GROUP 1 REPORT MANUAL that fit together exactly with no spaces

in between.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

● The earliest signs of mathematics in society are

PATTERNS FOUND IN NATURE
seen in counting, with evidence found on bones,
stones, and cave walls, some over 20,000 years ● Waves and Dunes. A wave is any form of
old. disturbance that carries energy as it moves.
● Archaeologists discovered multiplication tables Waves are of different kinds: mechanical waves
on clay tablets dating back to 2500 BCE, and which propagate through a medium ---- air or
most societies developed a base-ten system, water, making it oscillate as waves pass by. Wind
likely based on finger counting. waves, on the other hand, are surface waves that
DEFINITION OF MATHEMATICS create the chaotic patterns of the sea.
● Spots and Stripes. Patterns like spots and
● Mathematics is the science of structure, order,
stripes that are commonly present in different
and relationships that has developed from
organisms are results of a reaction-diffusion
fundamental practices like counting, measuring,
system (Turing, 1952). The size and the shape of
and describing shapes.
the pattern depend on how fast the chemicals
PATTERNS & NUMBER IN NATURE AND THE
diffuse and how strongly they interact.
WORLD
● Spirals. The spiral patterns exist on the scale of
● A pattern in nature can be defined as a the cosmos to the minuscule forms of
consistent form, design, or expression that is not microscopic animals on earth. Spiral patterns are
random. also common and noticeable among plants and
● Patterns are recurring sequences that can be some animals. Spirals appear in many plants
observed in nature through color, shape, action, such as pinecones, pineapples, and sunflowers.
or other forms.
Types of pattern: SYMMETRIES
1. Symmetry
● Symmetries - it is used to classify and organize
- Symmetry refers to a balanced and
information about patterns by classifying the
proportional resemblance between two
motion or deformation of both pattern structures
halves of an object, where one half is a
and processes. Types of Symmetry:
mirror image of the other.
➔ Reflection Symmetry – sometimes called
2. Spiral mirror symmetry, it captures symmetries when
- A spiral pattern is a circular pattern the left half of a pattern is the same as the right
beginning at a center point and circling half.
around the center point as the pattern ➔ Rotations - also known as rotational symmetry,
moves outward. it captures symmetries when it still looks the
same after some rotation (of less than one full
3. Fractal
turn). The degree of rotational symmetry of an
- A fractal is a curve or geometric shape object is recognized by the number of distinct
where each section mirrors the statistical orientations in which it looks the same for each
properties of the entire figure. This rotation.
means that as you zoom in or out on a
➔ Translations - This is another type of symmetry.
fractal, you see a similar pattern
Translational symmetry exists in patterns that we
repeating itself.
see in nature and in man-made objects.
4. Tessellation Translations acquire symmetries when units are
- Tessellation is where a pattern is formed repeated and turn out having identical figures.
out of one or more same-sized shapes
