Experiment 1.

Aim: Queries for Creating, Dropping, and Altering Tables and insert row into a table (use constraints
while creating tables) examples using Select Command.

Procedure:

1. Creation of emp & dept table in Sql:

SQL>create table dept(
deptno number(2,0) primary key,
dname varchar2(14) NOT NULL,
loc varchar2(13) NOT NULL,
);
Table created.

SQL>create table emp(

empno number(4,0),
ename varchar2(10)NOT NULL,
job varchar2(9) NOT NULL,
mgr number(4,0),
hiredate date,
sal number(7,2) NOT NULL,
comm number(7,2),
deptno number(2,0),
constraint pk_emp primary key (empno),
constraint fk_deptno foreign key (deptno) references dept (deptno)
);
Table created.

2. View Structure/schema of emp & dept table in sql:

SQL> select *from emp;

no rows selected

SQL> select *from dept;

no rows selected

SQL> desc emp;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ------------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(9)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
COMM NUMBER(7,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)
SQL> desc dept;
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
DEPTNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(14)
LOC VARCHAR2(13)

2. Insert the values in emp & dept table in sql:

There are several ways to insert the values in the existing table

Query to insert single record in the existing table:

SQL> insert into dept(deptno,dname,loc) values(20,’admin’,’hyd’);
1 row created.

Query to insert multiple records in the existing table:

SQL>insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&loc');
Enter value for deptno: 10
Enter value for dname: sales
Enter value for loc: vijayawada
old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&loc')
new 1: insert into dept values(10,'sales','vijayawada')
1 row created.

SQL>/

Enter value for deptno: 20

Enter value for dname: admin
Enter value for loc: hyd
old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&loc')
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for deptno: 30
Enter value for dname: marketing
Enter value for loc: vzg
old 1: insert into dept values(&deptno,'&dname','&loc')
new 1: insert into dept values(30,'marketing','vzg')
1 row created.

4. Select Command: this command is used to print the record from the existing table.
View all records in dept table:
SQL> select *from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 sales vijayawada
20 admin hyd
30 marketing vzg
View records basing on given criteria on specific column.
1. view single column from existing table.
SQL>select dname dept;
DNAME
---------------
Sales
Admin
Marketing

2. view specific record(s) from existing table based on given condition.

SQL> select *from dept where dname='sales';
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
10 sales vijayawada

Types of SQL Commands:

DDL: DDL Commands ( Data Definition Language)
1. CREATE 2. DESC 3. ALTER 4. DROP 5.TRUNCATE 6. RENAME
DML Commands (Data Manipulation Language)
1. SELECT 2. INSERT 3. UPDATE 4. DELETE
TCL(Transaction Control Language)
1. COMMIT 2. ROLLBACK 3. SAVEPOINT
DCL Commands (Data Control Lanuage)
1. GRANT 2. REVOKE

1. CREATE:
CREATE TABLE: This is used to create a new relation and the corresponding

Syntax: CREATE TABLE relation_name (field_1 data_type(Size),field_2 data_type(Size), .. . );

Example:
SQL>CREATE TABLE Student(id number,name varchar2(10));
RESULT: Table created.

2. DESC: It is used to describe a schema as well as to retrieve rows from table in descending order.
SYNTAX: DESC
EX: SQL> DESC EMP1;
NAME NULL? TYPE
----------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(10)
ENAME VARCHAR2(15)
JOB CHAR(10)
DEPTNAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPTNO NUMBER(9)
HIREDATE DATE
SALARY NUMBER(8)
EXP NUMBER(5)

3. ALTER: This is used for add, remove or modify the structure of the existing table
(a)ALTER TABLE ...ADD...: This is used to add some extra fields into existing relation.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name ADD(new field_1 data_type(size), new field_2
data_type(size),..);

Example : SQL>ALTER TABLE emp1 ADD(Address CHAR(10));

TABLE ALTERED.

(b)ALTER TABLE...MODIFY...: This is used to change the width as well as data type of fields of
existing relations.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE relation_name MODIFY (field_1 newdata_type(Size), field_2
newdata_type(Size),...., field_newdata_type(Size));
Example:SQL>ALTER TABLE emp1 MODIFY(ename VARCHAR2(20), salary NUMBER(5));
TABLE ALTERED.

