Graph Theory

Connectivity #2

James Ashkar

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James Ashkar

Problem 1
1. Let 𝐺 be a connected graph such that Δ(𝐺) = 3 and any 2 vertices in 𝐺 of degree 3 are not adja-
cent. Let 𝑇 be a spanning normal tree in 𝐺 with root 𝑟 and 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺)\𝐸 (𝑇), show that 𝑎 or 𝑏 is a leaf.

Solution: First i claim that 𝑎𝑏 belongs to a cycle in 𝐺, indeed if we add 𝑎𝑏 to 𝑇 then we create a
cycle, otherwise 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐸 (𝑇) a contradiction by construction of 𝑇.
Now consider the unique path 𝑃 = 𝑎𝑢 1 . . . 𝑢 𝑛 𝑏 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 in 𝑇 and suppose neither 𝑎 or 𝑏 is a
leaf, then 𝑑 (𝑎) ≥ 2 and 𝑑 (𝑏) ≥ 2, note that 𝑢 1 and 𝑢 𝑛 are not a leaf as {𝑎} ∪ {𝑢 2 } ⊂ 𝑁 (𝑢 1 ) and
{𝑏} ∪ {𝑢 𝑛−1 } ⊂ 𝑁 (𝑢 2 ) so that 𝑑 (𝑢 1 ) ≠ 1 and 𝑑 (𝑢 𝑛 ) ≠ 1. Now if 𝑎 is not a leaf then ∃𝑣 ≠ 𝑢 1 such
that 𝑣 ∈ 𝑁 (𝑎) and so 𝑑 (𝑎) = 3 in G as 𝑏, 𝑣, 𝑢 1 ∈ 𝑁 (𝑎) but that forces 𝑑 (𝑏) = 2 in G as its adjacent
to 𝑎, and so as 𝑁 (𝑏) = {𝑎, 𝑢 1 } in 𝐺 that means 𝑁 (𝑏) = {𝑢 1 } in 𝑇 and 𝑏 is a leaf, similar argument
applies if we assume 𝑏 is not a leaf.

Problem 2
2. let 𝐷 be a strong diagraph and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑉 (𝐷). show that ∃𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐷) \ 𝐴 not
necessarily distinct, such that (𝑎, 𝑥) and (𝑦, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷)
Solution: notice that since 𝐷 is connected, 𝐴 and 𝑉 (𝐷) \ 𝐴 have a path linking them, otherwise 𝐴
and 𝑉 (𝐷) \ 𝐴 form 2 connected components of 𝐷 a contradiction. Then there exists 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and
𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐷) \ 𝐴 such that (𝑎, 𝑥) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷) or (𝑥, 𝑎) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷), suppose WLOG that (𝑎, 𝑥) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷), as 𝐷
is strongly connected there is a directed path 𝑃𝑥𝑎 from 𝑥 to 𝑎, this path must leave 𝑉 (𝐷) \ 𝐴) at
some point 𝑦 and enter 𝐴 at some point 𝑏, otherwise the vertices of 𝑃𝑥𝑎 are a subset of 𝑉 (𝐷) \ 𝐴 a
contradiction. then (𝑏, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷) and we are done.

Problem 3
3. Let 𝐹 be a final forest in 𝐷 and 𝑢, 𝑣 be 2 leaves in 𝐹 (𝑑 + (𝑢) = 𝑑 + (𝑣) = 0) such that (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷).
Show that (𝑢, 𝑣) is forward with respect to 𝐹.
Recall: A forest is called final if for every backwards edge (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷) we have a 𝑦𝑥−path in 𝐹.
Solution:

1. If (𝑢, 𝑣) is not forward then its backwards in 𝐹 and so we can find a 𝑢𝑣−directed path in 𝐹
which means 𝑑 + (𝑢) ≠ 0 a contradiction.

