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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is

1. Data Representation divided by the previous value of the current number and
1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
1.1. Number Systems When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
Binary System it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
Base 2 number system Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
It has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON Separate each value from each other and convert them
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the to denary
MSB (Most Significant Bit) Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
All the binary values to be merged together
Denary System e.g.
Base 10 number system Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
Has values from 0 to 9 Denary : 2 1 15 13
Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
Hexadecimal (aka Hex)
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15,
which is F Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
| Binary Value | Hexadecimal Value | Denary Value | |----|--- until it reaches 4
-|----| | 0000 | 0 | 0 | | 0001 | 1 | 1 | | 0010 | 2 | 2 | | For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
0011 | 3 | 3 | | 0100 | 4 | 4 | | 0101 | 5 | 5 | | 0110 | 6 | 6 and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
| | 0111 | 7 | 7 | | 1000 | 8 | 8 | | 1001 | 9 | 9 | | 1010 | A hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
| 10 | | 1011 | B | 11 | | 1100 | C | 12 | | 1101 | D | 13 | | A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
1110 | E | 14 | | 1111 | F | 15 | After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer
1.2. Number Conversions
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
Converting Binary to Denary When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101

Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
like this:
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
| 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |----|----|----|----|----|----
|----|----| | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then
left to right convert the final answer to denary
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
4 + 2 = 238
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to
Converting Denary to Binary hexadecimal as explained above

Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a

table like follows: 1.3. Binary Calculations
| 2 | 142 | | | |----|----|----|----| | 2 | 71 | Remainder: | 0 | | Binary values are not added the way denary values are
2 | 35 | Remainder: | 1 | | 2 | 17 | Remainder: | 1 | | 2 | 8 added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
| Remainder: | 1 | | 2 | 4 | Remainder: | 0 | | 2 | 2 | because it doesn’t exist in binary.
Remainder: | 0 | | 2 | 1 | Remainder: | 0 | | | 0 |
Remainder: | 1 |

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Points to Note: Two’s complement is a method used to represent

negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
0+0=0 Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1+0/0+1=1 range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

Overflow Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit the third position from the right.
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
called overflow. our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough complement of itself.
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
previous part. Converting negative values to two complement

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Make the MSB 1, if not already
0
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
2. Add the values as follows with the points given from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
above e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:

| Carry | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | |----|----|----|----|----|-- | -128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |----|----|----|----|----|----

--|----|----|----|----| | Byte 1 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | |----|----| | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Byte 2 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | | OVERFLOW | | | | -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
| | | | | | Solution | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, 1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System
we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is Examples:
overflow.
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
uniquely identifies a device on a network)
Logical Shifts Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
or the right Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit location of the error)
being emptied is going to become 0 IP (Internet Protocol) addresses

Explanation with Example Memory Dumps

Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left: Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or
1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically when trying to trace errors.
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is Memory dump is when the memory contents are output
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would to a printer or monitor.
have been removed)==
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100) less error-prone than binary.
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers) values and is prone to errors.

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The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at

1.5. Text, Sound and Images set time intervals
The value is converted to digital form
ASCII Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
series of binary digits
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
A series of readings gives an approximate representation
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters of the sound wave
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control
codes Sampling Resolution:
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
values The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. resolution (aka bit depth)
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
follows: about the amplitude of the sound.
[ ] 0 is at 48 Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
[ ] A is at 65 memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
store the data.
[ ] a is at 97

ASCII uses one byte to store the value Sampling Rate

When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g. A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
as fewer estimations will be done between samples.

