MONGU TRADES TRAINING INSTITUTE MANAGEMENT BOARD

IT SECTION

CERTIFICATE IN COMPUTER STUDIES

TERM THREE ASSIGNMENT

PROGRAM: DIPLOMA IN COMPUTER STUDIES

COURSE: ARCHITECTURE

NAME: PRECIOUS LUBASI

EXAM NO: 831115

LECTURER: MR CHAMBWA
Q1.

a).

Mnemonic is a memory aid or a symbolic code used to represent a specific

operation, command, or instruction in computer programming or assembly
language.

Machine code instructions are the lowest-level instructions that can be

executed directly by a computer's central processing unit (CPU).

Electronic clock is a device that measures and displays time using electronic
components such as oscillators, counters, and displays.

Upward compatibility refers to the ability of a newer version or generation of

a technology, software, or hardware to work with or support older versions or
previous generations.

Portability of a system refers to the ability of a computer system or software

to be easily transferred or adapted to different hardware platforms or
operating environments without requiring significant modifications.

b).
Data Out Registers are hardware components within a computer system that
are used to temporarily store data that is being transferred from the
system's internal memory to an external device or location.

Interrogate Registers refers to special registers used in computer systems to

retrieve specific information or data about the system's status,
configuration, or other relevant parameters.

Memory Buffer Registers: Memory Buffer Registers, also known as Buffer

Registers or Buffer Cache, are storage components used in computer
systems to temporarily hold data between different stages of memory
operations.

Instruction Sequence Register: An Instruction Sequence Register (also called

an Instruction Pointer or Program Counter) is a register in a computer's
central processing unit (CPU) that holds the memory address of the next
instruction to be fetched and executed. It keeps track of the current position
in the program's instruction sequence, allowing the CPU to fetch the next
instruction from the correct memory location.

Index Register also known as an Index Pointer or Offset Register, is a type of

processor register used to store an offset value that is added to a memory
address during memory access operations.

c).

The fetch-decode-execute cycle, also known as the instruction cycle or

machine cycle, is the fundamental process by which a computer's central
processing unit (CPU) executes instructions. It consists of three main stages:
fetch, decode, and execute. Here's a brief explanation of each stage:

Fetch: In the fetch stage, the CPU retrieves the next instruction from
memory. The program counter (PC) or instruction pointer holds the memory
address of the next instruction to be fetched. The CPU sends a memory read
request to the memory location indicated by the program counter, and the
instruction stored at that location is loaded into the CPU's instruction register
(IR). Additionally, the program counter is typically incremented to point to
the next instruction in memory.

Decode: Once the instruction is fetched and stored in the instruction register,
the CPU proceeds to the decode stage. In this stage, the CPU analyzes the
fetched instruction to determine the specific operation it represents and the
operands involved. The instruction is decoded to identify the opcode
(operation code), which specifies the type of operation to be performed, and
any associated operands or addressing modes. The CPU extracts the
necessary information from the instruction to prepare for the execution
stage.

Execute: In the execute stage, the CPU carries out the operation specified by
the decoded instruction. This stage involves interacting with various
components of the CPU, such as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers,
and memory. The specific actions performed during the execution stage
depend on the type of instruction being executed. For example, an
arithmetic instruction might involve performing calculations on data stored
in registers, while a branch instruction might involve modifying the program
counter to change the flow of execution.
After the execute stage is completed, the cycle repeats with the fetch stage,
where the CPU fetches the next instruction based on the updated program
counter. This cycle continues until the program or instruction sequence is
complete.

It's important to note that the fetch-decode-execute cycle is a

simplified model of CPU operation and may vary in implementation
across different computer architectures. d).

The type of bus that connects the Memory Buffer Registers to the main
memory is the data bus.

The type of bus that connects the Memory Address Register (MAR) to the
main memory is the address bus.

QUESTION 2.

a).

Source code refers to the human-readable form of a computer program

written in a programming language such as C++, Java, Python, or JavaScript.
It consists of statements and instructions that are understandable by
programmers. Source code serves as the input to a compiler or interpreter,
which translates it into machine-readable code.

Object code, also known as machine code, is the output generated by a

compiler or assembler after translating the source code into a form that can
be executed directly by a computer's hardware. Object code is in binary
format and consists of a series of instructions that represent low-level
operations such as arithmetic, logical operations, memory access, and
control flow, specific to the computer architecture.

