Hawassa University Institute of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering

Chapter One
Structural systems, structural members and Support systems
1.1. Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support loads. The fundamental purpose of a
structure is to transmit loads from the point of application to the point of support and, through the
foundations to the ground. Structures can be categorized in to two depending on their uses
1. Civil engineering structures: structures used by civilians or general public. E.g. Buildings,
bridges, towers, dams etc.
2. Military structures: These types of structures are used by military. E.g. Ships, aircraft frames
tanks etc.
Most of civil engineering structures are static/stationary and they designed by civil engineers.
Structures designed by Engineers must design for:
 Safety
 Serviceability
 Aesthetics
 Economy
 Environmental condition
1.2. Structural systems
Structural systems are composed of structural member joined by structural connection. Also each
structural system can be composed of one or more of the four basic types of structures. The four basic
types of structures are listed below:
 Trusses
 Frames
 Arches and Cables
 Surface structures
1. trusses
Truss structures constitute a special class of structures in which individual straight members are
connected at joints. The members are assumed to be connected to the joints in a manner that permit
rotation. Structural members of a truss can only carry an axial force in either tension or compression.
Truss members use less material to support loads but they require a lot of fabrication. Trusses can be used
in 9-120m range but they can also be designed for a span greater than 120m. Truss structures are suitable
when the span of the structure is large and there is no restriction on depth in the design process.
Truss Components and Terminology
Trusses typically follow a pretty general and common structure, made up of various components. Below
is a list of the relevant parts of a truss:
1. Top Chord – the beam of a truss spanning the length of the truss
2. Bottom Chord – the bottom beam spanning the length of the truss
3. Web – these are the internal members of a truss
4. Pitching Point - the point where the sloping members (top chord) connects with the
bottom chord
5. Apex/Peak – highest point of a truss

1
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

Fig.1.1. Truss components

Types of Trusses
Here‘s the list and description of common types of trusses:
a. Pratt Truss
.in this type of truss the vertical members are in compression, whilst the diagonal members are in tension.
This simplifies and produces a more efficient design since the steel in the diagonal members (in tension)
can be reduced. This has a few effects – it reduces the cost of the structure due to more efficient members,
reduces the self-weight, and eases the constructability of the structure. This type of truss is most
appropriate for horizontal spans, where the force is predominantly in the vertical direction.

Fig.1.2. Pratt truss

Advantages of Pratt Truss
 Aware of member‘s behavior – diagonal members are in tension, vertical members in
compression
 The above can be used to design a cost-effective structure
 Simple design
 Well accepted and used design
Disadvantages of Pratt Truss
 Not as advantageous if the load is not vertical
Best Used For:
 Where a cost-effective design is required
 Where a mix of loads is applied
 Where a simple structure is required
b. Warren Truss
The Warren Truss is another very popular truss structure system and is easily identified by its
construction from equilateral triangles. One of the main advantages of a Warren Truss is its ability to
spread the load evenly across a number of different members; this is however generally for cases when

2
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

the structure is undergoing a spanned load (a distributed load). Its main advantage is also the cause of its
disadvantage – the truss structure will undergo concentrated force under a point load. Under these
concentrated load scenarios, the structure is not as good at distributing the load evenly across its
members.
Advantages of Warren Truss
 Spreads load fairly evenly between members
 Fairly simple design
Disadvantages of Warren Truss
 Poorer performance under concentrated loads
 Increased constructability due to additional members
Best Used For:
 Long span structures
 Where an evenly distributed load is to be supported
 Where a simple structure is required

Fig.1.3. Warren truss

c. K Truss
The K Truss is a slightly more complicated version of the Pratt Truss. Its main difference is that the
vertical members have become shortened – improving its resistance against buckling. It does, however,
have similar pros and cons to the Pratt Truss and although it is not widely used, it is a strong design. One
of its main disadvantages is that the members don‘t always behave as expected. A member may be in
compression under one load scenario and in tension under another. This can mean the structure may not
be able to be optimally designed.
Advantages of K Truss
 Reduced compression in vertical members
 Possible reduction in steel and cost if designed efficiently
Disadvantages of K Truss
 Slightly more complex
 Increased constructability due to additional members

Fig.1.4. K- truss

3
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

d. Howe Truss
Howe trusses are essentially the opposite of Pratt trusses in terms of geometry. In fact, looking at a Pratt
truss upside-down will visualize a Howe truss of sorts. The entire structure is still relatively the same, but
the diagonal braces are now occupying the opposite or the unoccupied joints. This switch in position of
the diagonal members has a very important effect structurally.