SYMMETRIES IN NATURE ➔ Others
Numbers can be of different scales:
●Human Body. The human body is one of the
pieces of evidence that there is symmetry in ➔ Nominal
nature. Our body exhibits bilateral symmetry. It ➔ Ordinal
can be divided into two identical halves. ➔ Interval
● Snowflakes. Snowflakes have six-fold radial ➔ Ratio
symmetry. The ice crystals that make-up the NOMINAL
snowflakes are symmetrical or patterned. The
● Nominal numbers
intricate shape of a single arm of a snowflake is
- It refers to the characteristic or attribute
very much similar to the other arms.
of subjects or objects that is used for
● Starfish. Starfish have a radial five-fold naming, labeling, and categorizing only.
symmetry. Each arm portion of the starfish is
- Nominal numbers are used only for
identical to each of the other regions.
naming.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE HISTORY
- In the nominal scale, numbers lose their
●The Fibonacci sequence was developed by the numerical value.
Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano Bigollo - Operating these numbers do not make
aka Leonardo Fibonacci (1180-1250). sense. Examples of nominal:
● The sequence first appeared in Fibonacci’s book 1. Cause of death
"Liber Abaci" (1202), which introduced Arabic 2. Nationality
numerals and mathematical concepts to Europe. 3. Color of the eyes
● Fibonacci used the sequence to solve a problem 4. Religious affiliation
related to rabbit population growth. 5. Color of the skin
● Although the sequence was known in Indian
mathematics earlier, Fibonacci popularized it
in Europe. Today, the sequence is widely used in ORDINAL NUMBERS
various fields, such as computer science, nature,
● Ordinal number is a number that indicates
and art.
position or order in a sequence. It describes rank or
GOLDEN RATIO
position of an object or person. Examples:
●The golden ratio, also known as the golden ➔ Honor roll/Class ranking
number, golden proportion, or the divine ➔ Rating Scale
proportion. ➔ Year Level
● Denoted by phi (φ) which approaches the value ➔ Grades
of 1.618034.... INTERVAL NUMBERS
● Formula: b/a = (a+b)/a = 1.618...= φ
GOLDEN SPIRAL ● Interval numbers are numbers in a
given set that has known sizes or
● Golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose
distances.
growth factor is φ, the golden ratio. That is, a
● Interval numbers lie between two
golden spiral gets wider (or further from its
specific endpoints, forming a range.
origin) by a factor of φ for every quarter turn it
Examples:
makes. ● Appreciation of Numbers
- We look at numbers as signs or symbols used ➔ Temperature
to represent magnitudes or quantities. The idea of the ➔ IQ
signs and symbols was standardized and became RATIO NUMBERS
acceptable universally. Numbers are used everyday to ● Ratio numbers are numbers that contains the
represent: characteristics of an interval data but in this
➔ Magnitudes case, zero has a true value.
➔ Quantities
➔ Coding
 ● Ratio numbers refers to values on a ratio scale,
a measurement scale possessing equal intervals IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE:
and an absolute zero. Examples: It is essential for conveying complex ideas
➔ Height clearly, concisely and unambiguously. lf enables
➔ Weight effective communication.
➔ Time

