MODULE TWO

UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

Magnitudes of measurements are typically given in terms of a specific unit. In surveying, the most

commonly used units define quantities of length (or distance), area, volume, and horizontal or

vertical angles. The two systems used for specifying units of measure are the English and metric

systems. Units in the English system are historical units of measurement used in medieval England

which evolved from the Anglo-Saxon and Roman systems. The metric system is a decimalized

system of measurement developed in France in late 18th century. Since the metric system is almost

universally used, it is often referred to as the International System of Units and abbreviated SI.

1. LENGTH

a. English Units

The basic units for length or distance measurements in the English system are the inch, foot, yard,

and mile. Other units of length also include the rod, furlong, and chain.

1 foot = 12 inches

1 yard = 3 feet

1 rod = 5.5 yards = 16.5 feet

1 chain = 4 rods = 66 feet = 100 links

1 furlong = 10 chains = 40 rods = 660 feet

1 mile = 8 furlongs = 80 chains = 320 rods = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet

b. Metric Units

The basic unit of length in the SI system is the meter. The meter was originally intended to be one

ten-millionth of the distance from the Equator to the North Pole (at sea level). The meter has since

been redefined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 seconds (i.e. the

speed of light in a vacuum is 299,792,458 m/sec). Subdivisions of the meter are the millimeter,

centimeter, and the decimeter, while multiples of meters include the decameter, hectometer, and

kilometer.

1 meter = 1000 millimeters

1 meter = 100 centimeters

1 meter = 10 decimeters

1 decameter = 10 meters

1 hectometer = 100 meters

1 kilometer = 1000 meters

c. English to Metric Conversions

There are two different conversions to relate the foot and the meter. In 1893, international standard

officially defined a meter as 39.37 inches. Under this standard, the foot was equal to 12/39.37 m

(approximately 0.3048 m). In 1959, a new standard was adopted that defined an inch equal to 2.54

cm. Under this standard, the foot was equal to exactly 0.3048 m.

1 meter ≈ 39.37 inches

1 meter * 39.37/12 ≈ 3.2808 feet

1 foot * 12/39.37 ≈ 0.3048 meters

1 mile ≈ 1609.4 meters ≈ 1.6094 kilometers

2. AREA
a. English Units
In the English system, areas are typically given in square feet or square yards. For larger area

measurements, the acre or square mile may be used. Historically, the acre was originally

established as an area one furlong in length and four rods in width. Laying out ten of these acres

side by side is a square furlong (10 acres). Since a mile is eight furlongs in length, there are exactly

640 acres in a square mile. A survey township is a square unit of land six miles on a side that

conforms to meridians and parallels. Each township is further divided into 36 one-square mile

sections. Because some of the townships have boundaries designed to correct for the convergence

of meridian lines, not all townships and their sections are exactly square.

1 square foot = 12 inches * 12 inches = 144 square inches

1 square yard = 3 feet * 3 feet = 9 square feet

1 square rod = 16.5 feet * 16.5 feet = 272.25 square feet

1 square chain = 66 feet * 66 feet = 4,356 square feet

1 square furlong = 660 feet * 660 feet = 435,600 square feet

1 acre = 4,840 square yards = 43,560 square feet

1 acre = 1/10 square furlong = 10 square chains = 160 square rods

1 square mile = 1 section = 640 acres

1 township = 36 sections = 36 square miles

b. Metric Units

Areas in the metric system are given is square meters while larger measurements are given in

hectares.

1 square meter = 1,000 mm * 1,000 mm = 1,000,000 square mm

1 square meter = 100 cm * 100 cm = 10,000 square cm

1 hectare = 100 meters * 100 meters = 10,000 square meters

1 square kilometer = 1,000 m * 1,000 m = 1,000,000 square meters

1 square kilometer = 100 hectares

c. English to Metric Conversions

1 square meter ≈1.1960 square yards

1 square meter ≈ 10.7639 square feet

1 hectare ≈ 2.4710 acres

1 square kilometer ≈ 247.1044 acres

1 square mile ≈ 2.5900 square kilometers ≈ 258.9998 hectares

3. VOLUME

a. English Units

Volumes in the English system are typically given in cubic feet or cubic yards. For larger volumes,

such as the quantity of water in a reservoir, the acre-foot unit is used. It is equivalent to the area of

an acre having a depth of 1 foot.

