re being observed.

 Experiment.
An experiment is a controlled study in which the researcher attempts to
understand cause-and-effect relationships. The study is "controlled" in the
sense that the researcher controls (1) how subjects are assigned to groups
and (2) which treatments each group receives.

The experimental method also involves manipulating one variable to

determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable.

Experiments carried out for the purpose of collecting data to be analysed

and studied are carried out in the laboratory, in the field or using computer
numerical models. It also can be combination of two or three of the said. This
method promises more accuracy in the study. • Reliable data can
be collected.

2.4. Define sampling: sampling is the selection of a subset of individuals

from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole
population. Statisticians attempt for the samples to represent the population
in question.
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined
number of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology
used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis
being performed

This is a systematic process of choosing a fraction out of the total. It also

refers to the act of selecting a representative out of the entire population

3.2. The Importance of Sampling

 Sampling is important because it saves cost, this so because if all the

population are to be used it may consume a lot of resources both
human and materials
 The use of sampling promote greater accuracy by limiting the use of all
enumerated population
 Sampling provides an excellent solution to information that is urgently
needed because data can be quickly collected, summarized and
analyzed appropriately
 It is a suitable method for infinite population. It is not possible to
examine all population of infinite or undefined population

Types of sampling

There two main method of sampling, that is probability and non-probability

sampling techniques

Probability Sampling Techniques

This refers to the process in which the law of probability determines which
elements of the population to include in the sample and they include
  Simple random sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Cluster sampling

Simple Random Sampling: This is a sampling procedure in which every

unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample. A
very popular method is the lottery method in which numbers are allocated to
sampling units, which are confined somewhere to avoid bias.

Systematic Sampling Techniques: This is a plan of ordered magnitude of

element within the population, it involves random selection of one element
from the first element and the selection of every element encountered
thereafter in a systematic way

Cluster Sampling: This is similar to stratified random sampling; stratified

random sample deals with individual selection, cluster sampling deals with
group selection. Element within a cluster are often physically close together,
that is, within the same geographical location and hence tend to possess
similar characteristics. A simple random sample of clusters is then selected
after which all individual elements in each cluster is examined or studied

Stratified Sampling: this is a sampling design which involves selecting

some group of items from population based on classification and random
selection. It involves separating the population elements in to homogeneous,
non-overlapping and exhaustive groups called strata and then selecting a
simple random sample from each stratum

NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING

This involves the use of criterion other than laws of probability in selecting
the items of the sample, for example the accessibility of the elements,
expert’s opinion or convenience to the researcher and they include

 Judgmental sampling
 Quota sampling
 Convenience sampling
Judgmental Sampling: This is non- random sampling procedure which
involves selection of the items in a sample on the basis of judgment or
opinion of one or more persons. It is usually employed when a random
sampling cannot be taken or is not practicable

Quota Sampling: This uses established guidelines to determine the

elements to be included in the sample, in most cases a prescribed limit is
specified as regards the number of element to be sampled from each of the
non- overlapping groups or categories

Convenience Sampling: This is the least representatives sampling

procedure which selects observations on the basis of convenience to the
researcher. An example of this is street - corner surveys in which the
researcher interview people as they go by

STUDENTS ACTIVITY
Topic: methods of data collection

Learners outcome; define data, types of data, method of data collection,

sampling and sampling techniques

Task; list and explain various type sampling techniques

Unit 3.0

 Topic: methods of data analysis and presentation

 Instructional materials
- Pictures
- Computers

Teaching methods

 Lecture
 Discussions and presentations

Types of assessment

 Assignment
 Practical observation

Learning objectives

By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to;

 Describe various statistical techniques for data analysis and

presentation
  Explain methods of data presentation
3.1. Parametric and non parametric test
In the literal meaning of the terms, a parametric statistical test is one that
makes assumptions about the parameters (defining properties) of the
population distribution(s) from which one's data are drawn, while a non-
parametric test is one that makes no such assumptions. In this strict sense,
"non-parametric" is essentially a null category, since virtually all statistical
tests assume one thing or another about the properties of the source
population(s).

For practical purposes, you can think of "parametric" as referring to tests,

such as t-tests and the analysis of variance, that assume the underlying
source population(s) to be normally distributed; they generally also assume
that one's measures derive from an equal-interval scale. And you can think
of "non-parametric" as referring to tests that do not make on these particular
assumptions. Examples of non-parametric tests include
o the various forms of chi-square tests (Chapter 8),
o the Fisher Exact Probability test (Subchapter 8a),

o the Mann-Whitney Test (Subchapter 11a),

o the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test (Subchapter 12a),

o the Kruskal-Wallis Test (Subchapter 14a),

o and the Friedman Test (Subchapter 15a).