2. (Alternative case) suppose 𝐹 is maximal and Notice that (𝑢, 𝑣) is not a tree edge in 𝐹,
otherwise 𝑢 or 𝑣 is not a leaf anymore, if ℓ𝐹 (𝑣) ≤ ℓ𝐹 (𝑢) then remove 𝑣 from 𝐹 and consider
𝐹2 where we remove 𝑣 and add (𝑢, 𝑣) so that ℓ𝐹2 (𝑣) = ℓ𝐹2 (𝑢) + 1, now
∑︁ ∑︁ ∑︁
ℓ𝐹2 (𝑢𝑖 ) = ℓ𝐹 (𝑢𝑖 ) − ℓ𝐹 (𝑣) + ℓ𝐹 (𝑢) + 1 ≥ ℓ𝐹 (𝑢𝑖 )
𝑢 𝑖 ∈𝑉 (𝐺) 𝑢 𝑖 ∈𝑉 (𝐺)\{𝑣,𝑢} 𝑢 𝑖 ∈𝑉 (𝐺)

Problem 3 continued on next page. . . 2

James Ashkar

which contradicts that 𝐹 is maximal a contradiction, so ℓ𝐹 (𝑣) > ℓ𝐹 (𝑢) and then (𝑢, 𝑣) is
forward in 𝐹.

Problem 4
4.Let 𝐹 be a final out-forest and (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐹) such that 𝑢 and 𝑣 are in 2 distinct out-branching trees,
show that (𝑢, 𝑣) is forward.
Solution: suppose (𝑢, 𝑣) is not forward, then (𝑢, 𝑣) is backwards, and so we can find a 𝑣𝑢−directed
path in 𝐹, but 𝑢, 𝑣 are in distinct out-branching trees a contradiction we just connected these trees
with a 𝑢𝑣-directed path.

Problem 5
5.Let 𝐹 be a final forest in 𝐷 and 𝑣 ∈ 𝐿 𝑘 (𝐹) (𝑘 ≥ 3), show that 𝐷 cant contain more than 𝑘 − 2
between arcs with tails 𝑢. (unsolved)

Problem 6
6.Let 𝐷 be a diagraph and 𝐹 be a maximal outforest in 𝐷, let (𝑢, 𝑣) ∈ 𝐸 (𝐷) such that (𝑢, 𝑣) is
backwards with respect to 𝐹, show that 𝑣 ∈ 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑢) (I assume 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑢) denotes the unique path from
the source of the tree 𝑇 where 𝑢 ∈ 𝑇 and 𝑇 is a connected component in 𝐹)
Solution: suppose that 𝑣 does not belong to 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑢), now as (𝑢, 𝑣) is backwards there is a 𝑣𝑢−path 𝑃𝑣𝑢
in 𝐹, now consider 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑣)𝑃𝑣𝑢 𝑃−1 −1 −1
𝐹 (𝑢) where 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑢) denoting walking backwards along 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑢),notice
that 𝑃𝑣𝑢 ∩ 𝑃 𝐹 (𝑣) = ∅ since otherwise 𝑑 −1 (𝑣) ≠ 1, this a cycle in the forest which is a contradiction.

Problem 7
7. Show that a vertex of degree one cant be a cut vertex.
Solution: Let 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺) such that 𝑁 (𝑢) = {𝑣} then if 𝐺 − {𝑢} gains a connected component 𝐶𝑛+1
pick 𝑣 ∈ 𝐶𝑛 , 𝑣 1 ∈ 𝐶𝑛+1 , we have either 𝑣, 𝑣 1 ∈ 𝑁 (𝑢) which is impossible so 𝐶𝑛+1 = ∅, otherwise
let 𝐺 have exactly 𝑛 connected components 𝐶𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, . . . , 𝑛 and 𝑣 1 ∉ 𝑁 (𝑢), then there is no edge
connecting 𝐶𝑛+1 to 𝐺 and 𝐺 has 𝑛 + 1 connected components, a contradiction.