SQL> DESC EMP1;

NAME NULL? TYPE
----------------------------------------- -------- -----------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(10)
ENAME VARCHAR2(20)
JOB CHAR(10)
DEPTNAME VARCHAR2(10)
DEPTNO NUMBER(9)
HIREDATE DATE
SALARY NUMBER(5)
EXP NUMBER(5)
ADDRESS CHAR(10)

4. DROP TABLE: This is used to delete the structure of a relation. It permanently deletes the table.
Syntax: DROP TABLE tablename;
Example: SQL>DROP TABLE EMP1;
Table dropped;
DROP: this command is used to remove the date from the existing table
DROP COLUMN IN TABLE
Syntax
To DROP A COLUMN in an existing table, the Oracle ALTER TABLE syntax is:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;
Example
ALTER TABLE customers DROP COLUMN customer_name;

5. RENAME: It is used to modify the name of the existing database object.

Syntax: RENAME old_table_name TO new_table_name;
Example: SQL>RENAME EMP1 TO EMP2;
Table renamed.

6. TRUNCATE: This command will remove the data permanently. But structure will not be removed.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <Table name>
Example TRUNCATE TABLE EMP1;

Experiment 2.
QUERIES (ALONG WITH SUB QUERIES) USING ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS,
NOTEXISTS, UNION, INTERSECT
SOLUTION:
To Create employee table:
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(
FNAME VARCHAR2(20),
LNAME VARCHAR2(20),
SSN NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
B_DATE DATE,
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(30),
GENDER CHAR(1),
SALARY NUMBER(7,2),
SUPER_SSN REFERENCES EMPLOYEE(SSN),
DNO NUMBER(4)
);
Table created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE

VALUES('SMITH',NULL,1111,'03-NOV-2016','BJD','M',2000,NULL,10)
1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE

VALUES('ALLEN',NULL,2222,'03-NOV-2016','SBC','M',3000,1111,20)
1 row created.

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE

VALUES('MARTIN',NULL,3333,'03-NOV-2016','HYD','M',4000,1111,30)
1 row created.

Like this we can insert the values into the table. To view data in the table following
query is used.

SQL> SELECT *FROM EMPLOYEE;

FNAME LNAME SSN BDATE ADDRESS G SALARY

SUPER_SSN DNO
-------------------- -------------------- ---------- --------- --------------- - ----------
------------------------------
SMITH 1111 01-JAN-06 BZA M 2000 10
ALLEN 2222 12-DEC-04 SBC M 3000 1111 20
MARTIN 3333 15-DEC-07 HYD M 4000 1111 20
JONES 4444 28-SEP-05 TNU M 1500 2222 10
BLAKE 5555 04-SEP-04 VZA M 2500 2222 10
TURNER 6666 21-OCT-99 GNT M 6000 3333 20
6 rows selected.

Inserting values in the dependent table as follows

SQL> INSERT INTO DEPENDENT VALUES(1111,'SMITH',’G’)
1 row is created.
SQL> INSERT INTO DEPENDENT VALUES(2222,'POOJA',’F’)
1 row is created.
SQL> INSERT INTO DEPENDENT VALUES(3333,'MARTIN',’M’)
1 row is created.
SQL> INSERT INTO DEPENDENT VALUES(3333,'RAJA',’M’)
1 row is created.

To Create dependent table:

SQL> CREATE TABLE DEPENDENT(
ESSN NUMBER(4) REFERENCES EMPLOYEE(SSN),
DEPENDENT_NAME VARCHAR2(20),
GENDER CHAR(1),
B_DATE DATE,
RELATIONSHIP VARCHAR2(20),
PRIMARY KEY(ESSN,DEPENDENT_NAME)
);
Table created.

To view data in the dependent table as follows.

SQL>SELECT * FROM DEPENDENT;

ESSN DEPENDENT_NAME G B_DATE RELATIONSHIP

---------- -------------------- ---------- --- ------- ------------------------
1111 SMITH M
2222 POOJA F
3333 MARTIN M
3333 RAJA M

1. ALL
RETRIEVE THE NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WHOSE SALARY IS GREATER THAN THE
SALARY OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES IN DEPARTMENT 10

SQL> SELECT FNAME,LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY> ALL( SELECT

SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=10);

FNAME LNAME
-------------------- --------------------
ALLEN
MARTIN
TURNER

2. ANY
RETRIEVE THE NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WHOSE SALARY IS GREATER THAN THE
SALARY OF ANY ONE OF THE EMPLOYEES IN DEPARTMENT 10
SQL> SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE
 WHERE SALARY> ANY( SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=10);