Non-parametric tests are sometimes spoken of as "distribution-free" tests,

although this too is something of a misnomer.

Frequency Tables: This is a tabular arrangement of data by classes

together with the corresponding class frequencies; it implies the number of
times each value of variables occurs in a given set of observation. This also
arises when summarizing a large mass of raw data; it is often useful to
distribute the data in to classes or categories and to determine the number
of variables belonging to each class called class frequency. Frequency
distribution table can be grouped or ungrouped

Percentage

This is a method of data presentation in which the result of the analysis is

presented in percentage form, that is in hundred. We can think of a hundred
as a whole, or all of something. For example a hundred percent of a pizza is
the whole pizza. Half a pizza would be 50 percent, or half of a hundred
percent. The percentage tells you how much of the whole you have.

If we divided our pizza into 100 little slices, then each slice would represent 1
percent of the pizza. This is another way to visualize percentages. You can
take a whole of something and divide it into 100 little pieces and then figure
out how many little pieces are in the portion you are interested in. If I wanted
a quarter of the pizza, I would see that it would require 25 little slices out of
100, or 25 percent of the pizza.

It is definitely possible to have a percentage that represents more than a

whole or more than a hundred of something. We know that a hundred
percent is a whole of something. Percents less than a hundred mean that
they are less than a whole. Percents more than a hundred mean that they
include a whole of something plus more of the something.

3.2. Method of Data Presentation

There are two main methods of data presenting frequencies of a variable

A. Tabulation
B. Drawing

Tabulation:
Tables are devices for presenting data simply from masses of statistical data.
Tabulation is the first step before data is used for analysis. Tabulation can be
in form of Simple Tables or Frequency distribution table (i.e., data is split into
convenient groups).

Frequency Tables: This is a tabular arrangement of data by classes

together with the corresponding class frequencies; it implies the number of
times each value of variables occurs in a given set of observation. This also
arises when summarizing a large mass of raw data; it is often useful to
distribute the data in to classes or categories and to determine the number
of variables belonging to each class called class frequency. Frequency
distribution table can be grouped or ungrouped

In constructing a frequency distribution table the following needs to be

considered

Class Interval: This symbol defining a class, for example 50 – 55, 56 -60, in
a table is called a class interval

Class Limit: This mark the end of a number in a particular class e.g. 50 -55

Class Interval: This is the difference between two classes of numbers

Class Mark: This is the midpoint of the class intervals and is obtained by
adding the lower and upper limit and divide by two

Lower Limit: This is the smaller number in a particular class

Upper Limit: This is the larger number in a particular class

Grouped Frequency Table: This is aimed at summarizing data in a logical

form that will allow overall view of the data to be obtain very quickly and
easily especially when the data is large enough computation

Ungrouped Frequency Table: This portrays the number of occurrence associated with
each variable in a set of observations

EXAMPLE: Frequency distribution of peptic ulcer

according to site of ulcer

Site of ulcer Frequency Percent

 Gastric ulcer 24 30.0

Duodenal ulcer 50 62.5

Gastric and duodenal ulcer 6 7.5

TOTAL 80 100

Drawing

This form of data presentation uses drawings in form of diagram and

graphical presentations of various shapes to convey information. A simple,
attractive well-constructed graph showing a limited set facts is also easier to
understand than any other method of data presentation it also point out
information clearly and quickly.

The following are some of the methods of graphical presentation, bar chart,
pie chart, histogram, frequency polygon, ogive curve.

Bar graph - A bar graph is a way of summarizing a set of categorical data. It

displays the data using a number of rectangles, of the same width, each of
which represents a particular category. Bar graphs can be displayed
horizontally or vertically and they are usually drawn with a gap between the
bars (rectangles)

Simple Bar Chart – This consist of vertical bars of equal width whose
heights represent the frequency of occurrence of each data point or
category. A simple bar chart is appropriate if the data point or groups are not
split into component
Component Bar Chart – If categories of the subject matter are split into
two or more component a component bar chart or multiple bar charts are
most appropriate. A component bar chart uses a single bar for each group
while separating into various components.

Multiple Bar Chart – Different bars representing each component are

down side by side for each group.
Pie Charts – This consist of a partitioned pie into sectors representing the
various proportions of the variables or categories in a given data. Each group
in the data is made to represent a sector of the circular diagram. Since an
angle at a given point is 360 degree, each sector is obtained by multiplying
the proportion of each group to the total by 360 degree.

Example: The Distribution of Staff by Department in School of Health

Technology Kano is as follows: Represent this information with the aid of pie
chart.