Images
Bitmap Images
Unicode
Bitmap images are made up of pixels
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem binary numbers
The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing Colour Depth
multiple languages and more data.
To represent text in binary, a computer uses a The number of bits representing each colour is called the
character set, a collection of characters and the colour depth.
corresponding binary codes that represent them. An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
Sound A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
form, it is sampled being black)
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file
where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be when storing an image.
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Image Resolution
How is Sound Recorded

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Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that Storage of music files
make up an image; for example, an image could contain A communications protocol that allows electronic
4096 × 3072 pixels. musical instruments to interact with each other
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
than those with a higher resolution. Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
as being pixelated. MIDI device what function to perform
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
compared to low-resolution ones. (operates on 16 different channels)
Examples of MIDI commands:
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
Computer Memories (loudness of music)
It needs a lot of memory storage
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
8 bits is a byte MP3
4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size It uses technology known as Audio Compression to
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
IECB System (Most Common) This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Done using file compression algorithms, which use
| Name of memory size | No. of Bytes | Equivalent Denary Perceptual Music Shaping
Value | |----|----|----| | 1 kibibyte (1KiB) | 2¹⁰ | Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
1 024 bytes | | 1 mibibyte (1MiB) | 2²⁰ | 1 048 properly
576 bytes | | 1 gibibyte (1GiB) | 2³⁰ | 1 073 Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
741 824 bytes | | 1 tibibyte (1TiB) | 2⁴⁰ | 1 099 quality, too much
511 627 776 bytes | | 1 pibibyte (1PiB) | 2⁵⁰ | 1 CD files are converted using File Compression Software
125 899 906 842 624 bytes | Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
compression algorithm
Conventional System
MP4
| Name of memory size | No. of Bytes | Equivalent Denary This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
Value | |----|----|----| | 1 kilobyte (1KB) | 10³ | than just sound
1 000 bytes | | 1 megabyte (1MB) | 10⁶ | 1 000 Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
000 bytes | | 1 gigabyte (1GB) | 10⁹ | 1 000 Videos could be streamed without losing any real
000 000 bytes | | 1 terabyte (1TB) | 10¹² | 1 discernible quality
000 000 000 000 bytes | | 1 petabyte (1PB) |
10¹⁵ | 1 000 000 000 000 000 bytes | Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

Calculation of File Size JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file
sizes
The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits) pixels per centimetre
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in size is reduced
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
multiply the result by two.) between 5 and 15

1.7. File Types 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File

Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
Compression

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Lossless File Compression Packet Structure -

Header
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed Contains the IP address of the sender and the
again when the file is uncompressed. receiver
Important for files where the loss of data would be The sequence number of the packet
disastrous (spreadsheet) Size of the packet
An algorithm is used to compress data Payload
No data is lost Contains the actual data
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes Trailer
Includes a method of identifying the end of the
Run-Length Encoding packet
Error-Checking methods
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where
(e.g. repeated colours in an image) the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first then sent independently from start to end and
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. reassembled at the receiver’s computer.
characters), and the second value represents the code of
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | There is no need
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 to create a single line of communication | Packets may be
98 02 99 05 100.” lost | | Possible to overcome failed or busy nodes | More
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of prone to errors in real-time streaming | | High data
repeated units/bits transmission speed | Delay at the receiver while the packets
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for are being re-ordered | | Easy to expand package usage | |
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before Data Transmission
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of computer to printer)
characters is approaching Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Lossy File Compression Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary line)
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats. Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is time over a single wire
compressed Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
Reduces file quality byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
reduced. Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Transmission
2. Data Transmission | Serial | Parallel | |----|----| | Better for longer distances
(Telephone Lines) | Better for short distances (Internal
circuits) | | Cheaper Option | Expensive (More hardware
2.1. Types and Methods of Data required) | | Used when the size of data transmitted is small
Transmission | Used when speed is necessary | | Slower Option | Faster
than Serial |
Data Packets
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)

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USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
USB consists of: would calculate the checksum value using a specific
Four-wire shielded cable algorithm.
Two wires are used for power and earth Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
Two wires are used in data transmission calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before.
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Automatically The receiver would then compare the value received and
detected | Transmission rate is less than 120 MB/sec | | the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
Only fit one way, prevents incorrect connections | Maximum request is made to re-send the data.
cable length is about 5 metres | | Different data
transmission rates | | | Backwards compatible | | | Echo Check
Industry-standard | |
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
2.3. Methods of Error Detection data back to the sender for verification.
The sender would compare the received and original
Parity Checks data for errors.
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte occurred when sending the data or sending the data
Type Types - back for verification.
Even - Even number of 1-bits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits Check Digits
Example (Even Parity) -
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |----|----|----|----|----|----|----|--- data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
-| the code.
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number 6372 typed as 6379
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. 8432 typed as 842
<center><b>Limitations with Parity Checks</b></center>
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
error is not found
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
Parity Blocks are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
would be used. again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.