MATHEMATICAL CONVENTION
A mathematical convention is a fact, name,
“MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS” notation, or usage which is generally agreed
upon by mathematicians. Mathematicians abide
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE by conventions in order to allow other
– is a system used by mathematicians to mathematicians to understand what they write
communicate mathematical ideas. without constantly having to redefine basic
- used English technical terms and grammatical terms.
conventions.
- It has symbols to express formula /represent
constant. SYMBOLS COMMONLY USED IN
- It has syntax to make the expression well- MATHEMATICS
formed, to make it clear and valid.
1. The ten digits: 0, 1, 2, ... 9
 The language of mathematics makes it easy to 2. Operations: +, -, ×, ÷
express kinds of symbols, syntax and rules that 3. Sets: Ս, Ո
mathematicians like to do.
Syntax - arrangement of words to create
well-formed sentences.

4. Variables: a, b, x and y
WRITING MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AS AN
5. Special Symbols: =, <, >, ≤, ≥, π
EXPRESSION OR A SENTENCE.
6. Logic symbols: ~, ˄, ˅, →, ↔
Mathematical expression - is a combination of symbol 7. Set Notations: N, W, Z, Q, R, C
that follow proper syntax.
THE GRAMMAR OF MATHEMATICS
 Most common expression types; numbers, sets, The mathematical notation used for formulas has
functions. its own grammar, not dependent on a specific
Numbers have lot of different names: ex, the
natural language, but shared internationally by
expressions:
mathematicians regardless of their mother
5 2+3 10/2 (4-2)+1
tongue.
1+1+1+1+1
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICS:
All look differently but are all jut same names
 Precise, concise and powerful.
for the same numbers.
1. PRECISE (able to make very fine
-Basic syntax for entering mathematical distinctions)
expression should be correct. Ex.
Most common mistake is to forget the The use of mathematical symbol is only
parentheres “()”, EX. 1/(x+1) is different from done based on its meaning and purpose.
1/x+1 + = add, - = subtract, x = multiply and ÷ =
divide.
 2. CONCISE (able to say things briefly) A finite set contains elements that can be counted and
Ex. terminates at certain natural number, otherwise, it is
Long english sentence can be shortened. infinite set.
8+2=10
Examples:
3. POWERFUL (able to express complex Set A = {2,4,6,8,10}
thoughts with relative ease) - The set of all even natural numbers less than
Ex. or equal to 10. The order in which the elements
Application of Critical thinking and problem are listed is not relevant: I.e., the set {2, 4,
solving requires the comprehension, analysis 6,8,10} is the same as the set {8, 4,2,10,6}.
and reasoning to obtain correct solution . There is exactly one set, the empty set, or null set,Ø
or {}, which has no members at all. A set with only one
DIFFICULTIES member is called a Singleton or a Singleton set.
 The word “is” could mean equality, inequality, (“Singleton of a”).
or member in a set.
 Different use of a number (cardinal, ordinal, SPECIFICATION OF SETS
nominal, ratio). There are three main ways to specify a set:
 Mathematical objects may be represented in (1) List Notation/Roster Method- by listing all its
many ways such as sets and functions. members
 The words “and” and “or” mean differently in -list names of elements of a set, separate them by
mathematics from its English use. commas and enclose them in braces:
Examples:
1. {1, 12,45},
PERFORM OPERATIONS ON MATHEMATICAL
2.{George Washington, Bill Clinton},
CORRECTLY
3. { a, b, d, m}.

(2) Predicate Notation/Rule Method/Set- Builder

Notation – it has a property that the members of the set
share (a condition or a predicate which holds for
members of this set).
Examples:
1. {x|x is a natural number and x <8}
THE FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS OF means “the set of all x such that x is a natural
MATHEMATICS number and is less than 8”
1.SET 2. {x|x is a letter of Russian alphabet}
A set is a collection of well-defined objects that contains (3). Recursive Rules – by defining a set of rules which
no duplicates. The objects in the set are called the generates or defines its members
elements of the set. Examples: 1. The set E of even numbers greater than
To describe a set, we use braces {}, and use capital 3:
letters to represent it. a) 4 € E
Examples: b) If x € E, then x+2 € E
c) Nothing else belongs to E
1.The book in the shelves in the library
2.The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, …}
3. The bank accounts in a bank
4.The integer number Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0,1,2,3….}
5.The rational number is the set of quotients of
integers Q= {p|q : p, q € Z and q ≠ 0}
o The three dots in enumeration the
elements of the set are called ellipses
and indicate a continuing pattern.
SUBSETS Example: Given U= {a, b, c, d, e}, A= {c, d, e},
find A'
Solution: A' = {a, b}

2.RELATION
A relation is a rule that pairs each element in
one set called the domain, with one or more
elements from a second set called range. It
creates a set of ordered pairs.

Examples:
Example:
1. A= {7, 9} is a subset of B={6, 9,7} Regular Holidays in Month and Date
2. D= {10, 8,6,} is a subset of G={10, 8,6} the Philippines
1. New Year’s Day January 1
A proper subset is a subset that is not equal to the
2. Labor Day May 1
original set, otherwise improper subset
Example: Given {3, 5,7} 3. Independence June 12
Day
CARDINALITY OF THE SET 4. Bonifacio Day November 30
It is the number of distinct elements belonging 5. Rizal Day December 30
to a finite set. It is also called the cardinal
number of the set A denoted by n(A) or card (A)
1. Given:
and (A).
A clearer way to express a relation is to form a set of
ordered pairs.
POWER SET
(New Year’s Day, January 1), (Labor Day, May 1),
It inserts of A denoted by power (A)
(Independence Day, June 12), (Bonifacio Day,
Given set A = {x, y} the Power( A) = {Ø, {x},
November 30), (Rizal Day, December 30). This set
{y}, {x, y} or {x|x is a subset of A.
describes a relation.