Fig.1.5. Howe truss

e. Fink Truss
The Fink truss in its most basic form has web members that follow a V-pattern which can be repeated
several times. As the top chords are sloping downward from the center, the V pattern becomes noticeably
smaller. As Fink trusses rely more on diagonal members, they can be very efficient at transmitting loads
to the support.
Derivatives of the Fink truss include the Double Fink and the Fan truss types. Double Fink trusses are
essentially Fink trusses that repeat the pattern twice on either side. If the most basic Fink truss can be
characterized by a double-V, then a double fink would look like a double-W. Fan trusses are essentially
Fink trusses that have their web members ‗fan out‘ from the joints at the bottom, usually with the addition
of vertical members.

Fig.1.4. Fink (top), a Double fink (middle), and a Fan Truss (bottom)

4
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

f. Gambrel Truss
On the exterior, a gambrel truss has two different slopes, where the slope gets steeper from the center.
Due to its outward-protruding shape, gambrel trusses can effectively be fitted with a hollow center, which
can be used as a storage area. As such, the upper section of a barn is usually shaped in a gambrel. In the
case of a barn, as the members are usually constructed with wood, the structure acts more like a frame
than a truss. Derivatives of the gambrel include the Mansard roof, which is also called a French roof,
hence its popularity in France.

Fig.1.5. Gambrel truss

2. Frames
Framing is the process of mixing building materials to form the framework of a building. As a result, a
framed structure uses beams, columns, and a slab to withstand gravity and other lateral loads. As a rule,
these structures are employed to counteract the pressures and moments that emerge from the loading.
Characteristics of a Frame Structure:
 A-frame structure is a carefully arranged set of beams, columns, and slabs that can withstand the
tremendous stresses and moments generated by severe gravity and lateral loads.
 They come together to form a framework of steel or concrete that supports the weight and
transmits it to the ground without incident.
 In a framed structural system, walls are used to enclose the resulting cavity. There are two types
of walls here: load-bearing and non-load-bearing. Shear walls make up the bulk of the framed
building‘s load-bearing walls.
 Pin or permanent connections join the frame‘s structural parts.
 Consequently, beams, columns, slabs, and shear walls are a framed structure‘s primary structural
or load-carrying elements (load-bearing walls).
 The framework of a building may be fabricated from a wide variety of materials.

Types of Frame Structure:

A. Based on the connection between the elements of a frame structure:
a. Rigid Frame Structure:
Beams and columns are examples of the linear elements that make up a rigid frame system, also known as
a moment frame system. Rigidity is the inability to bend or flex. It is commonly found in reinforced
concrete and steel structures. Static indeterminacy is a hallmark of rigid frames, distinguished by the
absence of pinned joints between individual frame members.

5
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

A rigid frame does not bend under the weight of its beams and columns, making it resistant to vertical and
lateral stresses. Beams and columns with rigid connections give the rigid frame its stiffness. The joints
need to be sufficiently strong and rigid with little distortion.
A rigid frame structure can be divided into two categories:
i) Fix-Ended Rigid Frame Structure:
The conditions at the ends are usually set in this rigid frame system.
ii) Pin-Ended Rigid Frame Structure
This rigid frame is held together by pins and is no longer a rigid frame if the pins are removed.

Fig.1.6. fixed-ended rigid frame structures and pin ended rigid frame structure
b. Braced Frame Structure:
Bracing is typically installed between beams and columns in this frame system to strengthen the system‘s
resistance to lateral forces and sideways forces. Placing the diagonal elements between the beams and
columns is a common bracing method. This skeleton design is more able to withstand earthquake and
wind pressures. Compared to rigid frame systems, this one is superior.
A braced frame structure can be divided into two categories:

i) Portal Frames:
As the name suggests, portal frames resemble a doorway. These frame structures are commonly used to
construct industrial and commercial buildings.

Fig.1.7. portal frame

6
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

ii). Gabled Frames:

Gabled frames have a structural peak at the top to ease the flow of rainwater and snow. Therefore, these
frame structures are used in regions where the chances of rain and snow are high.