Problem 8
8.Let 𝑢 be a end vertex of a bridge in 𝐺

Problem 8 continued on next page. . . 3

James Ashkar

1. Let 𝐺 be a graph and 𝑒 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺). Show that if 𝑒 is contained in a cycle then 𝑒 is not a bridge

2. Show that 𝑣 is a cut vertex if and only if 𝑑 (𝑣) ≥ 2.

Solution:
1. suppose 𝑒 = 𝑢 1 𝑢 𝑛 belongs to the cycle containing {𝑢 1 , 𝑢 2 . . . , 𝑢 𝑛−1 , 𝑢 𝑛 }, then if 𝑒 is a
bridge, we get at least two connected components 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 such that 𝑢 1 ∈ 𝐶1 , 𝑢 𝑛 ∈ 𝐶2 , but as
𝑃𝑢1 ,𝑢 𝑛 = 𝑢 1 . . . 𝑢 𝑛 is connected, then 𝑃𝑢1 ,𝑢2 ⊂ 𝐶𝑖 for 𝑖 = 1 or 𝑖 = 2 both lead to a contradiction
as 𝑢 1 ∈ 𝐶1 and 𝑢 𝑛 ∈ 𝐶2 .

2. we already proved a vertex of degree one cant be a cut vertex, so if 𝑣 is a cut vertex then
𝑑 (𝑣) ≥ 2, now suppose 𝑑 (𝑣) ≥ 2, let the bridge be 𝑣𝑢 and let 𝛼, 𝑢 ∈ 𝑁 (𝑣) then if 𝐺 − {𝑣} is
connected, we can find a path from 𝛼 to 𝑢, then 𝑃𝛼𝑢 ∪ {𝑢𝑣} is a cycle, and by part 𝑖) we get
𝑢𝑣 is not a bridge, contradiction, hence 𝑣 is a cut vertex.

Problem 9
9.Let G be a 𝑛-connected graph and 𝐺 ′ a graph obtained from 𝐺 by adding a vertex 𝑣 such that
𝑁𝐺 ′ (𝑣) = 𝑛, 𝐺 ′ = 𝐺 + 𝑣, show that 𝐺 ′ is 𝑛− connected.
Solution: suppose 𝐺 is not 𝑛− connected, then there exists 𝑛 − 1-vertices 𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑛−1 such that
𝐺 ′ − {𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑛−1 } is not connected, lets study two cases :
1. Case 1: 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑖 for some 𝑖 ∈ {1, . . . , 𝑛 − 1} then 𝐺 ′ − {𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑛−1 } is simply 𝐺 −
{𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎𝑖−1 , 𝑎𝑖+1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑛−1 } and since 𝐺 is n-connected and we are removing 𝑛 − 2 ver-
tices, the resulting graph is connected, a contradiction.

2. Case 2: 𝑣 ≠ 𝑎𝑖 , ∀𝑖 = 1, . . . , 𝑛 − 1, then WLOG enumerate 𝑎𝑖 so that 𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑚 ⊂ 𝑁𝐺 ′ (𝑣) and

𝑎𝑖 ∉ 𝑁𝐺 ′ (𝑉), ∀𝑖 = 𝑚 + 1, . . . 𝑛 − 1, then 𝐺 ′ − {𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑚 , 𝑎 𝑚+1 . . . 𝑎 𝑛−1 } gives a graph 𝐺 2 =
𝐺 − {𝑎 1 , . . . , 𝑎 𝑛−1 } ∪ {𝑣} with 𝑁𝐺 2 (𝑣) = 𝑁𝐺 ′ (𝑣) \ {𝑎 1 , . . . 𝑎 𝑚 } ≠ ∅, since 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 (𝑁𝐺 ′ (𝑣)) = 𝑛
and as 𝐺 − {𝑎 1 , . . . , 𝑎 𝑛−1 } is connected and 𝑣 is connected to some 𝑢 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 2 (𝑣) we get the
resulting graph is connected, and hence 𝐺 is 𝑛− connected.

Problem 10
10.Let 𝐺 be a 𝑛−connected graph, let 𝑋 = {𝑥 1 , . . . , 𝑥 𝑛 } and 𝑌 = {𝑦 1 , . . . 𝑦 𝑛 } such that 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = ∅.
Show that there exists 𝑛− distinct paths 𝑃1 , . . . 𝑃𝑛 such that 𝑃𝑖 is a 𝑥𝑖 𝑦 𝜎(𝑖) path and 𝑃𝑖 ∩ 𝑃 𝑗 = ∅, ∀𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
where 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛
Solution: Add two vertices 𝑥 𝑛+1 , 𝑦 𝑛+1 such that 𝑥 𝑛+1 is has a edge with each element in 𝑋 and 𝑦 𝑛+1
has a edge with each element in 𝑌 , then the new resulting graph is 𝑛−connected by the previous
exercise and applying Mengers theorem we have 𝑘−disjoint paths from 𝑥 𝑛+1 to 𝑦 𝑛+1 , lets call
𝑃𝑖∗ = 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑥𝑖∗ . . . 𝑦𝑖∗ 𝑦 𝑛+1 then the paths 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖∗ . . . 𝑦𝑖∗ are the paths we want.