FNAME LNAME
-------------------- --------------------
TURNER
MARTIN
ALLEN
BLAKE
SMITH

3. IN
RETRIEVE THE NAME OF EACH EMPLOYEE WHO HAS A DEPENDENT WITH THE
FIRSTNAME AND SAME GENDER AS THE EMPLOYEE

SQL> SELECT e.FNAME, e.LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE e WHERE e.SSN

IN( SELECT ESSN FROM DEPENDENT WHERE e.GENDER=GENDER AND
e.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME);

FNAME LNAME
-------------------- --------------------
SMITH
MARTIN

4. EXISTS
RETRIEVE THE NAME OF EACH EMPLOYEE WHO HAS A DEPENDENT WITH THE
FIRSTNAME AND SAME GENDER AS THE EMPLOYEE

SQL> SELECT e.FNAME, e.LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE e WHERE

EXISTS( SELECT *FROM DEPENDENT WHERE e.SSN=ESSN AND
e.GENDER=GENDER AND e.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME );

FNAME LNAME
-------------------- --------------------
SMITH
MARTIN

5.NOT EXISTS
RETRIEVE THE NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WHO HAVE NO DEPENDENTS

SQL> SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE

NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM DEPENDENT WHERE SSN=ESSN);

FNAME LNAME
-------------------- --------------------
ALLEN

SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can be insert into a table. This ensures the accuracy
and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between the constraint and the data ac -
tion, the action is aborted.

Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column, and table
level constraints apply to the whole table.

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

Example:
SQL> create table person1 (id int, name varchar2(10) not null, age int);
Table created.
 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
Example:
SQL> create table person(id int unique, name varchar2(10),age int);
Table created.
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each
row in a table
Example:
SQL> create table emp1(id number(10) primary key, name varchar2(10),sal int);
Table created.
 FOREIGN KEY - Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
o A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link two tables together.
o A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table.
o The table containing the foreign key is called the child table, and the table containing the
candidate key is called the referenced or parent table.
Example:
SQL> create table emp2(eid int,city varchar2(10),foreign key(eid) references emp1(id));
Table created.

 CHECK - Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition

Example:
SQL> CREATE TABLE person1( ID int ,Age int, City varchar(10),
CONSTRAINT chk CHECK(Age>=18 AND City='vja');
Table created.

 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified.

o The DEFAULT constraint is used to provide a default value for a column.

o The default value will be added to all new records IF no other value is specified.

SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

 SQL> create table emp(id number(10),name varchar2(10),city varchar2(10) default 'vja');
Table created.

Experiment 3.
QUERIES USING AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (COUNT, SUM, AVG, MAX AND
MIN) GROUP BY, HAVING and Creation and dropping of Views.

SOLUTION:
1. COUNT
CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN DEPT 20.
SQL> SELECT COUNT (*) NO_EMP FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20;
NO_EMP
----------
5

2. SUM
CALCULATE THE TOTAL SALARIES FOR EACH DEPT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
30 9400
20 10875
10 8750

3. AVG
CALCULATE THE AVERAGE SALARIES FOR EACH DEPT
SQL> SELECT DEPT_NO, AVG (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPT_NO;
DEPT_NO AVG(SAL)
---------- ----------
30 1566.66667
20 2175
10 2916.66667

4. MAX
CALCULATE THE MAXIMUM SALARY FOR EACH DEPT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO, MAX (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
---------- ----------
30 2850
20 3000
10 5000
5. MIN
CALCULATE THE MINIMUM SALARY FOR EACH DEPT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO, MIN(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO

DEPTNO MIN(SAL)
---------- ----------
30 950
20 800
10 1300
6. GROUP BY:
The GROUP BY clause is a SQL command that is used to group rows that have the same values.
The GROUP BY clause is used in the SELECT statement .Optionally it is used in conjunction with ag-
gregate functions to produce summary reports from the database.
GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT statements... GROUP BY column_name1[,column_name2,...];
Grouping using a Single Column:
Create a table called data with gender column and values as male and female.
SQL> select * from data;
GENDER
----------
male
female
female
female
female
female
male
male
male
female
male
male
female
male
male
female

16 rows selected.