1 cubic foot = 12 inches * 12 inches * 12 inches = 1,728 cubic inches

1 cubic yard = 3 feet * 3 feet * 3 feet = 27 cubic feet

1 acre. foot = 43,560 square feet * 1 foot = 43,560 cubic feet

b. Metric Units

Volumes in the metric system are given in cubic meters.

1 cubic meter = 1,000 mm * 1,000 mm * 1,000 mm = 1,000,000,000 cubic mm

1 cubic meter = 100 cm * 100 cm * 100 cm = 1,000,000 cubic cm

c. English to Metric Conversions

1 cubic meter ≈ 1,3079 cubic yards

1 cubic meter ≈ 35.3145 cubic feet

4. ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

In geometry, any horizontal or vertical angle is measured in degrees. These angles may be given

in decimal degrees or sexagesimal in degrees (o), minutes (’), and seconds (’’).

1 degree = 60 minutes = 3,600 seconds

e.g. 45.5555 degrees = 45o 33’ 20’’

The radian is another unit of measure for angles. By definition, a full circle has 2π radians or 360

degrees.

2π radians = 360 degrees

1 radian = 360/2π degrees ≈ 57.2958 degrees

 VERNIER SYSTEMS

A vernier is used to precisely measure dimensions to within thousandths of a centimeter. The

vernier scale was invented by French mathematician Pierre Vernier in 1631 as an upgrade on Pedro

Nunes' measurement system for precision astrolobes. With a main scale and a sliding secondary

scale, a vernier is used for making precise measurements. Most vernier have both metric and

English scales; make sure that you read the correct scale. There are two types of Vernier namely;

linear Vernier and circular vernier.

1. Linear Vernier

The sliding vernier scale is marked with divisions slightly smaller than the divisions of the main

scale. For example, a vernier scale could have 11 markings for every 10 on the main scale. That's

10 divisions on the vernier scale for every 9 on the main scale. This means that the vernier divisions

are each 90% of the main scale divisions. In this case, the 0 line and the 10 line on the vernier

could pair up with marks on the main scale, but none of the other divisions on the vernier would

match a line of the main scale. For example, the 0 and 10 lines of the vernier scale could pair up

with the 0 and 9 lines on the main scale. If the 0 line pairs up with a mark, the first division of the

vernier (1 mark) would be 10% short of reaching a mark of the main scale, the second division (2

mark) would miss a mark on the main scale by 20%, the third division (3 mark) would miss a mark

on the main scale by 30%, etc.

Reading a Vernier Scale Measurement on a Linear Vernier

Follow these steps to read the vernier scale:

1. Read the main scale. (Last whole increment visible before the 0 (zero) mark)

2. Read the secondary scale measurement. (Division that lines up best with a mark on the

main scale.)

3. Add the two measurements together.

The first image at the right shows a linear scale. The 0 on the vernier scale lines up with the 4 on

the main scale. (Notice that the 10 on the vernier scale also lines up with a mark on the main scale,

the 4.9 line.) So, the measurement shown is 4.00mm.

The second image (left) shows a new reading. Since the 0 mark on the sliding scale is past the 4.1,

we know the measurement is 4.1mm plus the amount shown on the sliding vernier scale. To read

the vernier scale, look for a mark on the vernier scale that lines up best with a mark on the main

scale. In this case, the 9 mark lines up best. So, the measurement is 4.19mm.