Department No. of staff

Community health 78

Medical lab 52

Health record 44

Department
X-Ray No. 30
of Angle of sector in pie
staff chart
Dental 36
Community health 78 78/240 x 3600 = 1170

Medical lab 52 52/240 x 3600 = 780

Health record 44 44/240 x 3600 = 660

X-Ray 30 30/240 x 3600 = 450

Dental 36 36/240 x 3600 = 540

TOTAL 240 360

Histogram – This is a graph of a grouped frequency distribution, here

vertical bars whose adjacent sides are joined together have areas
proportional to the corresponding frequency. It is used in presenting
frequency distribution with unequal class intervals.

Frequency Polygon – This is a graphical representation of a frequency

distribution, which is constructed by plotting the class frequencies against
class mid points and then connecting them by straight line, to form a closed
figure with the horizontal axis.
Line Diagram:
Line diagram are used to show the trend of events with the passage of time.

Pic to Gram:
Pictogram is a popular method of presenting data to the “man in the street”
and to those who cannot understand orthodox charts. Small pictures or
symbols are used to present the data.

Statistical Maps:
When statistical data refer to geographic or administrative areas, it is
presented either as “Shaded Maps” or “Dot Maps” according to suitability.

STUDENTS ACTIVITY

Topic: Methods of data analysis and presentation

Learners outcome; describe various statistical techniques for data analysis

and presentation

Task; list and explain methods of data presentation

UNIT: 4.0

Topic: General format for report writing in research

 Instructional materials
- Pictures
- Charts

Teaching methods

 Brainstorming
 Lecture
 Types of Assessment

 Assignment
 Practical Assignment

At the end of the course the students should be able to

 Explain the general format for report writing

 Write a research report

Introduction:
Mostly, research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of
research study depends heavily on the way it is presented to those who are
expected to act on the basis of research findings. Research report is a
written document containing key aspects of research project.

Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant

people. It is also a good source of preservation of research work for the
future reference. Many times, research findings are not followed because of
improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not an easy task. It
is an art. It requires a good deal of knowledge, imagination, experience, and
expertise. It demands a considerable time and money.

4.1. Definitions:
Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of
research work in a written form. Research report is a research document that
contains basic aspects of the research project. Research report involves
relevant information on the research work carried out. It may be in form of
hand-written, typed, or computerized.

Report Format:
There is no one best format for all reports. Format depends on several
relevant variables. One must employ a suitable format to create desirable
impression with clarity. Report must be attractive. It should be written
systematically and bound carefully. A report must use the format (often
called structure) that best fit the needs and wants of its readers. Normally,
following format is suggested as a basic outline, which has sufficient flexibly
to meet the most situations.

A). Front Matter

i. Title page

ii. Certification page

iii. Acknowledgements page

iv. Abstract

v. Table of contents

vi. List of tables

vii. List of figures

B). Body of the Report

i. Introduction

ii. Literature Review

iii. Methodology

iv. Results and Discussion

v. Conclusion and Recommendations

C). End Matter

i. References

ii. Appendices

4.2. Write a Research Report

Research follows an orderly procedure. Conducting research has a pattern, it
follows a convention. Reporting a research either in form of projects, long
essays, theses or any other form must follow research report. Research
report or theses, project and long essays is usually divided into three
sections as follows

 Preliminaries

 Main body

 References/ bibliography

Preliminaries

These do not form part of the total length permitted for the work. The pages
in the preliminaries are numbered in roman numerals. It include the following

 Cover page
 Title page

 Certification page

 Approval page

 Dedication page

 Acknowledgement page

 Table of contents

 List of tables

 List of figures

 List of appendices

 abbreviations
  Abstract

Cover page: this contains information like the title of the project or thesis,
name of the researcher, the month and year of publication of the research
work and it is typed in capital letters

Title page: this is the first page of the project, thesis or dissertation. It
contain more information than the cover page which include the title of the
project, name of the researcher, the researcher matriculation number or
registration number, department, institutions, qualifications for which the
work is presented and the month and the year of publication. It must be brief
and self explanatory, abbreviations are not allowed

Certification page: this carries information on the title of the project, name of
the institution to which the project is submitted and the name of the
researcher, the supervisor(s) the head of the department, the internal and
external examiners and provision of their signatures

Approval page: this carries the name of the body that is approving the
project, the name of the supervisor, the name of the head of department and
approval date

Dedication page: This page indicates the person(s) to whom the work is
dedicated, it is not compulsory. But a researcher may wish to show gratitude
to some people by dedicating the work to those people

Acknowledgement page: this is where the researcher express gratitude to all

those who contributed in one way or the other to the success of the work. It
should be brief and not more than one and half a page

Table of content: this contains an outline of the content of the work. It list the
main headings and sub headings in each chapter with the beginning and
sometimes the last page

List of tables: all tables in the research work are listed under this heading
and all tables are numbered for easy reference
List of figures: the researcher is expected to list all figures that are found in
the main body of the project report and where they appear