Fig.1.8. Gabled frame

B. Based on the materials used for the frame structure:
i) Steel Framed Structures:
A steel framework is used to carry the weight of these structures. Steel sections are used for these
structures‘ columns, beams, and girders. Bracing should be sufficient for these structures to withstand
wind and seismic effects. Lightweight and fireproof materials are typically chosen for these structures‘
interior and external walls. Steel-framed structures are, therefore, analogous to reinforced concrete
structures (RCC).Steel can support significantly more weight in the same area than any masonry can. It
allows for greater column-free areas by reducing the columns required for beam support at regular
intervals.
ii) Wooden Frame Structure
The wood frame structure is one of the most popular methods for constructing homes, businesses, and
factories. Wooden frames are highly cost-effective to construct and provide a high level of comfort to the
inhabitants by withstanding extreme climatic variations. Moreover, wood frames are carbon-neutral and
help reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
iii) RCC Frame Structure:
An RCC structure has a grid of beams and girders connected at the floor and roof levels to create a series
of frames. Within these frameworks, walls are built. All structural elements—the slab, the beams, the
girders, and the columns—are constructed as one solid piece and meet at a stiff, unified junction. So, in a
framed structure, the beams and girders take the weight of the floors, roofs, and walls and transfer it to the
columns, which in turn transfer it to the foundations.
Advantages of Frame Structure:
 The strength and stability of the structures have improved.
 The rigidity and stability of framed buildings are very high. Framed buildings can withstand large
vertical (dead load) and horizontal (wind) loads, as well as earthquakes, without much
deformation or movement.

7
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

 Buildings with multiple floors can also be made.

 Framing makes a structure less likely to shake. Framed structures can resist vibrations well,
which makes them good for buildings in areas prone to earthquakes and industrial structures.
 The lack of large load-bearing walls and other factors keeps the dead load minimum.
 Every finished floor slab protects the lower floors from rain and sun.
Disadvantages of Frame Structure:
Normal reinforced concrete limits span lengths in frame buildings to no more than 40 feet. Otherwise,
spans greater than that can generate lateral deflections.
3. Arches and Cables
a. Arches
Arches are structures composed of curvilinear members resting on supports. They are used for large-span
structures, such as airplane hangars and long-span bridges. One of the main distinguishing features of an
arch is the development of horizontal thrusts at the supports as well as the vertical reactions, even in the
absence of a horizontal load. The internal forces at any section of an arch include axial compression,
shearing force, and bending moment. The bending moment and shearing force at such section of an arch
are comparatively smaller than those of a beam of the same span due to the presence of the horizontal
thrusts. The horizontal thrusts significantly reduce the moments and shear forces at any section of the
arch, which results in reduced member size and a more economical design compared to other structures.
Additionally, arches are also aesthetically more pleasant than most structures.
Types of Arches
Based on their geometry, arches can be classified as semicircular, segmental, or pointed. Based on the
number of internal hinges, they can be further classified as two-hinged arches, three-hinged arches, fixed
arches and tied arches.

Fig.1.9. Types of Arch

b. Cables
Cables are flexible structures that support the applied transverse loads by the tensile resistance developed
in its members. Cables are used in suspension bridges, tension leg offshore platforms, transmission lines,
and several other engineering applications. The distinguishing feature of a cable is its ability to take
different shapes when subjected to different types of loadings. Under a uniform load, a cable takes the
shape of a curve, while under a concentrated load; it takes the form of several linear segments between
the load‘s points of application
Cable type structures - Suspension roof, suspension bridges, cable cars, guy-lines, transmission lines, etc.

8
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

Fig.1.10. Cable stayed suspension bridge

4. Surface structures
Surface structures are structural elements that are able to transfer load basically through membrane
stresses. Surface structures have small thickness compared to their other dimension. These types of
structures are mainly subjected to in plane (tension or compression) forces. They can be made of rigid
materials such as reinforced concrete.
Surface structures are usually shaped like folded plates or cylinders, etc.as a result they are referred to as
thin plates or shells.

Fig.1.11. Shell structures

1.2.1. Structural Systems of Buildings
Any building is made up of structural elements and nonstructural components. These structural elements
put together constitute Structural System. There are various types of structural systems in buildings. A
structural or a Design engineer has to select the system that is economical and best suitable for the
structure. The main function of structural system of a building is to resist the structural loads acting on
that structure and to transmit those to the ground.
Structural loads acting on building structures are classified as:-
 Gravity loads
 Lateral loads
 Special loads
Classification of Buildings Structural Systems
Can be classified based on the structural material used such as concrete or steel. Structural systems of
buildings can also be classified based on the distribution of the components of the primary lateral loads
resisting system over the building as:
1. Rigid Frame System
2. Shear Wall System
3. Wall – Frame (Dual) System
4. Braced Frame System
5. Core and Outrigger System
6. Tube System

9
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

1. Rigid Frame System

A rigid/Semi-Rigid frame high rise structure typically comprises parallel or orthogonally arrangement
bents consisting of columns and girders with moment resistant joints. In this type of building system
resistance to horizontal loading is provided by the bending resistance of the columns, girders, and joints.