2. Circular Vernier

Circular Vernier systems are measurement devices used for accurate readings in instruments like

angle measuring devices, such as transits or theodolites. Circular Vernier systems help in obtaining

precise measurements of angles by providing an additional scale with finer divisions, known as

the Vernier scale, that offers greater accuracy when reading the main scale. It consists of a main
scale and a Vernier scale, both of which are circular in shape. The main scale is fixed, while the

Vernier scale rotates over the main scale. The Vernier scale is slightly smaller than the main scale

and is divided into a specific number of divisions that correspond to a certain number of divisions

on the main scale. The Vernier scale can typically be rotated to align with the main scale. When

taking measurements using a circular Vernier system, the user aligns the zero mark of the Vernier

scale with a reference point on the main scale. The position of the Vernier scale's divisions relative

to the main scale indicates the measurement with enhanced precision. They offer greater accuracy

than standard measuring devices by allowing for measurements to be taken with finer resolution.

This added precision is particularly beneficial in applications where highly accurate angle

measurements are required. they are commonly used in surveying, astronomy, engineering, and

other fields where precise angular measurements are essential for various calculations and designs.

They provide a cost-effective and efficient solution for obtaining accurate angle measurements,

making them a valuable tool in professional and academic settings. While circular Vernier systems

offer increased accuracy compared to standard measuring devices, they may require additional

time and training to read and interpret measurements accurately.

Reading a Vernier Scale Measurement on a Circular Vernier

Follow these steps to read the vernier scale:

1. Read the main scale. (Last whole or half mark increment visible)

2. Read the secondary scale measurement. (Value of the scale that lines up with the center

line of the main scale)

3. Add the two measurements together.

 CARE OF INSTRUMENTS

Need for Proper Care of Survey Instruments

Proper maintenance and care of survey instruments should be taken for the following reasons:

1. Most of the survey equipment is expensive.

2. Replacement of survey equipment from time to time is not an economical solution.

3. Properly maintained survey equipment gives precise and accurate results.

4. A well-maintained survey equipment saves time and money.

How to care of survey instruments

i. Always inspect the instrument for lumps, dents, or cracks. Check whether the polished and the

machine faces of the lenses and mirrors of the instrument are in proper conditions. Check

whether the clamps and screws involved have smooth motions and operates without any

binding or gritty sound.

ii. Always keep the survey instrument in clean and dry conditions as possible. Regular cleaning

of the instrument helps to know any issues with the instrument. Dirt and dust present in the

instrument for a longer period results in scratches, friction, or stick motions.

iii. When the instrument is kept idol for a long period, it is necessary to cover the equipment.

iv. Always clean the non-optical parts of the instruments with a soft clean cloth.

v. Use a fine lens brush to clean the surfaces of the lenses. Avoid the use of silicon treated tissue,

which lead the lens to get scratch. Do not use water, oil, or benzene to clean the lens. Never

attempt to clean the internal surface of any lens of the instrument.

vi. Always cover the instrument when it is uncased for a longer period, especially in an

environment that is harsh and dusty. An instrument used in a damp environment must be taken

care of to avoid condensing moisture inside the instrument.

 vii. During heavy rains, the instrument must be used by using a rain shield or survey umbrella over

it. This helps to prevent the moisture from entering the mechanical joints of the machine.

viii. A surveying instrument used in a cold-weather must be left in the case overnight. Always keep

the instrument uncased when planning to store in a heated room overnight. An instrument

covered with wet or frost must be moved to room temperature and left to dry.

ix. A calibration test should be performed every two weeks to ensure the accuracy of the

measurement.

x. The position accuracy must be checked by placing the instrument over a known point in the

ground.

xi. Use of an efficient storage case for the instrument.

xii. The compartment has to be provided within the survey vehicle to keep the equipment and the

related tool supplies separated. This helps to avoid damage and easy sorting of items.

xiii. Carry heavy instruments in the lower parts of the vehicles, without contact with other tools or

equipment.

xiv. The entire survey crew must follow good care and general housekeeping of the vehicle. Do not

mix up the passenger compartment and the equipment compartment together.

xv. Most of the instruments’-carrying case takes the shape at which it must be placed and handled.