2.4. Encryption
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns Plaintext and Ciphertext

Checksum Plaintext is the original data that is being sent

Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption

Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption

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| REGISTER | ABBREVIATION | FUNCTION | |----|----|----| |
Symmetric Encryption: CIR | Current instruction register | Stores the instruction the
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process; CPU is currently decoding or executing | | MAR | Memory
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting address register | Stores the Address of the instruction,
the data. copy it, and sends it to MDR | | MDR | Memory data register
Asymmetric Encryption: | Stores the Data from the address received from the MAR
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is and sends data to CIR | | PC | Program counter | Stores the
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only address of the next instruction to be fetched from memory |
available to the user. | ACC | Accumulator | During calculations, data is
The receiver would have the private key, and they temporarily held in it |
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.

3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern The Fetch-Execute Cycle
computer systems
1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
~~The CPU consists of the following architecture:~~ fetched
Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
Logic Unit (ALU) 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of temporarily
the memory, processor and input/output devices 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
calculations the next instruction to be fetched
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce 6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
timing signals on the control bus
Stored Program Concept
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types. Instructions are stored in the main memory
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
Address bus – unidirectional the processor
Data Bus – bi-directional Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
Control Bus – bi-directional
Memory Concept
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
~~The following registers also exist in the
architecture:~~ | MEMORY LOCATION | CONTENT | |----|----| | 10101010 |
01010110 |
Instruction Set:
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
can process, and the commands are machine code

3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock

System’s Clock

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The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the Used to input hard-copy documents
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t The image is converted into an electronic form, which
mean that the computer's performance is increased, can be stored in the computer
however. The document is placed on a glass panel
A bright light illuminates the document
Overclocking A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
for. The lens focuses on the document image
It leads to multiple issues. The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer circuits
would frequently crash and become unstable) The software produces a digital image in the
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU electronic form
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Length of Data Buses converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
the computer
Three-dimensional Scanners
Cache
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself dimensional image
-- allows faster access to the CPU Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to magnetic, white light)
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
performance model

Cores Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which

The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
represent the passport pages
performance
Text can be stored in ASCII format
But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
the system performance as the communication between stored as jpeg image
each core increases, and so do the data cables between The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system camera and compared to using face recognition software
performance. Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not eyes, width of nose)
septa or octa cores.
Barcode readers/scanners

3.3. Input Devices

Two-dimensional Scanners:

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A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of Used to input sound to a computer
varying thicknesses When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique vibrates, producing an electric signal
series of lines The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate digital values and stored in a computer
using guard bars Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction digital
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect Touchscreens
little light, which allows the bars to be read Capacitive (medium cost tech)
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells) Made up of many layers of glass
The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Quick Response (QR) Codes When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
current changes
Another type of barcode is the QR codes Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light determined by an on-board microprocessor
background Infra-red heat (expensive)
Can hold more storage (7000 digits) Use glass as the screen material
Advantages of QR codes: Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
No need for the user to write down the website Infra-red optical (expensive)
address Uses glass as screen material
QR codes can store website addresses Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
Digital Cameras touched
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the Resistive (inexpensive)
shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens glass
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
onto a light sensitive cell
The cell is made up of pixels bottom layer complete a circuit
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Keyboards touched

Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by Sensors

wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
digital signal
Slow method
Prone to errors
Pointing devices