OPERATION ON SETS
2. {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} is a relation. The domain of the
Union is an operation for sets A and B in which
relation is the set {1, 2,3,} and the range is {4, 5,6}.
a set is formed that consists of all the elements
included in A or B or both denoted by U as A U
B.
3. FUNCTION
It is the rule that pairs each element in one
Examples:
set, called the domain, with exactly one
Given U = {1, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}, A= {1,
element from a second set, called the range.
3,5,7} B= {2,4,6,8} and C={1, 2}, find
This means that for each first coordinate,
the following:
there is exactly one second coordinate or for
every first element of x, there corresponds a
a) A U B = {1, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
unique second element y.
b) A U C = {1,2,3,5,7}
c) (A U B) U {8} = {1,
2,3,4,5,6,7,8} A one-to-one correspondence and many-to-
one correspondence are called functions
Complementation – is an operation on a set that must while one-to-many correspondence is not.
be performed in reference to a universal set, denoted by
A'. The functions can be represented using the following:
1.Table
- The perimeter of a square is four times the length of its (To read the table, read the first value from the left-hand
side. column and the second value from the top row. The
Side (S) 1 3 5 7 9 answer is the intersection point.)
Perimeter (P) 4 12 20 28 36
* 1 2 3 4
2.Ordered Pairs
1 4 3 2 1
{(1, 4), (3, 2), (5, 20), (7, 28), (9, 36)}
2 3 1 4 2
3 2 4 1 3
3 2 4 1 3
4 1 2 3 3

Examples:
1. What is 2*2? Answer. 1
2. Is 4* 3 commutative? Answer. 4*3=3 and 3*4=3
4. Graphing. Using the vertical line Test, a set of points 3. Is * associative for these values? 4*(3*2) =
in the plane is the graph of a function if and only if no (4*3) *2
vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point. 4*4 = 3*2
Example below is not a function 4= 4
Answer. Yes, it is associative for values 4,3,
and 2.

Elementary Logic

According to David W. Kueker (2009), logic is simply

4.BINARY OPERATIONS defined as the analysis of methods of reasoning. In
A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving studying these methods, logic is interested in the form
two elements of the set to produce another element of rather than the content of the argument. Mathematical
the set. Logic is, at least in its origin, the study of reasoning as
A new math(binary) operation, using the symbol *, is used in mathematics. Mathematical reasoning is
defined to be a * b = 3a + b, where a and b are real deductive, it is consist of drawing (correct) conclusions
numbers. from given hypotheses. Thus, the basic concept is that of
Examples: a statement being a logical consequence of some other
1.what is 4*3? statements. In ordinary mathematical English the use of
Solution: 4*3 = 3(4) +3 = 12+3 = 15 "therefore" customarily indicates that the following
2.Is a * b commutative? statement is a consequence of what comes before.
Solution: Verify if a and b = b* a Examples:
3a + b = 3b + a? Not true for all real numbers 1. All men are mortal. Luke is a man. Hence, Luke is a
If a = 4 and b= 2, then 3(4) + 2 = 3(2) +4 is not true mortal.
Therefore, the operation * is not commutative for real 2. All dogs like fish. Cyber is a dog. Hence, Cyber likes
numbers
fish.
Proportions and Connectives
Sometimes a binary operation on a finite set (a set with
A Proposition (or statement) is a
limited number of elements) is displayed in a table
sentence that is either true or
which shows how the operation is to be performed.
false (without additional
A binary operation, * is defined on the set (1, 2,3,4). The
information).
table below shows the 16 possible answers using this
operation.
The logical connectives are defined by truth tables (but
have English language counterparts).

A denial is a statement equivalent to the negation of a

statement.