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James Ashkar

Problem 11
11.Show that if a connected 3−regular graph has a cut vertex, it must have a bridge.
Solution: Let 𝑣 be this cut vertex, we know 𝑑 (𝑣) = 3(i.e 𝑁 (𝑣) = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 }) first lets show that
𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 and 𝑣 3 cant belong to the same connected component of 𝐺 − 𝑣, indeed if they did, then for
any two points 𝑎, 𝑏 in 𝐺 we have a path 𝑃𝑎,𝑏 , If 𝑃 doesn’t pass through 𝑣 then 𝑃𝑎,𝑏 is also a path
from 𝑎 to 𝑏 in 𝐺 − 𝑣, now if 𝑃 pass through 𝑣 then 𝑃𝑎,𝑏 = 𝑎 . . . 𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑣 𝑗 . . . 𝑏 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ {1, 2, 3},
now as 𝑣 𝑖 , 𝑣 𝑗 belong to the same connected component for any 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 we have a path 𝛾 = 𝛾1 . . . 𝛾𝑚
from 𝑣 𝑖 to 𝑣 𝑗 in 𝐺 − 𝑣, then 𝑎 . . . 𝑣 𝑖 𝛾1 . . . 𝛾𝑚 𝑣 𝑗 . . . 𝑏 is a path from 𝑎 to 𝑏 in 𝐺 − 𝑣, then 𝐺 − 𝑣 is
connected which is a contradiction.
Now assume that 𝑣𝑣 1 is not a bridge, then 𝐺 − 𝑣𝑣 1 is connected, and so there is a path from 𝑣 1 to 𝑣 2 ,
now we have two cases:
Case1: The path passes through 𝑣 3 and so 𝑣 1 and 𝑣 3 belong to the same connected component 𝐶1
in 𝐺 − 𝑣, therefore 𝑣 2 belongs to a different connected component 𝐶2 , i claim that in this case 𝑣𝑣 2
is a bridge, indeed if its not a bridge, then we can find a path from 𝑣 2 → 𝑣 1 that’s not 𝑣 2 𝑣𝑣 1 and
either this path cuts through 𝑣 3 𝑣 or reaches 𝑣 1 without passing through 𝑣, in both cases we have a
contradiction as 𝑣 2 is in a separate connected component from 𝑣 1 , 𝑣 3 .
Case2: The path doesn’t pass through 𝑣 3 and reaches 𝑣 2 without cutting through 𝑣, which implies
𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 are in the same connected component, and a similar argument shows that 𝑣𝑣 3 is a bride.

Problem 12
12. Consider a maximal forest 𝐹 of 𝐷. Let ℓ = max{𝑖/𝐿 𝑖 (𝐹) ≠ ∅}. Let 𝑣 ∈ 𝐿 ℓ (𝐹) and suppose
∃𝑠 < ℓ such that 𝐴 = 𝑁 + (𝑣) ∩ 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹) ≠ ∅. let 𝑢 ∈ 𝐴 and let 𝑃 = 𝑣 𝑠 𝑣 𝑠+1 . . . 𝑣 ℓ such that 𝑣 𝑠 = 𝑢 and
𝑣 ℓ = 𝑣 where 𝑃 is a 𝑢𝑣−directed path in 𝐹.
1. Show that 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 ( 𝐴) = 1

2. show that 𝑁 (𝑣) ∩ 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹) = {𝑢}

Solution:
1. suppose that 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 ( 𝐴) > 1, then we can find 𝑢, 𝑢 1 ∈ 𝑁 + (𝑣) ∩ 𝐿 ℓ (𝐹), let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐿 1 (𝐹) in the same
tree as 𝑣 and consider the 𝑣𝑥− path 𝑃𝑣𝑥 in F, if 𝑢 ∈ 𝑃𝑣𝑥 then 𝑢 1 ∉ 𝑃𝑣𝑥 otherwise they cant both belong
to 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹), indeed if they did,suppose 𝑃 = 𝑥 . . . 𝑢𝑢 1 . . . 𝑣 then as 𝑢 1 ∈ 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹) we can consider a path
from 𝑢 1 not passing through 𝑢 to 𝑥 and we reach a contradiction as we found two distinct paths from
𝑥 to 𝑢. Now since 𝑢 1 doesn’t belong to 𝑃𝑣𝑥 , consider 𝑢 1 and every point 𝑟 such that 𝑟 ∈ 𝐿 𝑖 (𝐹), 𝑖 > 𝑠
and there is a path from 𝑢 1 to 𝑟 such that it doesn’t pass through any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐿 𝑗 (𝐹), 𝑗 ≤ 𝑠, lets call this
tree formed of 𝑢 1 and the r’s mentioned by 𝐺, call 𝑢 1 = 𝑟 1 .
Now construct the graph 𝐹1 formed by taking the tree with 𝑢 1 and all the points 𝑟 mentioned above,
and attaching it to 𝑣, then
∑︁ ∑︁ ∑︁ ∑︁ ∑︁
ℓ𝐹1 (𝛼𝑖 ) = ℓ𝐹 (𝛽𝑖 ) − ℓ𝐹 (𝑟𝑖 ) + [ℓ𝐺 (𝑟𝑖 ) + ℓ𝐹 (𝑣)] ≥ ℓ𝐹 (𝛽𝑖 )
𝛼𝑖 ∈𝐹1 𝛽𝑖 ∈𝐹 𝑟 𝑖 ∈𝐺 𝑟 𝑖 ∈𝐺 𝛽𝑖 ∈𝐹

Problem 12 continued on next page. . . 5

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contradicting the maximality of 𝐹.

2. since 𝑁 + (𝑣) ∩ 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹) = {𝑢} as 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 ( 𝐴) = 1 then we only need to show 𝐵 = 𝑁 − (𝑣) ∩ 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹) = ∅,
indeed suppose otherwise then pick 𝑣 ∗ ∈ 𝐵 and again if 𝑣 ∗ belongs to the same branch as 𝑣 then
𝑢 belong to a different branch and we build a contradiction , similarly if 𝑢 belongs to the same
branch then 𝑣 ∗ belongs to a different branch and we build the same a contradiction as part 1, hence
𝑁 (𝑣) ∩ 𝐿 𝑠 (𝐹) = {𝑢}

Problem 13
13.An edge 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺) is said to be diagonal if 𝑥 and 𝑦 are vertices of some cycle 𝐶 in 𝐺 but
𝑥𝑦 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐶). Show that if 𝐺 is a block and 𝑒 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺) is diagonal then 𝐺 − 𝑒 is a block. Solution:
since 𝑥 and 𝑦 belong to a cycle 𝐶 such that 𝑥𝑦 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐶), then removing 𝑥𝑦 keeps the cycle 𝐶
connected, and so 𝑥, 𝑦 are connected in 𝐺 − 𝑒, which means 𝑥𝑦 is not a bridge, and hence 𝐺 − 𝑒
is still connected, moreover 𝑑 (𝑣) ≥ 2, ∀𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺), 𝑣 ∉ {𝑥, 𝑦}. Now notice 𝑑 (𝑥) ≥ 3, 𝑑 (𝑦) ≥ 3
since 𝑥𝑦 belong to the cycle 𝑥𝛼1 . . . 𝛼𝑚 𝑦𝛽1 . . . 𝛽𝑛 𝑥 so that 𝛼1 , 𝑥, 𝛽𝑛 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝑣) and 𝛼𝑚 , 𝛽1 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝑦)
which means that 𝑑 (𝑥) ≥ 2, 𝑑 (𝑦) ≥ 2 in 𝐺 − 𝑒 which means that 𝐺 − 𝑒 is 2−connected, now if
𝐺 − 𝑒 is not maximal and there exists a connected 𝐺 ′ containing 𝐺 − 𝑒 then it must contain 𝐺
contradicting the maximality of 𝐺, then 𝐺 − 𝑒 is a block.