Instruction set is a collection of instructions that a computer's processor can

understand and execute. It defines the operations that the processor can
perform, such as arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.), logical
operations (AND, OR, etc.), memory access operations (load, store), and
control flow operations (branching, jumping). Each instruction in the set is
encoded as a binary pattern that the processor can interpret and execute.

Assembler is a software utility that translates assembly language code into

object code or machine code. Assembly language is a low-level programming
language that is closely related to the machine code instructions of a specific
computer architecture. Assemblers convert mnemonic instructions and
symbolic representations of memory locations into their corresponding
binary representations.

b).

In a 32-bit machine, instructions are typically encoded using 32 bits (4

bytes). These instructions are the fundamental building blocks of programs
and are executed by the processor to perform specific operations. Let's
break down the structure and components of a typical instruction in a 32-bit
machine:
Opcode (Operation Code): The opcode specifies the operation to be
performed. It indicates the type of instruction, such as arithmetic, logical, or
control flow operations. The opcode is usually a few bits long and determines
the basic behavior of the instruction.

Operands: The operands are the data or addresses on which the operation is
performed. Depending on the instruction, there can be zero, one, or multiple
operands. Each operand can be a register, a memory address, an immediate
value, or a combination of these.

Register Specifiers: Registers are small, fast storage locations within the
processor. They hold data that can be quickly accessed and manipulated by
instructions. Register specifiers indicate the registers involved in the
instruction, such as source registers, destination registers, or both.

Immediate Values: Immediate values are constants or literal data embedded

within the instruction itself. They are used as operands for immediate
operations, such as adding a constant value to a register.

Memory Addresses: Instructions may also involve memory operations, such

as loading or storing data from/to memory. Memory addresses specify the
locations in the memory where the data is read from or written to.

The exact layout and organization of the instruction format can vary
between different processor architectures. Different instructions have
different formats and encoding schemes, which are defined by the
processor's instruction set architecture (ISA).
The e following diagram is the structure of a machine code instruction in a
32 bit machine

c).
Processor instruction sets can vary depending on the architecture and design
of the processor. However, the following are the six common subsets found
in many instruction sets along with an example instruction for each subset:

Arithmetic Instructions:

Example: ADD - Adds two numbers and stores the result.

Logical Instructions:

Example: AND - Performs a bitwise AND operation between two values.

Data Transfer Instructions:

Example: MOV - Copies data from one location to another.

Control Flow Instructions:

Example: JMP - Jumps to a specified address in the program.

Memory Access Instructions:

Example: LOAD - Loads a value from memory into a register.

Input/Output (I/O) Instructions:

Example: IN - Reads data from an input device into

a register. d.
Immediate Addressing, In immediate addressing mode, the operand is
specified as a constant value directly in the instruction itself.

- Example: ADD R1, #5

This instruction adds the immediate value 5 to the content of register R1.

Register Addressing:

- In register addressing mode, the operand is specified as a register that

holds the data to be used in the instruction.

- Example: ADD R1, R2

This instruction adds the contents of register R2 to the contents of register

R1.

Direct Addressing:

- In direct addressing mode, the memory address of the operand is

explicitly specified in the instruction.

- Example: LOAD R1, [1000]

This instruction loads the value from memory location 1000 into register
R1.

Indirect Addressing:

- In indirect addressing mode, the memory address of the operand is

stored in a register, and the instruction operates on the content of that
memory location.

- Example: LOAD R1, [R2]

 This instruction loads the value from the memory location pointed to by
the content of register R2 into register R1.

These addressing modes provide flexibility in accessing data and instructions

in memory or registers. They allow CPUs to perform various operations
efficiently by specifying the location of operands in different ways. It's
important to note that different CPU architectures may have additional
addressing modes or variations on these common modes to support specific
requirements and optimizations.

QUESTION 7.

a).

The memory hierarchy is a concept that organizes different levels of memory

in a computer system based on their proximity to the CPU and their speed.
Here are the nine levels of memory hierarchy, listed from the closest to the
CPU to the furthest:

CPU Registers:

- CPU registers are the fastest and smallest storage units in a computer
system.

- They are located within the CPU itself and hold data and instructions
that are currently being processed by the CPU.
L1 Cache (Level 1 Cache):

- L1 cache is a small, high-speed cache memory located directly on the

CPU chip.

- It serves as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory (RAM),
providing faster access to frequently used data and instructions.

L2 Cache (Level 2 Cache):

- L2 cache is a larger cache memory that is typically located on the CPU

chip or on a separate chip.