The contrapositive of the statement if P then Q is if ~Q

then ~P. An implication and its contrapositive are
A tautology is a statement which is always true. logically equivalent, so one can always be used in place
of the other.
A predicate (open sentence) is a sentence containing one
or more variables which becomes a proposition upon
replacement of the variables.
Examples:
1. The integer x is even.
2. y = 5.
3. Triangle ABC is isosceles.
However, a predicate is not a proposition, it does not
have a truth value. One can however use quantifiers to
make propositions about predicates. For instance, the
universal/general quantifier (∀) is used to say that a
given predicate is true for all possible values of its
variables. This is a proposition since it is either true or
false. Similarly that existential quantifier (∃)is used to
say that there is some value of the variables which makes
the predicate a true statement.
A contradiction is a statement which is always false.
 - Inductive reasoning starts with specific details
and works toward a broader generalization.
- It’s commonly used in real-world decision-
making and scientific research to form
hypotheses.
Inductive arguments are meant to predict a conclusion
and try to show that the conclusion is probable based on
the given premises. An inductive argument is considered
either as weak or strong based on whether the conclusion
is likely to explain the premises.
COUNTEREXAMPLES
- A statement is a true statement provided that it
is true in all cases. If you can find one case for which a
statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the
statement is a false statement.
EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE REASONING:
 My neighbor’s dog barks at me. All the
dogs at a pet store bark at me. Therefore,
all dogs probably hate me.
 Marvel movies shown in the last five
years were all successful at the box
office. Therefore, the next Marvel movie
will probably have a box office success.

2. Deductive Reasoning
Thales of Miletus (c. 624 - c. 546 BC)
- He is the first known individual to use deductive - Deductive reasoning starts with a general
reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four statement or principle and applies it to a specific
corollaries to Thales’ theorem. case.
- If the premises are true, the conclusion must be
true, making the reasoning valid.
Problem Solving and Reasoning - It works from broader theories or rules to reach a
Problem Solving particular, definite conclusion.
- Problem solving is the process of identifying a - The reasoning relies heavily on the initial
problem and figuring out a way to fix it. It involves premises or assumptions.
thinking, planning, and taking steps to reach a solution. - Deductive reasoning is widely used in formal
Reasoning logic, proofs, and scientific methods where
- Reasoning is the process of thinking through conclusions follow directly from established
information to draw conclusions or make decisions. It principles.
involves using logic and evidence to support or EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING:
challenge ideas. 1. All human beings have free will.
2 TYPES OF REASONING Juan is a human being.
1. Inductive Reasoning Therefore, Juan has free will.
- Inductive reasoning involves drawing general 2. Marvel movies are successful at the box office.
conclusions from specific observations or Avengers: Endgame is a Marvel movie.
examples. Therefore, Avengers: Endgame is successful at
- It identifies patterns or trends in data and uses the box office.
them to predict future outcomes. B. INTUITION, PROOF & CERTAINTY
- The conclusions are not certain, but they are
likely based on the observed evidence.
  Intuition is the ability to understand something inspiring their further study of the subject. Math puzzles
instinctively, without the need for conscious and riddles are fun and interesting, and they help
reasoning. improve problem solving skills and thinking capacity.
 Mathematical Proof is an argument which
convinces other people that something is true.
 Proof is an inferential argument for a
mathematical statement.
 Certainty is a total continuity and validity of
inquiries to the highest degree of precision. It is
a conclusion that is beyond doubt.
C. POLYA’S FOUR STEPS
1. Understand the Problem
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you determine what is known about these
types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known,
would allow you to solve the problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not
needed to solve the problem?
2. Devise a Plan
• Make a list of the known information and
information that is needed.
• Draw a diagram.
• Perform an experiment.
• Guess at a solution and then check your result.
3. Carry Out the Plan
• Work carefully.
• Keep an accurate and neat record of all your
attempts.
• Realize that some of your initial plans will not
work and that you may have to devise another
plan or modify your existing plan.
4. Review the Solution
• Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of
the problem.
• Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
• Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solution that could apply to other problems.
D. PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
1. Guess and check
2. Act it out
3. Draw
4. List/Tabulate

Recreational mathematics is mathematics carried out

for recreation or entertainment rather than as a strictly
research and application-based professional activity.
Examples are mathematical puzzles, riddles and games
that are appealing to children and untrained adults,