Fig.1.12. Rigid frame system of a building

2. Shear Wall System
The shear wall is in steel or concrete to provide greater lateral rigidity. It is a wall where the entire
material of the wall is employed in the resistance of both horizontal and vertical loads. it is composed of
braced panels (or shear panels) to counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure. Wind &
earthquake loads are the most common among the loads.

Fig.1.13. Shear wall system of a building

3. Wall – Frame (Dual) System
This is a combination of Shear wall and Rigid Frames. This interaction is advantageous as the walls
restrain frame deformations in the lower storeys, while the frames restrain the wall deformations in the
upper storeys. The deflection is much lesser than the Rigid frame and Shear wall alone. It is suitable for
40 to 50 stories.

Fig.1.14. Wall-frame (Dual) system of a building

10
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

4. Braced Frame System

This structural system consists of moment frames with specific bays provided with diagonal members
(commonly steel) called the bracings which primarily resist the lateral loads on the structure. In such a
system the beams and columns are generally designed to take the vertical loads and the bracings are
considered to resist all of the lateral loads. Bracings are generally provided as Vertical bracing (Elevation
bracing) and Horizontal bracing (Plan bracing).

Fig.1.15.Braced frame system of a building

There are various types of bracings used such as:-
 Diagonal bracing  K – bracing
 Cross (X bracing)  Inverted V – bracing
 V – bracing

Fig.1.16. Types of bracings

5. Core and Outrigger System
An outrigger-braced high-rise structure consists of a reinforced concrete or braced-steel frame main core
connected to the exterior columns by flexural stiff horizontal cantilevers. The core may be located
between the column lines with outriggers extending on both sides or it may be located on one side of the
building with cantilevers connecting to columns on the other side.

Fig.1.17. Core or outrigger system of a building

11
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

6. Tube System
For tall and high rise buildings, use of braced frame and structural walls alone may not be sufficient to
control the overall lateral displacement as well as the forces. In such cases, more rigid structural systems
are required. Tube structures are one such system where columns are closely spaced along the perimeter
thereby increasing the number of columns in the perimeter forming a tube.
Different types of tube structural systems are used such as:-
a) Framed tube system
b) Braced tube system
c) Tube -in a tube (hull and core) system
d) Bundled tube system
a. Framed tube system
Closely spaced perimeter columns interconnected by beams. The tube form was developed originally for
building of rectangular plan, and probably it‘s most efficient use in that shape. The lateral resistant of the
framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment-resistant frames that form a ―tube‖ around the
perimeter of the building. Gravity loading is shared between the tube and interior column or walls.

When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frame aligned in the direction of loading acts as the ―webs‖ of the
massive tube of the cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the ―flanges‖. One
negative aspect of the framed tube design is a phenomenon commonly referred to as shear lag.

Shear lag is essentially a nonlinear stress distribution across the flange and web sections of a beam Design
of the tube structure assume a linear distribution and shear lag results in corner column experiencing
greater stresses than central perimeter columns.

Fig.1.18. Framed tube system of a building

b. Braced tube system
Braced tube structures are lateral load-resisting systems; Located at the building perimeters made the
structural systems for tall buildings much more efficient and economical. In steel buildings; steel
diagonals/trusses are used and In reinforced concrete buildings; diagonals are created by filling the
window openings by reinforced concrete shear walls - diagonal bracing.

12
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

Fig.1.19. Braced tube system of a building

c. Tube -in a tube (hull and core) system
This variation of the framed tube consists of an outer frame tube, the ―Hull,‖ together with an internal
elevator and service core. The Hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading. The
outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall
frame structure, with the benefit of increased lateral stiffness. The structural tube usually adopts a highly
dominant role because of its much greater structural depth

Fig.1.20. Tube-in tube system of a building

d. Bundled tube system
In this type of tube system a number of framed tubes are interconnected to form exceptionally rigid
structure.They are preferable in resisting lateral load in high-rise buildings.
The concept allows wider column spacing in the tubular walls than would be possible with only the
exterior frame tube form. The spacing makes it possible to place interior frame lines without seriously
compromising interior space planning. The ability to modulate the cells vertically can create a powerful
vocabulary for a variety of dynamic shapes therefore offers great latitude in architectural planning of at all
building.