SQL> select gender from data group by gender;

GENDER
----------
male
female

SQL> select count(gender),gender from data group by gender;

COUNT(GENDER) GENDER
------------- ----------
8 male
8 female
Grouping using Multiple Columns
Syntax
SELECT
column1,
column2,
AGGREGATE_FUNCTION (column3)
FROM
table1
GROUP BY
column1,
column2;
Examples :
SQL> select * from emp;
ID NAME DEPT SAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1a cse 1000
2b ece 2000
3c eee 3000
4d cse 4000
1z cse 5000
5a ece 6000
6e ece 7000
2b eee 9000
8 rows selected.
SQL> select id, name from emp group by id, name;
ID NAME
---------- ----------
3c
4d
1a
2b
5a
1z
6e
7 rows selected.
7. HAVING

 The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with ag-
gregate functions.
 The WHERE clause places conditions on the selected columns, whereas the HAVING clause places
conditions on groups created by the GROUP BY clause.
 The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY clause in a query and must also precede the OR -
DER BY clause if used

HAVING Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
SQL> select * from emp;
ID NAME DEPT SAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1a cse 1000
2b ece 2000
3c eee 3000
4d cse 4000
5e ece 5000
SQL> select count(id),dept from emp group by dept having count(id)>1;

COUNT(ID) DEPT
---------- ----------
2 cse
2 ece
SQL> select * from emp;
ID NAME DEPT SAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1a cse 1000
2b ece 2000
3c eee 3000
4d cse 4000
5e ece 5000
SQL> select max(sal),dept from emp group by dept;
MAX(SAL) DEPT
---------- ----------
4000 cse
3000 eee
5000 ece
SQL> select max(sal),dept from emp group by dept having max(sal)>3000;
MAX(SAL) DEPT
---------- ----------
4000 cse
5000 ece
8. View :
o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and columns.
o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in the database.
o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a table.

SQL> select *from emp;

ENO ENAME SALARY LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
101 ali 15000 vja
102 haji ` 20000 hyd
103 mohammad 42000 vja
104 ravi 23000 gnt
105 irfath 50000 hyd
SQL> create view hyd as select *from emp where loc='hyd';
View created.

SQL> select *from hyd;

ENO ENAME SALARY LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
102 haji 20000 hyd
105 irfath 50000 hyd

SQL> drop view hyd;

View dropped.

SQL> select *from hyd;

select *from hyd
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist

Experiment 4:

Queries using Conversion functions (to_char, to_number and to_date), string functions (Concatenation,
lpad, rpad, ltrim, rtrim, lower, upper, initcap, length, substr and instr), date functions (Sysdate,
next_day, add_months, last_day, months_between, least,
greatest, trunc, round, to_char)

SQL> select *from emp;

ENO ENAME SALARY LOC

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
101 ali 15000 vja
102 haji 20000 hyd
103 mohammad 42000 vja
104 ravi 23000 gnt
105 irfath 50000 hyd
a) Conversion Functions:
1. to_char: to_char is used to convert the attribute values to char.

SQL> select to_char(salary,'$99999.99') from emp;

TO_CHAR(SALARY)
----------
$15000.00
$20000.00
$42000.00
$23000.00
$50000.00

2. to_number: to_number is used to convert the attribute value to number.

SQL> SELECT TO_NUMBER('1210.73', '9999.99') FROM DUAL;

TO_NUMBER('1210.73','9999.99')
------------------------------
1210.73
3. to_date: to_date is used for convert and display the attribute values as date.

SQL> select to_date('01-01-2020', 'MM-DD-YYYY') from dual;

TO_DATE('
---------
01-JAN-20

b) String functions:
1. Concatenation: CONCAT is used to add two attribute values such as string.
SQL> select concat(eno,loc) from emp;
CONCAT(ENO,LOC)
--------------------------------------------------
101vja
102hyd
103vja
104gnt
105hyd
2. lpad: LPAD() function is used to padding the left side of a string with a specific set of characters.
SQL> select lpad(ename,10,'*') from emp;

LPAD(ENAME,10,'*')
 ----------------------------------------
*******ali
******haji
**mohammad
******ravi
****irfath

3. rpad: RPAD() function is used to padding the right side of a string with a specific set of characters.
SQL> select rpad(ename,10,'*') from emp;

RPAD(ENAME,10,'*')
----------------------------------------
ali*******
haji******
mohammad**
ravi******
irfath****

4. ltrim: LTRIM() function is used to remove all specified characters from the left end side of a string
SQL> select ltrim('******hi********','*') from dual;

LTRIM('***
----------
hi********

5. rtrim: RTRIM() function is used to remove all specified characters from the left end side of a string
SQL> select rtrim('******hi********','*') from dual;

RTRIM('*
--------
******hi
6. lower: lower() function is used to convert the attribute value in to lower case.
SQL> select lower(ename) from emp;