Mouse/trackball
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement

Microphones

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Devices that read or measure physical properties Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Data needs to be converted to digital Data from the document sent to the printer driver
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
values into digital Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
Sensors and their purposes: available
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
converts sound to electric pulses. memory (printer buffer)
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
acceleration or deceleration and motion. available in the paper tray
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
gas in the environment. Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Repeated until the buffer is empty
the air or any sample. Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible processor (request for more data to be sent)
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed,
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Laser Printers
detector. Used to print flyers, high quality
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
emitted by any object. produce text and images
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas Prints the whole page in one go
level.
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
generate electric current based on light brightness. 2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
magnetic field. removing the positive charge leaves negatively
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water charged areas which match the text/image
content wherever this sensor has been installed. 3. The drum is then coated with positively charged
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied drum
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
around the sensor 5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
Temperature - These sensors measure the produce a copy of the page
temperature of the environment. 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.) 7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Control of Street Lighting­­
3D Printers
The light sensor sends data to the ADC
The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor Used for models of cars
Microprocessor samples data every minute Produce solid objects that work
If data from sensor < value stored in memory: Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp powder
Lamp switched on A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)

2D and 3D Cutters
3.4. Output Devices
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
Inkjet Printers 3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood

Actuators

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The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical Older technology than DLP
processes. A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
Used in many control applications involving sensors and This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
devices (ADC and DAC) coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
wavelengths
Loudspeakers/Headphones When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from These three different lights pass through three LCD
the loudspeaker screens; these screens show the image to be projected
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the as millions of pixels in grayscale
speaker at different frequencies When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
LCD and LED Monitors Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
the screen
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
has a yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
LEDs consume very little power
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
which supplies the light source
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
<span class="underline">Light Projectors:</span>
Primary vs. Secondary Storage
Two common types of light projectors:
Digital Light Projector (DLP) The CPU directly accesses primary storage
LCD Projector The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
Projectors are used to project computer output onto RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples
larger screens/interactive whiteboards HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
examples
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
<span class="underline">Primary Memory:</span>
Uses millions of micromirrors Random Access Memory (RAM)
the number of micromirrors and the way they are
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
they are off
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours

LCD Projectors

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RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
access data that is actively being used or processed by The main advantages of virtual memory are
the user immediately. They can be larger than the physical memory
Features of RAM provided in the RAM.
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could
turned off) be expensive
Used to store; data, files The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of data.
the memory can be changed
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer Read Only Memory (ROM)
will operate Features of ROM
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
slow even when ROM is turned off)
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the Used to store start-up instructions (basic
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with input/output systems)
new data Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
RAM is of two types:
cannot be changed
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) <span class="underline">Secondary Storage:</span>
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface

of the disks (platter)
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
surfaces of the disk
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
store the data
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
Virtual memory HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Solid-State Drive (SSD)
memory management; thus, the system has a high There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes same time (not like HDD)
into the picture. Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
storages are discussed below) Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
<span class="underline">Off-Line Storage:</span>
CD/DVD Disks

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Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the A combination of hardware and software is designed to
surface of the disk. carry out a specific set of tasks.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data. Embedded systems may contain -
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
centre of the disk to the edge peripherals on one single chip
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
capacity (two individual recording layers) System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
ports, storage and memory
Blu-ray Disks Process of Embedded Devices -
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
(stores up to five times more data than DVD)
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent microprocessor
piracy and copyright infringement) The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
Used as backup systems which are the output
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
USB Flash Memories need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files Connecting the device to a computer and
Small back-up devices for photo, music downloading the update
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
link
Cloud Storage:
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is systems
stored on remote servers | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Small in size,
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
therefore can easily fit into devices | Can be difficult to
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data upgrade | | Low cost to make | The interface can be
at any time. This is known as data redundancy. confusing sometimes | | Requires very little power |
The following are its types: Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job | | Very fast reaction to
changing input | Often thrown away as difficult to upgrade
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the and faults are harder to find | | Dedicated to one task only |
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different Increased garbage as they are thrown away | | Can be
companies controlled remotely | Any computerised system is prone to
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated attacks |
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate Applications of Embedded devices
as a single entity GPS systems
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Security Systems
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, Vending Machines
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed Washing Machines
from a public cloud storage provider Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
connect to a network (such as the Internet).
3.6. Embedded System