Follow the same position while storing and handling. This is applicable for optical targets,

staff, and prisms used.

xvi. Jolting and excessive vibration of the instruments while transporting can be avoided by

providing cushioned compartments.

xvii. Before removing the instrument, make a plan to remove it and the way it must be placed. It

must be kept back in the case in the same way it was taken out.
xviii. Always take the equipment out with proper grip in both the hands. Do not exert pressure on

the vertical circle, circular levels, or the tubular levels.

Adjustments Done on Surveying Instruments

Adjustment of a theodolite means the operation of tightening or loosening of moveable parts to

prepare the instrument for accurate measurement. It also includes other operations meant for this

purpose. There are two types of adjustments for a theodolite - Temporary Adjustment & Permanent

Adjustment.

1. Temporary Adjustments

Temporary adjustments are to be done at every station the instrument is set up before carrying out

observation. The temporary adjustments are the following: (a) setting up and centering, (b)

levelling, (c) focusing the eyepiece/objective (Removing Parallax).

(a) Setting up and Centering:

This is process of removing the instrument from the instrument box, setting it up over a station

and centering the instrument exactly over the ground station which is indicated by optical plummet.

(b) Levelling:

After setting up and centering the instrument, levelling is done. Levelling has to be done at every

station the instrument is set up. By levelling the instrument, it is ensured that as the instrument is

swung about the vertical axis, the horizontal plate moves in a horizontal plane. It is indicated by

the central position of plate level.

(c) Focusing of the Eyepiece:

That is to bring the cross hairs and the object in focus simultaneously. The focusing position varies

with the eyesight of the observer.

 2. Permanent Adjustments

These are adjustments done on the instruments after a long interval or at the beginning of an

important project. The field party is only expected to carry out test and temporary adjustments, if

permanent adjustments are required, it will be done by the trained technician for this purpose in a

workshop. Permanent Adjustments for a theodolite have discussed below;

a) Plate level Adjustment

Its purpose is that bubble should remain central in all positions after the adjustment.

b) Horizontal axis Adjustment

Its purpose is that the horizontal axis should be remain truly horizontal after the

instrument has been carefully leveled

c) Line of collimation Adjustment

The line of collimation must pass through the point of intersection of cross hairs and

optical center of the object glass (also the geometric center) and line joining the

intersection of cross hairs.

 MODULE THREE

PRACTICE OF SURVEYING AND QUALITIES OF A SURVEYOR

A surveyor is by definition a multidisciplinary professional. Their area of expertise is vast. This is

because this specialist is called upon to perform various tasks in a wide range of areas. In particular,
they must possess excellent skills in mathematics, problem solving, computer science and
cartography. They must also express an interest in the law, as their role requires them to work
closely with municipal and provincial legislation. Surveying is a profession that demands technical
competence, problem-solving abilities, and strong interpersonal skills to provide accurate and
reliable data for various projects and industries.

a) In the course of their daily work, these experts are required to use numerous precision tools,
such as:

i. Survey instruments (levels, theodolites, rangefinders, satellite positioning systems, robotic total
stations, lidar, etc.);
ii. Photogrammetry devices;
iii. Computers;
iv. Peripheral equipment (plotting table, scanning table, optical scanner, etc.);
v. Various software (surveying, mapping, geographic information systems, etc.).