LOWER(ENAM
----------
ali
haji
mohammad
ravi
irfath

7. upper: upper() function is used to convert the attribute values in to upper case.
SQL> select upper(ename) from emp;
 UPPER(ENAM
----------
ALI
HAJI
MOHAMMAD
RAVI
IRFATH

8. initcap: initcap() is used to convert the attribute values first character in capital letter.
SQL> select initcap(ename) from emp;

INITCAP(EN
----------
Ali
Haji
Mohammad
Ravi
Irfath

9. length: length() function is used to calculate the length of the given attribute.
SQL> select ename,length(ename) from emp;

ENAME LENGTH(ENAME)
---------- -------------
ali 3
haji 4
mohammad 8
ravi 4
irfath 6

10. substr:substr() function is used to find the substring of the given attribute value. It retuns size-1 of
the given string/ attribute as a sub string.
SQL> select ename, substr(ename,4) from emp;

ENAME SUBSTR(ENAME,4)
---------- ----------------------------
ali
haji i
mohammad ammad
ravi i
irfath ath

11. instr: instr() function return the location of starting passion of the sub string in the existing value.

SQL> select instr('welcome to pscmr','to') from dual;

 INSTR('WELCOMETOPSCMR','TO')
----------------------------
9
c) Date functions:

1. Sysdate(): sysdate() function returns the current system date.

SQL> select sysdate from dual;

SYSDATE
---------
28-APR-21

2. next_day(); it reurns the date of next coming day .

SQL> select next_day(sysdate,'sunday') from dual;

NEXT_DAY(
---------
02-MAY-21
3. add_months(): it returns the next date after adding number of months in the orguments.
SQL> select add_months(sysdate,5) from dual;

ADD_MONTH
---------
28-SEP-21

4. last_day(): The LAST_DAY() function takes a date value as argument and returns the last day of
month in that date
SQL> select last_day(sysdate) from dual;
LAST_DAY(
---------
30-APR-21

SQL> select last_day('02-FEB-2020') from dual;

LAST_DAY(
---------
29-FEB-20

5. months_between(): it returns the numbers of months between given two dates.

SQL> select months_between('02-feb-2021','02-feb-2020') from dual;

MONTHS_BETWEEN('02-FEB-2021','02-FEB-2020')
-------------------------------------------
12
 SQL> select months_between(sysdate,'02-feb-2020') from dual;

MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,'02-FEB-2020')
-------------------------------------
14.8600769
6. least(): it retuns least value from the given argument or attributes.
SQL> select least(300,450,100,440) from dual;

LEAST(300,450,100,440)
----------------------
100

7. greatest(): it returns maximum values from the given arguments or attributes in the relation.
SQL> select greatest(300,450,100,440) from dual;
GREATEST(300,450,100,440)
-------------------------
450
8. trunc(): The TRUNC() function returns a DATE value truncated to a specified unit.
SQL> select trunc(sysdate,'mm') from dual;

TRUNC(SYS
---------
01-APR-21

SQL> select trunc(sysdate,'yyyy') from dual;

TRUNC(SYS
---------
01-JAN-21

9. round(): Round function round a number to a specified length or precision.

SQL> select round(12.49,0) from dual;

ROUND(12.49,0)
--------------
12

SQL> select round(12.51,0) from dual;

ROUND(12.51,0)
--------------
13
10. to_char(): it convert the given date type attribute values to text and return the date in the specific
format.
 SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'yyyy-mm-dd') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SY
----------
2021-04-28

Experiment 5.
i. Create a simple PL/SQL program which includes declaration section, executable section and excep-
tion –Handling section (Ex. Student marks can be selected from the table and printed for those who se-
cured first class and an exception can be raised if no records were found).

ii. Insert data into student table and use COMMIT, ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT in PL/SQL block..

i). We have to create the student table and insert the records in to the table as follows:
SQL> create table student(sid number(10),sname varchar2(20),rank varchar(10));
Table created.

SQL> insert into student values(501,'Ravi','second');

1 row created.

SQL> insert into student values(502,'Raju','third');

1 row created.

SQL> insert into student values(503,'Ramu','');

1 row created.

SQL> select *from student;

SID SNAME RANK

---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu

PL/SQL CODE:

SQL>ed 5a

Enter the following code into the text editor and save the file with .sql format
set serveroutput on;
declare
temp1 number(10);
temp2 varchar2(10);

begin
select sid,sname into temp1,temp2 from student where rank='first';
dbms_output.put_line('Student No:'|| temp1 ||' Name:'||temp2||' got first
rank');
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line('********************************************');
dbms_output.put_line('# Error: there is no student got first rank');
end;
/

SQL> @5a;
********************************************
# Error: there is no student got first rank

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> update student set rank='first' where sid=503;

1 row updated.