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Media Access Control (MAC) Routers

A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six Router functionality:
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the A router is a networking device that directs data
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device packets between different networks.
serial number. It determines the most efficient path for data
transmission.
These do not change and are primarily constant for every Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
device A router examines the destination IP address of
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally incoming data packets.
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
Administered MAC Address (LAA) the next router on the path to the destination.
The only difference between the two types is that UAA is The router forwards the data packet to the
made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the appropriate next hop.
opposite for LAA. Router's role in IP address assignment:
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
IP Addresses Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
devices on a local network.
IP address allocation: It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
The network allocates IP addresses. predefined range to connected devices.
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
Static IP addresses: and simplifies network management.
Assigned manually to a device. Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Does not change over time. A router serves as the gateway between a local
Dynamic IP addresses: network and the internet.
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host It connects the local network to an internet service
Configuration Protocol) server. provider (ISP) network.
Changes periodically or when the device connects to The router receives data packets from devices on the
a different network. local network and forwards them to the internet.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): It also receives incoming data packets from the
Widely used protocol. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers on the local network.
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. 3.8. Operating Systems
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. Operating Systems are designed to establish
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers communication between the user and the computer
separated by colons (e.g., Functions of a typical operating system -
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). -managing files
Provides an extremely large number of unique – handling interrupts
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). – providing an interface
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: – managing peripherals and drivers
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 – managing memory
uses a 128-bit address. – managing multitasking
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 – providing a platform for running applications
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 – providing system security
undecillion addresses. – managing user accounts
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

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Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s

doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process
continues

3.9. Programming Languages,

Translators and IDEs
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science - Computers can only understand machine code;
Second Edition (Hodder Education) therefore, translators are needed
Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the High-Level Languages
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
Security Management - Providing security features such It is easier to read and understand as the language is
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on closer to human language.
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device Easier to write in a shorter time
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers Easier to debug at the development stage
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Easier to maintain once in use
Renaming, and many more functions
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources Low-Level Languages
with each of the processes
Refer to machine code
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
Binary instructions that the computer understands
users to customise their accounts individually.

Running of Applications
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language
Few programmers use assembly language to -
Make use of special hardware
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Interrupts Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.

3.10. Translators
Compiler

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Translates a program written in a high-level language An IDE would usually have these features -
into machine code Code Editor
Used without compiler Translator
Executable file of machine code produced Debugger
One high-level language translated into several machine Error Reports
code instructions Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Used for general use Auto-Documenter
Pretty Printing
Interpreter

Executes a high-language program a statement at a time 3.11. Types of Software and Interrupts
No executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language program statement may require Types of Software
several machine code instructions to be executed.
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an 1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
interpreter programs and device drivers
Used when the program is being developed 2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
processor, etc.
Assembler
System Software:
Translates a low-level language program into machine
code these are a set of programs which control and manage
Executable file of machine code produced the operations of hardware
One low-level language translated into one machine gives a platform for other software to run
code instructions it is required to allow hardware and software to run
It can be used without an assembler without problems
Used for general use provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
| Compiler | Interpreter | Assembler | |----|----|----| |
Translates a high-level language program into machine code.
Application Software:
| Executes a high-level language program one statement at
a time. | Translates a low-level assembly language program allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
into machine code. | | An executable file of machine code is computer’s resources
produced. | No executable file of machine code is produced. maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a
| An executable file of machine code is produced. | | One suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
high-level language statement can be translated into several user can execute the software when they require, and it
machine code instructions. | One high-level language is mostly not automatic
program statement may require several machine code
instructions to be executed. | One low-level language Examples
statement is usually translated into one machine code
instruction. | | Compiled programs are run without the ~~System Software:~~
compiler. | Interpreted programs cannot be run without the
interpreter. | Assembled programs are used without the
assembler. | | A compiled program is usually distributed for
general use. | An interpreter is often used when a program
is being developed. | An assembled program is usually
distributed for general use. |
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)