The use of these many tools, combined with their own multidisciplinary capabilities, allows them
to perform numerous undertakings, such as:
i. Spatial planning;
ii. Boundary marking;
iii. Technical description;
iv. Geodesy;
v. Implantation;
vi. Subdivision;
vii. Cadastral operations;
viii. Photogrammetry;
ix. Staking;
x. Topometry

More specifically, the surveyor is involved in setting property lines, preparing certificates of
location and rental space certificates, creating a divided co-ownership, and much more. Moreover,
the practice of surveying and geomatics is constantly being updated thanks to the use of new
technologies (artificial intelligence, drones, etc.). Surveyors must therefore demonstrate a high
degree of adaptability.
b) A good land surveyor is honest and objective

The land surveyor is a public officer, which means that they must be objective, honest and have
an excellent sense of ethics. Personal interests have no place in their work, which must be based
on verifiable, analyzable and measurable facts. Their impartiality allows them to intervene in
several situations, notably in disputes between neighbors concerning property lines. They can also
act as experts in many other conflict situations of this kind.

c) They are rigorous and precise

Like the instruments they use, land surveyors must be precise. They are the measurement experts.
They must therefore be meticulous and possess a strong attention to detail. This means that they
must be rigorous in their research, measurement and analysis in order to obtain an accurate picture
of the object at the heart of their mandate. Moreover, it is crucial that the surveyor you wish to hire
be organized and have a clear and efficient working method. These two elements are inseparable
from scientific rigor, which is essential in the job.

d) A good land surveyor is transparent

Nobody likes to be left in the dark, especially when it comes to money and property. This is why
the surveyor you hire to determine the boundaries of your land or to produce your certificate of
location must demonstrate transparency. This means being honest and clear in their actions. This
also means that they must offer you a clear quote, detailing the tasks performed and the costs
associated with them. The expert must provide you with sufficient information to fully understand
each of the steps that will take place. You will then have an excellent understanding of the
situation.

e) Strong Communication Skills

Reputable land surveyors must be good communicators orally and in writing because they need to
collaborate with other expert consultants from different backgrounds and to help projects progress
through planning and development phases.

1. Collaborate with a number of other experts from different backgrounds;

2. Coordinate the various actions that must be taken;
3. Negotiate effectively;
4. Administer your team.
Their communication skills are also required to answer questions from their clients and to
popularize information so that occasionally complex issues can be easily understood. They must
also possess excellent analytical and synthesis skills in order to be able to interpret and transmit
the results of their approaches.

f) Spatial Awareness

Surveyors should have a strong spatial awareness to accurately interpret topographic maps,
blueprints, and other spatial data. This skill helps them visualize the landscape and make informed
decisions during surveying tasks.

g) Versatility

A land surveyor must possess excellent problem-solving skills, be strong in mathematics and
possess computer science and cartography skills. Additionally, they need to know the law because
their work requires them to work with both municipal and provincial legislation

h) Honesty

A professional land surveyor must be objective at all times and must be honest. They serve the
public and the cadastre, and must have a great sense of ethics. All of their work must be based on
verifiable and measurable facts, and personal interests cannot be part of the equation.

i) Attention to Detail

We know that detail is significant for accurate results. Surveyors must pay meticulous attention to
every data detail, ensuring accuracy in their measurements and calculations. Even a minor error
could have substantial consequences for a project.

j) Problem-Solving Skills

This is one of the top qualities of a surveyor and should be in every surveyor. Land surveyors
should be problem solvers in critical situations. Thinking critically and finding practical solutions
are vital for overcoming these obstacles.

k) Knowledge of Surveying Laws and Regulations

Surveyors must know about surveying laws and regulations. They must understand property rights,
land boundaries, and zoning restrictions to ensure their work complies with legal requirements.
l) Ethics and Professionalism

Surveyors often deal with confidential information and property boundaries. Maintaining high
ethical standards and professionalism is critical to protecting the interests of clients and the public.

m) Continuing Update with Technology

The surveying field continuously evolves with advancements in technology and techniques.
Successful surveyors are committed to ongoing learning and professional development to stay
updated with the latest technologies and tools.

n) Teamwork

Surveyors often work as part of a team, especially on large-scale projects. Collaborating effectively
with engineers, architects, and other professionals ensures a successful outcome.
 MODULE FOUR

THE THEODOLITE, COMPASS, LEVELS AND THEIR TYPES AND COMPARISON

The Theodolite

Theodolites are telescopic instruments used basically for measuring both vertical and horizontal

angles. They are also useful in determining horizontal and vertical distances by stadia prolonging

straight lines and low order differential levelling. Theodolites are precision instruments used

extensively in construction work for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes.