List of appendices: these are other documents like sample of questionnaire,

interview and other important documents that cannot be in the body of the
main project

Abbreviations: this page contains all the abbreviations used in the study

Abstract: This is the last component of the preliminaries. This is a brief

summary of the description of what the whole study is all about. It must
contain the problem, the purpose, the methods, the findings and the
conclusions. It is written in past tense. It usually in a single line space and
smaller font number than the font of the main body. It is about a page write
up or a short paragraph for articles

Main body of the research report:

The main body of the study is arranged in chapters. It begins with chapter
one to the last chapter of the study. Each chapter begins with a new page. It
has a title and follows the rules of research report. It is written in past tense.
The brief explanation of the content is as follows

B. Main Body
1. Introduction
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background)
c. Purpose
d. Statement of Hypothesis
e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of Terms
h. Ethical Considerations
i. Budget (proposal only)
j. Proposed Timeline (proposal only)

2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)

3. Design of the Study

a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used

b. Sources of Data
c. Sampling Procedures
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
e. Statistical Treatment

4. Analysis of Data

Contains:

a. text
b. tables
c. figures

5. Summary and Conclusions

a. Restatement of the Problem

b. Description of Procedures
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject H o)
d. Conclusions
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation

Comments on the Sections of the Main Body of a Research Report

Introduction: Sections may be combined in short reports.

Statement of the Problem: This is a general introduction to the topic.

Significance of the Problem: Comment on why this question merits

investigation.

Objectives/Purpose: What is the goal to be gained from a better

understanding of this question?

Statement of the Hypothesis: In one statement (not a question) declare

the question which is investigated and the expected results. (For a null
hypothesis, no difference is predicted.)

Assumptions: Explain everything that is assumed in order for the

investigation to be undertaken.

Limitations: Explain the limitations that may invalidate the study or make it
less than accurate.

Definition of Terms: Define or clarify any term or concept that is used in

the study in a non-traditional manner or in only one of many interpretations.

Ethical Considerations: Discusses the ethical issues related to the study

and explains the processes and status of the review by the Institutional
Review Board.

Budget: Outlines and discusses the budget for the study. This is usually only
in the proposal.

Proposed Timeline: Outlines the expected schedule for beginning and

ending each part of the research project and may illustrate with a Gantt
chart. This is usually only in the proposal.

Review of Related Literature: Gives the reader the necessary background

to understand the study by citing the investigations and findings of previous
researchers and documents the researcher's knowledge and preparation to
investigate the problem.

Design of the Study: Gives the reader the information necessary to exactly
replicate (repeat) the study with new data or if the same raw data were
available, the reader should be able to duplicate the results. This is written in
past tense but without reference to or inclusion of the results determined
from the analysis.

Description of the Research Design and Procedures Used: Completely

explain step-by-step what was done.

Sources of Data: Give complete information about who, what, when,

where, and how the data were collected.

Sampling Procedures: Explain how the data were limited to the amount
which was gathered. If all of the available data were not utilized, how was a
representative sample achieved?

Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering: Explain the procedures for

obtaining the data collected. Include the forms or manner by which it was
recorded.

Statistical Treatment: Explain the complete mathematical procedures

used in analyzing the data and determining the significance of the results.

Analysis of Data: Describe the patterns observed in the data. Use tables
and figures to help clarify the material when possible.

Summary and Conclusions: This section condenses the previous sections,

succinctly presents the results concerning the hypotheses, and suggests
what else can be done.

Restatement of the Problem: This is a short reiteration of the problem.

Description of the Procedures: This is a brief reiteration of important
elements of the design of the study.

Major Findings: The final results from the analysis are presented, the
hypothesis stated, and the decision about the rejection or the failure to
reject the hypothesis is given.

Conclusions: Comments about the implication of the findings are

presented.

Recommendations for Further Investigation: From the knowledge and

experienced gained in undertaking this particular study, how might the study
have been improved or what other possible hypotheses might be
investigated?

End Notes: These are like footnotes but are located at the back rather than
the bottom of each page. These would include all of the references for all
works cited in the Review of Related Literature or any other sections of the
report as well as the references for quotations, direct or indirect, taken from
other sources, or any footnote comments that might have been included.
These are listed in numeric order as presented in the text.

Bibliography or Literature Cited: These are the bibliographic reference

for each of the works cited in the End Notes.

Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, or other materials that are not totally
central to the analysis but that need to be included are placed in the
Appendix

Reference Section

1. End Notes (if in that format of citation)

2. Bibliography or Literature Cited

3. Appendix

STUDENTS ACTIVITY

Topic: Writing a research report

Learners outcome; explain the general format for report writing in

research and write a research report

Task; identify the general format for research report writing