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Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
tasks without re-compilation. text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler importing images.
into a single program, allowing the use of separately Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
written code modules in the final program. using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to with each cell identified using a unique combination of
communicate with a computer's operating system, columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
without which a device like a printer would be unable to produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
work. calculations.
Operating system: Software that manages basic Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
computer functions such as input/output operations, manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
program loading and running, and security management, hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
making computers more user-friendly. and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and in a table.
controls computer resources by carrying out specific Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file interface with sensors and allow a computer or
management, and security. microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
Application Software: stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
transitions between clips.
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
required.

Interrupts
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their effectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., <CTRL><ALT><BREAK>), leading deletion or for the user to decide.
to an interrupt in the system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.12. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software
for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers. Backup software is a utility software that helps create
and manage backup copies of data files and programs.
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
utilities are also recommended.
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only
backup files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
on cloud storage.

Security Software

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| Internet | World Wide Web (WWW) | |----|----| | Uses
Security software is a utility software that manages transmission protocols such as TCP and IP (Internet
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities Protocols) | Collection of webpages and other information
such as virus and spyware checkers. on websites | | Allows the user to communicate with other
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to users via chat, email, calling and more | Uses HTTP(S)
prevent unauthorized access. protocols that are written using Hypertext Mark-up
Security software uses encryption and decryption to Language (HTML) | | Worldwide Collection of
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a Interconnected Networks and Devices | URLs (Uniform
decryption key. Resource Locator) are used for the location of the web pages
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources | | | Web browsers can access web pages. |
and prevent malicious software from being installed.
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
Screensavers typical format of URLs is -

Screensavers display moving and still images on the The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
monitor screen after computer inactivity. The website address would contain -
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors domain host (www)
from 'phosphor burn'. domain name (website name)
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
device and as a part of computer security systems. country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
They automatically log out of the user after a certain The path would usually become the file directory roots.
period of inactivity. for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like The /computer-science is the file name
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
HTTP and HTTPS
Device Drivers
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
Device drivers translate data into a format that can be stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
understood by the hardware device they are associated They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
with. data.
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised Web Browsers
by the operating system.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a It is software used to connect to the internet
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial It translates the HTML code
number that allow the operating system to identify the ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
device. Offers additional features like search history & ad
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two blockers
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
computer simultaneously. The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
4. The Internet and Its Uses IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML
4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
Web Cookies
Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
They are used to track data about the users and autofill
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -

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| Session Cookie | Persistent Cookie | |----|----| |
Temporary cookies are stored in the RAM till the browser is 4.3. Cyber Security
closed. | Remembers the user’s login details so the user
doesn’t have to log in every time they visit a website | | Brute Force Attack:
Doesn’t collect any information on the user | Stored on the
hard disk on the computer until their expiry date or the user Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
deletes them | | A good example is the virtual shopping different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
basket on e-commerce websites. | | Effect:
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
4.2. Digital Currency cards, passwords and more)
To remove risk:
Form of payment to pay for goods and services Use stronger passwords with more characters and
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, symbols
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) Data Interception:
Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
centralised banking systems. This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of wireless transmission line
transactions. Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses internet connections illegally
Blockchain Network Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
Blockchain Network back to the attacker
Effect:
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected It can cause a computer to crash
computers where the transaction data is stored Can delete or corrupt files/data
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would To remove risk:
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be Install anti-virus software
changed without the consent of all the network Don’t use software from unknown sources
members Be careful when opening emails from unknown
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
block would contain -
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of network
money and more Usually temporary but may be damaging
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block Accessing their emails
in the chain Accessing websites
Accessing online services