Problem 14
14.Let 𝐺 be 𝑛−connected graph and let 𝐺 ′ be a graph obtained from 𝐺 after adding a vertex v that
has 𝑠 neighbors in 𝐺, show that 𝐺 ′ is 𝑠−connected Solution: consider 𝑛 − 𝑠 vertices in 𝑉 (𝐺) \ 𝑁 (𝑣)
and connect them to 𝑣 by edges 𝑒 𝑠+1 . . . 𝑒 𝑛 to obtain a graph 𝐺 2 then 𝐺 2 is 𝑛−connected by exercise
9, and so after removing 𝑒 𝑠+1 , . . . 𝑒 𝑛 we need to remove 𝑠 more edges to disconnect 𝐺 2 since its
𝑛−connected, which means 𝐺 ′ is 𝑠−connected.

Problem 15
15. Let 𝐺 be a 2−connected graph / 𝑉 (𝐺) ≥ 3 suppose 𝐺 contains a cycle 𝐶 not passing through
all the vertices of 𝐺

1. Let 𝐻 be a connected component in 𝑉 (𝐺) − 𝐶

i. show that there exists at least 2 vertices on 𝐶 connected by 2 paths to vertices in 𝐻

ii. let 𝑥 1 , 𝑥2 be 2 vertices on 𝐶 as defined in (𝑖) show that if 𝐶 is of maximal length then
𝑥 1 .𝑥 2 are not consecutive on 𝐶
iii. let 𝑦 1 and 𝑦 2 be the clockwise neighbors of 𝑥 1 and 𝑥2 respectively, show that 𝑦 1 𝑦 2 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐶)

2. Deduce if 𝐶 is of maximal length then 𝛼(𝐺) ≥ 3

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3. Prove the following:

Chavatal-Erdos Theorem: Let 𝐺 be a 𝑘−connected graph with 𝑛 ≥ 3 vertices. If 𝛼(𝐺) ≤ 𝑘
then 𝐺 is Hamiltonian.

Solution:

1. i. First lets show that if 𝐻 contains 1 element we can find a Hamiltonian cycle, indeed as
𝐻 = {𝑣} and 𝑣 is connected to two vertices 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶 (𝑑 (𝑣) ≥ 2) then lets order 𝐶 as
𝑥𝛼1 . . . 𝛼𝑚1 𝑦𝛽1 . . . 𝛽𝑚2 𝑥 then notice that 𝛼1 . . . 𝑦𝑣𝑥 𝛽𝑚2 𝛽𝑚2 −1 . . . 𝛽1 is our Hamiltonian
cycle.
Now suppose 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑑 (𝐻) ≥ 2 then as 𝐻 is disjoint from 𝐶, pick 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 2 elements
𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝐶 and apply exercise 10 to get 2 disjoint paths 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 let 𝑥 1 be the last vertex 𝑃1
cuts before leaving 𝐶 and 𝑥 2 the last vertex 𝑃2 cuts before leaving 𝐶, similarly let 𝑧 1 , 𝑧2
be the last first vertex 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 cuts when entering 𝐻 respectively.
ii. Suppose 𝑥 1 and 𝑥 2 are consecutive on 𝐶, now as 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 belong to the same connected com-
ponent, they are connected by a path 𝑃𝑧1 ,𝑧2 in 𝐻. Notice we have 𝑥 2 . . . 𝑥1 𝑃𝑥1 𝑧1 𝑃𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑃𝑧2 𝑥2
is a cycle of length greater than 𝐶 contradicting its maximality, a contradiction.
iii. If 𝑦 1 𝑦 2 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐶) then consider 𝑦 1 𝑦 2 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑥2 𝑧2 𝑃𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑃𝑧1 𝑥1 𝑥 1 . . . 𝑦 2 so we once again get a
cycle larger than 𝐶 contradicting maximality.

2. suppose 𝛼(𝐺) ≤ 2, but as 𝑦 1 𝑦 2 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐶) and 𝑦 1 𝑧1 , 𝑦 2 𝑧 1 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐺) for then by a similar proof as
1)𝑖) we get a cycle larger than 𝐶 contradicting maximality [𝑦 1 𝑧1 𝑦 2 . . . 𝑦 1 ], so we found a set
of 3 independent vertices contradiction.