Types of Theodolites
The general types of theodolites are classified as the Analogue and Digital theodolites.
Analogue Theodolite
The types of theodolites are classified based on their ability to transit (rotate the telescope 180
degrees vertically) - "transit theodolites" and "non-transit theodolites" - with further categorization
by the method of angle measurement, including "vernier theodolites" and "digital theodolites";
"direction theodolites" are also sometimes mentioned, which refer to theodolite used specifically
for determining directions through a circle.
(i) Transit Theodolite: Can rotate the telescope fully through 180 degrees in a vertical plane.
Considered more versatile for various surveying tasks.

(ii) Non-Transit Theodolite: Cannot rotate the telescope fully in a vertical plane. Less versatile and
generally considered outdated.

Digital Theodolite
Uses electronic sensors to directly display angle measurements on a digital screen.
Offers faster readings and increased precision compared to vernier theodolites.
Modern theodolites involve a movable telescope which is mounted within two perpendicular axes.
Moreover, these two axes are the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. When the telescope focuses
on a target object, the measurement of the angle of these axes takes place with high precision.
Theodolites generally include three types.

i. Repeating Theodolite
Repeating theodolites refer to those theodolites which measure angles on a graduated scale. The
average of the angle measure is then derived. This takes place by dividing the total of these
readings by the number of readings which were taken. The use of repeating theodolites takes place
in locations where the base is not steady. Furthermore, their use also occurs in places where space
is too limited. This limited space makes the use of other instruments futile. Repeating theodolites
are certainly more accurate than other types of theodolites. This is because a reduction of errors
takes place here. This is possible due to comparing the values of multiple readings rather than a
single reading.
ii. Direction Theodolite
Direction theodolites refer to those theodolites which determine angles through a circle. Here, a
circle is set and the direction of the telescope is at several signals. An individual can acquire
readings from every direction. The determination of the angle measurements is by subtracting the
first reading from the second reading. The common usage of direction theodolites is by surveyors
in triangulation. Moreover, triangulation is the process of determining a point by measuring the
angles from certain known points on a baseline.

iii. Vernier Transit Theodolite

Vernier transit theodolites are those which carry a telescope which flips over to allow back sighting
and angle doubling. Most noteworthy, this result is quite a few errors in reading. The precision of
these theodolites is less in comparison to other types. This is because they lack important features
like magnification or measurements in micrometres. Significant usage of vernier transits is on
construction sites. This is because they are relatively lightweight which means they can be moved
around easily. Some Vernier transit theodolites measure both vertical and horizontal angles.
However, there are some vernier transit theodolites which measure only horizontally.

Basic Components of An Optical Theodolite

The various parts of a theodolite and their functions are given as follows;

i. Alidade level: Transparent tube that contains liquid and an air bubble; it serves as a guide

for positioning the alidade on the vertical axis.

 ii. Illumination mirror: Adjustable polished glass surface that reflects light onto the circles so

that the angles can be read.

iii. Leveling head: Platform serving as a support for the theodolite.

iv. Horizontal clamp: Knob that locks the alidade to prevent it from rotating.

v. Leveling head locking knob: Knob that locks the alidade to the leveling head.

vi. Leveling head level: Transparent tube that contains liquid and an air bubble; it serves as a

guide for positioning the leveling head on the horizontal axis.

vii. Base plate: Plate to which the leveling head is attached by means of three leveling screws.

viii. Leveling screw: Screw that adjusts the theodolite’s leveling head level on the horizontal

plane.