Hacking

The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point

to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
Effect: which redirects the user to fake websites
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal Effect:
information The user gives out login details and other personal
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted details
To remove risk: To remove risk:
Firewalls Using anti-virus software
Strong passwords/ user IDs Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Use of anti-hacking software Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Difference between hacking and cracking URL bar
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code, Social Engineering
malicious Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
Malware giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
informing them that their account has been hacked)
Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the Keeping data safe from threats
intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
computer malfunction Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until different people (for example - Only doctors can have
a certain amount of money is paid access to patient’s data)
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as attacks
legitimate software Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
user to the attacker biometrics and more)
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead | Biometric Methods | Benefits | Drawbacks | |----|----|----|
of the computer alone | Fingerprint Scans | Most development methods are very
easy to use and require very low storage space to store the
Phishing biometric data. | Intrusive as used to identify criminals, Can’t
be used if the finger gets dirty or damaged (e.g. cuts) | |
Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user Retina Scan | With very high accuracy, it Impossible to
into giving out their information. replicate a person’s retina | It is very intrusive, Takes longer
To remove risk: to verify, Expensive to install and set up | | Face Recognition
Don’t open links from unknown receivers | Non-intrusive method, Relatively cheaper | Can’t identify if
Use anti-phishing tools there are any changes in the lighting, change in age or
Block pop-up ads person’s age. | | Voice Recognition | Non-Intrusive method,
Have an up-to-date browser verification is done quickly and relatively cheaper | Voices
can be recorded and used for verification, but low accuracy
Pharming and illnesses such as colds or coughs can affect a person’s
voice, making identification impossible. |

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
You should be able to describe the advantages and
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
authentication to prove who the user is scenario.
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain Including scenarios from:
patches which improve device security
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong industry
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and transport
the tone would also seem urgent agriculture
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the weather
traffic between a network and the user’s computer gaming
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the lighting
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - science
Filtering Internet traffic
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential 5.2. Robotics
Blocking access to certain websites
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy Robotics is the branch of computer science that
server, keeping the web server safe. combines robot design, construction and operation.
Acts as a firewall as well. Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a A robot may not injure a human through action or
user’s profile inaction
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
communicating with other users on the internet. comes into conflict with Law 1
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
5. Automated and Emerging law 1.
Characteristics of a robot -
Technologies Ability to sense their surroundings
Have a degree of movement
Programmable
5.1. Automated Systems
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
Automated Systems are a combination of software and REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
hardware designed to function without human CHARACTERISTICS
intervention. Types of Robots -
Process of Automated Systems Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the completely replace humans
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter interface, can supplement but can’t completely
(ADC) replace humans
The microprocessor processes the data and makes
the necessary decisions based on its program | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Robots can work
The actions are then executed by the actuators 24/7 | Robots can find it difficult to do non-standard tasks |
(Motors, wheels and so on) | Robots can work in hazardous conditions | Robots can
lead to higher unemployment | | They are less expensive in
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Faster and Safer the long run | Risk of deskilling as robots replace humans in
| Expensive to set up and maintain | | Any changes can be some task | | They have high productivity and are more
identified quickly | Any computerised systems are prone to consistent | Expensive to install and maintain in the short
attacks | | Less Expensive in the long run | Over-reliance on run | | | Robots have the risk of getting hacked. |
automated systems may cause humans to lose skills | |
Higher Productivity and Efficiency | |
5.3. Artificial Intelligence

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

AI is the branch of computer science that simulates

intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | High level of
Expertise | Setup and Maintenance costs are very high | |
High Accuracy and Consistent | Can only rely on the
information in the system | | High response times | Tend to
give cold responses sometimes |
Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
are trained to learn from past experiences.

| AI | Machine Learning | |----|----| | Representation of

human intelligence in machines | Machines are trained to
make decisions without being programmed to | | The aim is
to build machines that think like humans | The aim is to
make machines learn through data acquisitions |

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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