3. suppose a maximal cycle C exists that doesn’t cut all vertices in 𝐺, first order 𝐶 as 𝛽1 . . . 𝛽𝑚 so
that 𝛽𝑖 < 𝛽 𝑗 for 𝑖 < 𝑗 then consider the connected component 𝐻 in 𝑉 (𝐺) − 𝐶 and by applying
Mengers theorem we have 𝑘−disjoint paths 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, . . . 𝑘 from vertices {𝑥1 , . . . 𝑥 𝑘 } ⊂ 𝐶 to
vertices in 𝐻 ordered so that 𝑥𝑖 < 𝑥 𝑗 for 𝑖 < 𝑗.
I claim 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 are not consecutive for any 𝑖 = 1, . . . 𝑘 −1, indeed if there exists 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖+1 consecutive
then by the same proof as 1)𝑖𝑖) we get a contradiction, let 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖+1 be clockwise neighbors
of 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥 𝑗 , then by same proof as 1)𝑖𝑖𝑖) we get 𝑦𝑖 𝑦𝑖+1 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐶) and notice 𝑦𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖+1 cant be
connected to a vertex in 𝐻 by a edge, as then we have consecutive points 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 and the same
contradiction follows, so that 𝐻 ∪ {𝑦𝑖 : 𝑖 = 1, . . . , 𝑘 } is a indepedent set of size greater than
𝑘 + 1 a contradiction to 𝛼(𝐺) ≤ 𝑘, so 𝐺 must contain a hamiltonian cycle.

Problem 16
16. Let 𝐺 be a graph and 𝐺 ′ a graph obtained from 𝐺 by adding a vertex 𝛾 an djoining it to all the
vertices of 𝐺.

1. show that 𝛼(𝐺) = 𝛼(𝐺 ′)

Problem 16 continued on next page. . . 7

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2. Let 𝐺 be a 𝑘−connected graph such that 𝐺 has no stable of order 𝑘 + 2. Deduce that 𝐺
contains a hamiltonian path (Hint: use Chavatal-Erdos)

Solution:

1. Let 𝐵 be a an arbitary maximal indepedent set in 𝐺 , then 𝛾 ∉ 𝐵 since 𝛾𝑣 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺), ∀𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺)

and so B is also maximal in 𝐺 ′ and 𝛼(𝐺) = 𝛼(𝐺 ′)

2. If 𝛼(𝐺) ≥ 𝑘 then we are done by chavatal erdos, now suppose 𝛼(𝐺) = 𝑘 + 1 and create
𝐺 ′ by adding a new vertex 𝛾 connected to all vertices of 𝐺, that is 𝛾𝑣 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺), ∀𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺),
then notice that 𝐺 ′ is 𝑘 + 1-connected, since we need to remove 𝛾 to disconnect 𝐺 otherwise
no matter how many vertices we remove, we can find a path 𝑥𝛾𝑦 between any 2 vertices
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺), and as 𝐺 is 𝑘 connected, we need to remove 𝑘 more vertices to disconnect
𝐺, making 𝐺 ′, 𝑘 + 1− connected, its as 𝛼(𝐺) = 𝛼(𝐺 ′) we can apply chavatal-erdos to get a
hamiltonian cycle in 𝐺 ′ and by removing 𝛾 we get a hamiltonian path in 𝐺 (clearly a path
since we need to remove 2 vertices to disconnect a cycle.

Problem 17
17. Let 𝐺 be a 𝑘−connected graph. Let 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺) and let 𝑃 be a 𝑦𝑧−path of maximal lenght.

1. Show that if 𝑉 (𝐺) ≠ 𝑉 (𝑃) then 𝛼(𝐺) ≥ 𝐾

2. prove the theorem: If 𝐺 is 𝑘-conencted and 𝐺 has no stable set of order 𝐾, then 𝐺 contains a
hamiltonian path between any 2 vertices.