SQL> select *from student;

SID SNAME RANK

---------- -------------------- ----------
 501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu first

SQL> @5a
Student No:503 Name:Ramu got first rank

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

ii)
SQL> select *from student;

SID SNAME RANK

---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu first

PL/SQL CODE:

SQL>ed 5b

Enter the following code into the text editor and save the file with .sql format

set serveroutput on;

DECLARE
sno student.sid%type;
name student.sname%type;
srank student.rank%type;

BEGIN
sno := &sno;
name := '&name';
srank := '&srank';
INSERT into student values(sno,name,srank);
dbms_output.put_line('One record inserted');
COMMIT;
-- adding savepoint
SAVEPOINT s1;
-- second time asking user for input
sno := &sno;
name := '&name';
srank := '&srank';
INSERT into student values(sno,name,srank);
dbms_output.put_line('One record inserted');
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT s1;
END;
/
SQL> @5b;

SQL> @5b
Enter value for sno: 504
old 7: sno := &sno;
new 7: sno := 504;
Enter value for name: ali
old 8: name := '&name';
new 8: name := 'ali';
Enter value for srank: first
old 9: srank := '&srank';
new 9: srank := 'first';

Enter value for sno: 505

old 16: sno := &sno;
new 16: sno := 505;
Enter value for name: haji
old 17: name := '&name';
new 17: name := 'haji';
Enter value for srank: third
old 18: srank := '&srank';
new 18: srank := 'third';
One record inserted
One record inserted

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select *from student;

SID SNAME RANK

---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu first
504 ali first
Experiment 6:
Develop a program that includes the features NESTED IF, CASE and CASE expression. The program
can be extended using the NULLIF and COALESCE functions.

a. NESTED IF:
A nested if-then is an if statement that is the target of another if statement. Nested if-then statements
mean an if statement inside another if statement

Syntax:-
if (condition1) then
-- Executes when condition1 is true
 if (condition2) then
-- Executes when condition2 is true
end if;
end if;

PL/SQL CODE: PL/SQL Program to find biggest of three number using nested if.
SQL>ed 6a

Enter the following code into the text editor and save the file with .sql format
declare
a number:=10;
b number:=12;
c number:=5;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('a='||a||' b='||b||' c='||c);
if a>b AND a>c then
dbms_output.put_line('a is greatest');
else
if b>a AND b>c then
dbms_output.put_line('b is greatest');
else
dbms_output.put_line('c is greatest');
end if;
end if;
end;
/
SQL> @6a
a=10 b=12 c=5
b is greatest
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
b. CASE and CASE Expression : CASE statement selects one sequence of statements to execute.
However, to select the sequence, the CASE statement uses a selector rather than multiple Boolean
expressions. A selector is an expression, the value of which is used to select one of several alternatives.

Syntax
CASE selector
WHEN 'value1' THEN S1;
WHEN 'value2' THEN S2;
WHEN 'value3' THEN S3;
...
ELSE Sn; -- default case
END CASE;

SQL> create table emp(eno number(5), ename varchar2(10), loc varchar(10), salary number(10,2));
Table created.
SQL> insert into emp values(101,'ali','vja',15000);
1 row created.

SQL> insert into emp values(102,'ravi','hyd',25000);

1 row created.

SQL> insert into emp values(103,'raju','gnt',35000); );

1 row created.

SQL> insert into emp values(104,'rakesh','vja',45000);

1 row created.

SQL> select *from emp;

ENO ENAME LOC SALARY

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
101 ali vja 15000
102 ravi hyd 25000
103 raju gnt 35000
104 rakesh vja 45000

Example of CASE Expression:

SQL> select loc, case(loc) when 'vja' then salary+2000 when 'hyd' then salary+1000 else salary end
"rev_salary" from emp;

LOC rev_salary
---------- ----------
vja 17000
hyd 26000
gnt 35000
vja 47000

PL/SQL CODE: PL/SQL CODE to demonstrate CASE

SQL> ed 6b

set serveroutput on;

declare
grade char(1);
begin
grade:='&grade';
case
when grade='a' then
dbms_output.put_line('Excellent');
when grade='b' then
dbms_output.put_line('very good');
when grade='c' then
dbms_output.put_line('good');
when grade='d' then
dbms_output.put_line('fair');
SQL> @6b
Enter value for grade: c
old 4: grade:='&grade';
new 4: grade:='c';
good

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> @6b
Enter value for grade: g
old 4: grade:='&grade';
new 4: grade:='g';
No such grade

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

c.NULLIF: Takes two arguments. If the two arguments are equal, then NULL is returned. otherwise
the first argument is returned.