ix. Telescope: Optical instrument composed of several lenses; it can be adjusted in the

horizontal and vertical planes and is used to observe distant objects.

x. Optical sight: Device with an eyepiece that precisely aims the telescope at the target whose

angles are to be measured.

xi. Adjustment for horizontal-circle image: Knob that adjusts the sharpness of the image of

the horizontal circle (graduated from 0° to 360°) in order to read the angles on the

horizontal axis.

xii. Micrometer screw: Knob that adjusts the micrometer to give a very precise reading of the

circles’ measurements.

xiii. Adjustment for vertical-circle image: Knob that adjusts the sharpness of the image of the

vertical circle (graduated from 0° to 360°) in order to read the angles on the vertical axis.

xiv. Alidade: Part of the theodolite that rotates on a vertical axle to measure angles by means

of the telescope.
 xv. The trivets stage: This forms the base of the instrument and in order to be able to attach the

theodolite to the tripod, most tripods have a clamping screw which locates into a 5/8-inch

threaded center on the trivet. This enables the instrument to move on the tripod head and

allows the theodolite to be centered. The trivet also carries the feet of three threaded

levelling foot screws.

xvi. The tripod: This is used to provide support for the theodolite, the tripod may be telescopic

i.e., it has sliding legs or may have legs of fixed lengths.

xvii. The Tribrach: This is the body of the instrument carrying all other parts. It has a hollow

slightly conical shape socket into which fits the reminder of the instrument. The tribrach

can be levelled independently of the trivet stage.

xviii. The lower plate: This carries the horizontal circle. The term glass arc has been used to

describe optical theodolites because the horizontal and vertical circles on which the angle

graduations are photographically etched are made of glass. Many types of optical theodolite

are available, varying in reading precision from 1’ to 0.1’’ although 20’’ and 6’’ reading

theodolites are most commonly used in engineering surveying.

xix. The focusing screw: This is fitted concentrically with the barrel of the telescope and

diaphragm can be illuminated for night or tunnel wok. When the main telescope is rotated

in altitude about the trunnion axis from one direction to face in the opposite direction, it

has been transmitted. The side of the main telescope, viewed from the eyepiece, containing

the vertical circle is called the face.

xx. Standards: This is the frame mounted directly on the cover plate carrying the telescope.
xxi. Transit axis or trunnion axis: This axis rests on the limbs of the standard and is securely

held in position by a lock nut. Attached to the transit are the telescope and the vertical

circle. When this is levelled, that is at the center of its run, the line of sight is horizontal.

xxii. Optical plummet: This assists the centering of the instrument particularly in windy weather.

Ranging Rod

These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with characteristic red and white

bands which are usually 0.5m long and tipped with a pointed steel shoe to enable them to be driven

into the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with the tape, and for marking any

points which need to be seen.

The Compass

This is an instrument used for the measurement of magnetic bearings. It is small and portable

usually carried on the hand. This Prismatic Compass is one of the two main kinds of magnetic

compasses included in the collection for the purpose of measuring magnetic bearings, with the

other being the Surveyor's Compass. The main difference between the two instruments is that the
surveyor's compass is usually the larger and more accurate instrument, and is generally used on a

stand or tripod.

• The prismatic compass on the other hand is often a small instrument which is held in the hand

for observing, and is therefore employed on the rougher classes of work. The graduations on this

prismatic compass are situated on a light aluminum ring fastened to the needle, and the zero of the

graduations coincides with the south point of the needle. The graduations therefore remain

stationary with the needle, and the index turns with the sighting vanes. Since the circle is read at

the observer's (rather than the target's) end, the graduations run clockwise from the south end of

the needle (0º to 360º), whereas in the surveyor's compass, the graduations run anticlockwise from

north.

Leveling in Surveying
Leveling is the process of finding or measuring vertical distances (elevations) of points or their
differences in elevation, either directly or indirectly. Elevation the distance measured along a
vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or object.

Datum is any level surface to which elevations are referenced.