- It has a larger capacity than L1 cache and helps bridge the speed gap
between the CPU and the main memory.

L3 Cache (Level 3 Cache):

- L3 cache is a shared cache memory that is typically located on a

separate chip or within the CPU package.

- It has a larger capacity than L2 cache and is shared among multiple

CPU cores in a multicore processor.

Main Memory (RAM):

- Main memory, also known as Random Access Memory (RAM), is the

primary memory of a computer system.

- It provides a larger storage capacity than cache memories and holds

data and instructions that can be accessed by the CPU.
Solid-State Drives (SSDs):

- Solid-state drives are non-volatile storage devices that use flash

memory to store data.

- They offer faster access times than traditional hard disk drives (HDDs)
and are commonly used for long-term storage and as a secondary storage
option.

Hard Disk Drives (HDDs):

- Hard disk drives are magnetic storage devices that use spinning disks
to store data.

- They provide high-capacity storage but have slower access times

compared to SSDs.

Network Storage:

- Network storage refers to storage devices that are connected to a

network and can be accessed remotely by multiple computers.

- Examples include network-attached storage (NAS) devices and storage

area networks (SANs).

Remote Storage:

- Remote storage includes storage options that are located outside of

the local computer system, typically accessed over a network.

- Examples include cloud storage services and remote servers.

b).

Direct Memory Access (DMA) I/O, Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a technique
used in computer systems to transfer data between peripheral devices (such
as disk drives, network cards, or sound cards) and main memory without
involving the CPU. DMA I/O enables highspeed data transfer by bypassing
the CPU and allowing the peripherals to directly access the system memory.

Here's how DMA I/O works:

- The peripheral device initiates a DMA transfer by sending a request to

the DMA controller.

- The DMA controller coordinates the data transfer between the

peripheral device and the memory.

- The DMA controller temporarily takes control of the system bus from
the CPU and transfers data directly between the peripheral and memory.

- Once the data transfer is complete, the DMA controller notifies the
CPU.

DMA I/O offers several advantages:

- Improved data transfer speed: Since DMA transfers data directly

between the peripheral and memory, it eliminates the need for the CPU to
handle each data transfer, resulting in faster data rates.

- Reduced CPU overhead: With DMA, the CPU is free to perform other
tasks while data transfers occur, reducing the workload on the CPU.
 - Efficient use of system resources: DMA allows multiple devices to
share the system bus efficiently, enabling simultaneous data transfers
between different peripherals and memory.

Content Addressable Memory (CAM), Content Addressable Memory (CAM) is

a specialized type of computer memory that is designed for high-speed
searching and retrieval of data. Unlike traditional random-access memory
(RAM), which is accessed by providing the memory address, CAM is accessed
by providing the desired content or data pattern. It is also known as
associative memory or associative storage.

In CAM, each memory location consists of two parts: data and a

corresponding tag or "content address." When a search operation is
performed on the CAM, the memory compares the provided data pattern
with the stored data in parallel across all memory locations. If a match is
found, the corresponding tag or address associated with the matching data
is returned.

CAM is commonly used in applications that require fast and efficient data
searching, such as network routers, database systems, and cache memory.
Some of its key features include:

- High-speed searching: CAM can perform parallel comparison across

multiple memory locations, allowing for extremely fast search operations.

- Simultaneous data retrieval: When a match is found, CAM provides

both the data and the associated address simultaneously, which can be
beneficial in certain applications.
 - Hardware-based implementation: CAM is typically implemented using
specialized hardware, which makes it more expensive compared to
traditional RAM.

Modes of Operation of the DMA Controller (DMAC):

The DMA controller (DMAC) is responsible for managing and controlling DMA
transfers in a computer system. It operates in different modes to
accommodate various transfer requirements. The specific modes of
operation may vary depending on the architecture and design of the DMAC,
but here are some common modes:

Single Transfer Mode, In this mode, the DMAC performs a single data transfer
between the source and destination addresses specified by the DMA request.
Once the transfer is complete, the DMAC releases control back to the CPU.

Block Transfer Mode, Block transfer mode allows the DMAC to transfer a fixed
number of data blocks between the source and destination addresses. The
block size and the number of blocks to transfer are typically programmed in
advance. After transferring each block, the DMAC can automatically
increment the source and destination addresses to the next block.