Syntax:
select column_name,NULLIF(argument1,arguement2) from table_name;
Example:
SQL> select ename, nullif('ali','ali1') from emp;

ENAME NUL
---------- ---
ali ali
ravi ali
raju ali
rakesh ali

SQL> select ename, nullif('ali','ali') from emp;

ENAME NUL
---------- ---
ali
ravi
raju
rakesh

d.COALESCE: COALESCE() function accepts a list of arguments and returns the first one that
evaluates to a non-null value.
Syntax:
coalesce("expression1","expression2",...);
Example:
SQL> select coalesce(NULL,'PSCMR','CSE') from dual;

COALE
-----
PSCMR

Experiment 7:
Program development using WHILE LOOPS, numeric FOR LOOPS, nested loops using ERROR Han-
dling, BUILT –IN Exceptions, USE defined Exceptions, RAISEAPPLICATION ERROR.

a. WHILE LOOP: A WHILE LOOP statement in PL/SQL programming language repeatedly ex-
ecutes a target statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax:

WHILE condition LOOP

sequence_of_statements
END LOOP;

PL/SQL Code: A PL/SQL Program to find sum of ODD number upto given number using While loop
SQL> ed 7a

set serveroutput on;

declare
inval number;
endval number;
s number default 0;
begin
inval:=1;
endval:=&endval;
while inval<endval loop
s:=s+inval;
inval:=inval+2;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum of odd numbers between 1 and '||endval||' is '|| s);
end;
/

SQL> @7a
Enter value for endval: 100
old 7: endval:=&endval;
new 7: endval:=100;
sum of odd numbers between 1 and 100 is 2500

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

b. FOR Loop: A FOR LOOP is a repetition control structure that allows us to efficiently write a loop
that needs to execute a specific number of times.
Syntax
FOR counter IN initial_value .. final_value LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;

PL/SQL CODE: A PL/SQL code to print multiplication table using for loop

SQL> ed 7b
set serveroutput on;
DECLARE
VAR1 NUMBER;
VAR2 NUMBER;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Enter number to print multiplication table');
VAR1:=&VAR1;
FOR VAR2 IN 1..10 LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(VAR1||'X'||VAR2||'='||VAR1*VAR2);
END LOOP;
END;
/
SQL> @7b
Enter value for var1: 2
old 6: VAR1:=&VAR1;
new 6: VAR1:=2;
Enter numer to print multiplication table
2X1=2
2X2=4
2X3=6
2X4=8
2X5=10
2X6=12
2X7=14
2X8=16
2X9=18
2X10=20

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

c. NESTED LOOP: PL/SQL allows using one loop inside another loop. It may be
either basic, while or for loop.

Syntax:
WHILE condition1 LOOP
sequence_of_statements1
WHILE condition2 LOOP
sequence_of_statements2
END LOOP;
END LOOP;

PL/SQL CODE: A PL/SQL program to print n prime number using nested loop.

SQL> ed 7c

DECLARE
i number(3);
j number(3);
BEGIN
i := 2;
LOOP
j:= 2;
LOOP
exit WHEN ((mod(i, j) = 0) or (j = i));
j := j +1;
 END LOOP;
IF (j = i ) THEN
dbms_output.put_line(i || ' is prime');
END IF;
i := i + 1;
exit WHEN i = 50;
END LOOP;
END;
/

SQL> @7c
2 is prime
3 is prime
5 is prime
7 is prime
11 is prime
13 is prime
17 is prime
19 is prime
23 is prime
29 is prime
31 is prime
37 is prime
41 is prime
43 is prime
47 is prime

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Experiment 8:
Programs development using creation of procedures, passing parameters IN and OUT of
PROCEDURES.

SQL> create table enquiry(enqno1 number(3),fname varchar2(30));

Table created.

SQL> insert into enquiry values(111,'sai');

1 row created.