Fig.1.21. bundled tube system of a building

13
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

 Comparison of Tube Systems

1.3. Types of Structural Members

The members are categorized according to the way in which the forces are applied. These are:
 Tension members or ties
 Compression members or columns or struts
 Flexural members or beams
 Members subjected to combined loading or beam-column
i). tension members or ties
A tie is a structural member that is being pulled from opposite ends or subjected to tension loads. It is
said that a tie ―works in tension. These members are usually slender and often chosen from rods, bars,
angles, or channels. They are most commonly occur in truss structures and braced frames.

Fig.1.22. Tension member or tie

14
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

ii). Compression members or columns or struts

These are members of a structure used to support compressive load. If these compression members are
occurred in trusses then they usually called struts. The struts may be vertical or inclined depending on the
layout of the truss.

Fig.1.23. Compression member or column

iii). Flexural members or beams
A flexural member or a beam is subjected to transverse loading such as vertical loads, and gravity loads.
These loads create shear and bending within the beam. Beams are horizontal structural members that are
used to carry a load.

Fig.1.24. Flexural member or Beam

iv). Beam-column members
A member subjected to significant axial and bending load at the same time is called beam-column
member. The combined compression and bending may be produced by an eccentrically applied axial load
or a concentrically. One such example is the beam in a moment frame or braced frame. The
bending/flexural forces coming from the gravity loads (live loads, snow loads, dead loads) and the axial
forces coming from the lateral loads (seismic, wind).

Fig.1.25. Beam-Column member

15
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

v). shafts
Shafts are members subjected to torsion.

Fig.1.26. Shaft under torsion

1.4. Support Systems
Support in a structure is a member which helps others member to resist loads. Supports in a structure
transfers the load to the ground and provides stability to the structure supported on it.
1.4.1. Types of support and reactions
The types of supports can be mainly classified into two types:
 External supports
 Internal supports
1. External Supports and Reactions
The supports which are usually provided externally without disturbing the structural members are external
supports. Different types of external supports are as follows:
a. Fixed supports
Fixed supports are also called as rigid supports. Fixed supports are restrained against both rotation and
translation so they can resist any type of force or moment. In structural analysis, there are three unknowns
to find for fixed support which can satisfy all the three equations of equilibrium. To provide good stability
to the structure, at least one rigid support should be provided.

Fig.1.27 Fixed support and reaction

b. Pinned Support
Pinned support or hinged support can resists both vertical and horizontal forces but they cannot resist
moment. It means hinged support is restrained against translation. Using equations of equilibrium, one
can find out the components of horizontal and vertical forces. Best example for hinged support is door
leaf which only rotates about its vertical axis without any horizontal or vertical movement. The rotation of
pinned support or hinged support is allowed in only one direction and is resisted in other direction.

Fig.1.28. Pinned support and reaction

c. Roller support

16
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

Roller supports only resists perpendicular forces and they cannot resist parallel or horizontal forces and
moment. It means, the roller support will move freely along the surface without resisting horizontal force.
This type of support is provided at one end of bridge spans. The reason for providing roller support at one
end is to allow contraction or expansion of bridge deck with respect to temperature differences in
atmosphere. If roller support is not provided then it will cause severe damage to the banks of bridge. But
this horizontal force should be resisted by at least one support to provide stability so, roller support should
be provided at one end only not at both ends.

Roller support reaction forces

Fig.1.29. Roller support and reaction
d. Rocker Support
Rocker support is similar to roller support. It also resists vertical force and allows horizontal translation
and rotation. But in this case horizontal movement is due to curved surface provided at the bottom as
shown in below figure. Therefore, the amount of horizontal movement is limited in this case.

Rocker support reaction forces

Fig.1.30. Rocker support and reaction
e. Link Support
Link is support allows rotation and translation perpendicular to the direction of link only. It does not
allow translation in the direction of link. It has single linear resultant force component in the direction of
link which can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components.

Fig.1.31. Link support and reaction

2. Internal Supports and Reactions
Internal supports are provided internally in the structural member which means an internal support divides
the full member into parts. So, the external reactions can be found for each part which will be quite easier
for the analysis. Following are the types of internal supports provided in a structure:
a. Internal Hinge Support
Similar to hinge support internal hinge also resists translation in both directions and allows only rotation.
In structures, for axial members internal hinges are provided and for beam members middle hinges are
provided. These can be widely seen in arch type bridges at the center of arch.

17
 Hawassa University Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering And Built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering

Fig.1.32. Internal hinge support

b. Internal Roller Support
Internal roller supports are same as roller supports but they are provided in the middle of structural
member.

Fig.1.33. Internal Roller support

18