Burst Transfer Mode is similar to block transfer mode but is optimized for
transferring a continuous stream of data. It allows the DMAC to perform
multiple transfers without releasing control back to the CPU between each
transfer. This mode is useful when there is a need for high-speed consecutive
data transfers.
Demand Transfer Mode, In demand transfer mode, the DMAC continuously
transfers data between the source and destination addresses until explicitly
stopped by the CPU or a predefined condition is met. This mode is commonly
used for applications such as real-time data streaming or continuous data
acquisition.

c).

Emulation refers to the process of imitating or replicating the behavior of one

computer system or electronic device using another system or device. In
other words, it involves creating a software or hardware environment that
mimics the functions and behavior of a different system. The purpose of
emulation is to enable compatibility between different systems or to provide
a platform for running software or applications designed for a specific
system on a different system. Emulation can be used in various contexts,
such as emulating old video game consoles on modern computers,
emulating a specific operating system on a virtual machine, or emulating
hardware components for testing and development purposes.

Simulation is the process of creating a model or representation of a real-

world system, process, or phenomenon and analyzing its behavior under
different conditions. It involves using a computer program or specialized
software to simulate the behavior and interactions of the components or
elements of the system being modeled. Simulations are used in various
fields, including science, engineering, economics, and social sciences, to
study and understand complex systems, predict their outcomes, and test
different scenarios without the need for realworld experimentation.
Simulations can range from simple mathematical models to highly complex
computer-based simulations that incorporate realistic graphics, physics, and
behavior.

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) is a hardware

communication protocol commonly used for serial communication between
electronic devices. It provides a simple and standardized way for devices to
transmit and receive data serially, typically using two wires: one for data
transmission (Tx) and one for data reception (Rx). UART is asynchronous,
which means that the transmitting and receiving devices don't have a shared
clock signal. Instead, they rely on predefined data rates and start/stop bits to
synchronize the data transmission. UART is widely used in various
applications, including microcontrollers, embedded systems, and
communication interfaces between devices.

USART (Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) is an

extension of the UART protocol that provides additional features, including
synchronous communication in addition to asynchronous communication. In
addition to the two wires used for data transmission and reception in UART,
USART introduces additional clock signals for synchronous communication.
This allows devices to synchronize the data transmission using a shared
clock signal, which can result in faster and more reliable data transfer
compared to UART. USART maintains backward compatibility with UART,
meaning that it can still operate in UART mode for asynchronous
communication. USART is commonly used in applications that require both
asynchronous and synchronous communication, such as serial
communication interfaces, networking devices, and industrial automation
systems. d).
In parallel transmission, multiple bits of data are transmitted simultaneously
using separate wires or channels. Propagation delay and skew are two
important factors that affect the performance and reliability of parallel
transmission. Let's understand the relationship between them:

Propagation Delay refers to the time it takes for a signal to travel from the
sender to the receiver in a transmission medium. In parallel transmission,
each bit travels through a separate wire or channel. The propagation delay
of each wire/channel depends on the physical characteristics of the
transmission medium, such as the length, impedance, and speed of
transmission.

Skew refers to the time difference between the arrival of bits at the receiver
in parallel transmission. Due to various factors like variations in wire lengths,
uneven impedance, manufacturing tolerances, and temperature variations,
the wires or channels in a parallel transmission system may have slightly
different propagation delays. As a result, the bits may arrive at the receiver
at different times, causing skew.

Relationship, the relationship between propagation delay and skew in

parallel transmission is straightforward. When the propagation delay of wires
or channels is not uniform, it leads to skew. If the propagation delay of one
wire/channel is greater than the others, the corresponding bits will arrive
later, resulting in positive skew. Conversely, if the propagation delay of one
wire/channel is less than the others, the corresponding bits will arrive earlier,
resulting in negative skew.
Impact on Data Integrity Skew can cause significant issues in parallel
transmission systems. If the skew is too large, it can lead to data corruption
or misinterpretation at the receiver. For example, if some bits arrive
significantly later than others, it can cause overlapping of bits and make it
challenging to correctly identify the transmitted data.

To mitigate skew-related issues, techniques such as equalization, buffering,

and clock synchronization are employed. Equalization techniques aim to
compensate for the differences in propagation delays by adjusting the
signal characteristics. Buffering involves temporarily storing the data to
align the different arrival times before further processing. Clock
synchronization techniques ensure that all components in the parallel
transmission system are operating based on a common clock signal,
minimizing the skew between the bits. e).

the following are diagrams for the J-K FLIP FLOPS