Solution:

1. Denote 𝑉 (𝐺) \ 𝑉 (𝑃) by 𝑉 (𝑃) 𝑐 and let 𝐻 be a connected component in 𝑉 (𝑃) 𝑐 , for any two
points 𝑥, 𝑦 in 𝐻 we will say 𝑃𝑥𝑦 to denote the 𝑥𝑦-path in 𝐻.
Now as 𝐺 is connected, we have 𝑘 disjoint paths from 𝑉 (𝑃) to 𝐻 by menders theorem,
specifically these paths can be chosen as edges from 𝑉 (𝑃) to 𝐻 since for each path 𝑃𝑖 simply
consider the last time it leaves 𝑉 (𝑃) through 𝑥𝑖 and enters 𝐻 through 𝑧𝑖 (notice there is no
GAP between 𝐻 and 𝑉 (𝑃)), so 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 is our new path.
Now consider the points {𝑥 1 , . . . , 𝑥 𝑘 , 𝑧1 , . . . , 𝑧 𝑘 } with 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺), suppose these 𝑥𝑖 are
ordered in the path 𝑃 in the sense that 𝑥𝑖 < 𝑥 𝑗 iff 𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝑃 𝑗 where 𝑃 𝑗 is the path from 𝑦 to 𝑥 𝑗 that
lies on 𝑃. First notice that 𝑥𝑖 𝑥 𝑗 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐺) for then we can pick a new path with 𝑥𝑖 𝑥 𝑗 removed and
adding 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 𝑃𝑧𝑖 𝑧 𝑗 𝑧 𝑗 𝑥 𝑗 resulting in a longer path. Now pick the the points 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖+1 in the path
order for all 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 − 1 and notice once again that 𝑦𝑖 𝑦 𝑗 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐺) for otherwise consider the path

𝑃1 = 𝑦 . . . 𝑥 𝑖 𝑧 𝑖 𝑃 𝑧 𝑖 𝑧 𝑗 𝑥 𝑗 . . . 𝑦 𝑖 𝑦 𝑗 . . . 𝑧

Notice that the . . . between 𝑥 𝑗 and 𝑦𝑖 indicating walking backwards on 𝑃 from 𝑥 𝑗 to 𝑦𝑖

and now ℓ(𝑃1 ) = ℓ(𝑃) − 2 + 2 + ℓ(𝑃𝑧1 𝑧2 ) > ℓ(𝑃) getting a contradiction, finally note that

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James Ashkar

for 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐻) we have 𝑦𝑖 𝛼 ∉ 𝐸 (𝐺) since we can consider the path 𝑦 . . . 𝑥𝑖 𝑧𝑖 𝑃𝑧𝑖 𝛼 𝑦𝑖 . . . 𝑧
contradicting maximality of 𝑃, so finally

{𝑦 1 , . . . , 𝑦 𝑘−1 , 𝛼}

is a indepdent set of size 𝑘 meaning 𝛼(𝐺) ≥ 𝑘

2. If 𝐺 has no stable set of order 𝑘 then consider a maximal path 𝑃 between any points 𝑥, 𝑦, if
𝑉 (𝑃) ≠ 𝑉 (𝐺) then 𝛼(𝐺) ≥ 𝑘 meaning there is a stable set of order 𝑘 a contradiction.

Problem 18
18.A block 𝐺 is edge critical if 𝐺 − 𝑒 is not a block for all 𝑒 ∈ 𝐸 (𝐺), Let 𝐺 be edge critical and
𝑉 (𝐺) ≥ 4.

• Show that 𝐺 has no diagonal

• Show that 𝐺 contains no triangles.

Solution:

• Suppose that 𝐺 has a diagonal, then by exercise 13 𝐺 − 𝑒 is a block, contradicting that 𝐺 is

edge critical.

• Suppose that 𝐺 contains a triangle 𝑥𝑦𝑧, then pick 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉 (𝐺)\{𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} as a block is 2−connected
we can consider 2 indepednent paths 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 from 𝛼 to 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively (possibly after
renaming 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that 𝑧 ∉ 𝑃1 and 𝑧 ∉ 𝑃2 , then consider the cycle 𝐶 = 𝑢𝑃1 𝑥𝑧𝑦𝑃2 𝑢, its
clear that 𝑥𝑦 is a diagonal in this cycle, contradicting part 1.