Benchmark (BM) is a definite point of which the elevation & location of it are known
The height of instrument (H.I.) is the elevation of the line of sight of the telescope above the datum
when the instrument is leveled.

Back sight (B.S.) is a rod reading taken on a point of known elevation, as a bench mark or a turning
point.

Foresight (F.S.) is a rod reading taken on a point the elevation of which is to be determined, as on
a turning point.

Intermediate Site (I.S.) These are the sights taken at nominated position, known as stations. The
sights are then converted to reduced levels.

Turning point (T.P.) is an intervening point between two bench marks upon which point foresight
and back sight rod readings are taken as a turning point.

Level is an instrument which is used for observing staff reading on leveling staff kept
over different points.

Leveling Instruments (Levels)

Levels are surveying instruments that have a telescope and means for orienting the telescope's line

of sight on a horizontal plane. Surveying level and tripod or hand level. Hand Levels can be a great

tool for use by professionals and consumers. They are a very practical and low cost tool with a

wide variety of uses. They were first created when someone thought of attaching a spirit level to a

telescope. Once the instrument is level, the user looks through the telescope to compare different

points against the same reference point. It is used for rough leveling and not designed for precision

work.
Types of Levels

i) Hand Level

Sometimes Professional Land Surveyors or Grading Contractors will use a Hand Level to get an

idea or estimation of level instead of taking the time to set up a tripod with a leveling instrument.

ii) Abney Level

An Abney Level is similar to a Hand Level in that it is a telescope with a spirit level attached. The

main distinction is that the spirit level on an Abney level is not set in a static horizontal position.

An Abney Level features a graduated arc. Abney levels are easier to use and inexpensive. They

are used to measure degrees, percent of grade and topographic elevation. The user can then

determine height, volume and grade through manipulating the readings with trigonometry.

iii) Dumpy Level

Dumpy Levels are more like a Builders' Level than a Hand Level. It is not a hand-held tool, but

instead needs to be mounted on a tripod. It has largely been replaced by Auto Levels and a Builders'

Level. It needs to be perfectly level on all 4 leveling screws because it has no self-leveling features

like most Auto Levels today. Any slight variation will cause measurements to be inaccurate. Auto

Levels allow the user to set the instrument close to level and the instrument will adjust the fine

level using its internal compensator. This decreases setup time and improves accuracy of

measurements. Although dumpy levels are not typically used anymore many people will refer to

Auto Levels and Builders' Levels as “dumpy levels” despite the vast differences in the instruments.
(iv) Tilting Level

Tilting Level consist a telescope which enabled for the horizontal rotation as well as rotation about

4 degrees in its vertical plane. Centering of bubble can be easily done in this type of level. But, for

every setup bubble is to be centered with the help of tilting screw. The main advantage of tilting

level is it is useful when the few observations are to be taken with one setup of level.

(v) Automatic level

This is the most commonly used instrument in leveling. The telescope is fixed to its supports.
Circular spirit can be attached to the side of the telescope for approximate leveling. For more
accurate leveling, compensator is attached inside the telescope.
(vi) Digital Level
This is an accurate instrument used for accurate leveling. Operation of digital levels is based on
the digital processing of video indications of a coded staff.

Leveling Staff

This is simply a large ruler, available in lengths of 3, 4 or 5 meters and usually made of aluminum
with telescopic sections. The vertical distance above or below the horizontal surface is read off a
leveling staff. It may be either telescope or folding extending to a length of 4m or 5m and graduated
to be easily read in the filed-on view of the leveling staff graduated in meters (in 10mm division).
The staff is either white or yellow.

Reading the Staff

Color Alternates every meter each graduation is 100mm, each “E” is 50mm meter height & 1/10m
is located in lower 50mm each Part of the E is 10mm millimeters are interpolated staff is read to
the millimeter
Cross Staff

This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and narrow slit in

each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set up it is at normal eye

level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main chain line.