SQL> insert into enquiry values(112,'sindhu');

1 row created.
PL/SQL CODE to create procedure
SQL> ed findname
create procedure findname(enquiryno1 IN number,fname1 OUT varchar2) is
fname2 varchar2(30);
begin
select fname into fname2 from enquiry where enqno1=enquiryno1;
fname1:=fname2;
exception when no_data_found then
raise_application_error(-20100,'The given number is not present');
end;
/
SQL> @findname
Procedure created.

PL/SQL Code for calling procedure in program

SQL> ed pro8
set serveroutput on;
declare
enqno2 number(5);
fname2 varchar2(30);
begin
enqno2:=&enqno2;
findname(enqno2,fname2);
dbms_output.put_line('Person name of equiry id '||enqno2||' is '||fname2);
end;
SQL>
/ @pro8
Enter value for enqno2: 114
old 5: enqno2:=&enqno2;
new 5: enqno2:=114;
declare
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20100: The given number is not present
ORA-06512: at "SYSTEM.FINDNAME", line 7
ORA-06512: at line 6

SQL> @pro8
Enter value for enqno2: 112
old 5: enqno2:=&enqno2;
new 5: enqno2:=112;

Person name of equiry id 112 is sindhu

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Experiment 9:
Program development using creation of stored functions, invoke functions in SQL statements and write
complex functions.

Sol:

SQL> create table dept(deptno int,dname varchar(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into dept values(1219,'sai');

1 row created.

PL/SQL CODE to create user define function

create or replace function getname(dno number)

return varchar2 as
fname1 varchar2(30);
 begin

SQL> @getname
Function created.

PL/SQL Code for calling function in program

SQL> ed pro9

set serveroutput on;

declare
fname2 varchar2(30);
deptno2 number(5);
begin
deptno2:=&deptno;
fname2:=getname(deptno2);
dbms_output.put_line(fname2||' is in dept no '||deptno2);
end;
/
SQL> @pro9
Enter value for deptno: 1219
old 5: deptno2:=&deptno;
new 5: deptno2:=1219;

sai is in dept no 1219

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> @pro9
Enter value for deptno: 1001
old 5: deptno2:=&deptno;
new 5: deptno2:=1001;
declare
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20100: Your entered Department number is not exists
ORA-06512: at "SYSTEM.GETNAME", line 9
ORA-06512: at line 6

Experiment 10:
Develop programs using features parameters in a CURSOR, FOR UPDATE CURSOR, WHERE
CURRENT of clause and CURSOR variables.
Sol:
SQL> create table customers(id number(3), name varchar2(10), age number(3), address varchar2(10),
salary number(10,2));
Table created.

SQL> insert into customers values(1,'ramesh',32,'ahmedabad',2000);

1 row created.
SQL> insert into customers values(2,'khilan',25,'Delhi',1500);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into customers values(3,'kaushik',23,'Kota',2000);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into customers values(4,'chitali',25,'Mumbai',6500);
1 row created.
SQL> select *from customers;
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
---------- ---------- --------- - ---------- ----------
1 ramesh 32 ahmedabad 2000
2 khilan 25 Delhi 1500
3 kaushik 23 Kota 2000
4 chitali 25 Mumbai 6500

4 rows selected.
SQL> ed pro10
DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
CURSOR c_customers is SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
BEGIN
OPEN c_customers;
LOOP
FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;
EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_customers;
END;
/
SQL> @pro10
1 ramesh ahmedabad
2 khilan Delhi
3 kaushik Kota
4 chitali Mumbai
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Experiment 11:
Develop programs using before and after triggers, row and statement triggers and instead of triggers.

Sol:
SQL> create table customers(id number(3), name varchar2(10), age number(3), address varchar2(10),
salary number(10,2));
Table created.

SQL> insert into customers values(1,'ramesh',32,'ahmedabad',2000);

1 row created.
SQL> insert into customers values(2,'khilan',25,'Delhi',1500);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into customers values(3,'kaushik',23,'Kota',2000);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into customers values(4,'chitali',25,'Mumbai',6500);
1 row created.
SQL> select *from customers;
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
---------- ---------- --------- - ---------- ----------
1 ramesh 32 ahmedabad 2000
2 khilan 25 Delhi 1500
3 kaushik 23 Kota 2000
4 chitali 25 Mumbai 6500

4 rows selected.

PL/SQL Code for creation of trigger while insert / update records into a table.

SQL>ed pro11

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
END;
/

SQL> @pro11
Trigger created.

SQL> insert into customers values(5,'Hardik',27,'Mumbai',5500);

Old salary:
New salary: 5500
Salary difference:
1 row created.

SQL> update customers set salary=salary+500 where id=2;

Old salary: 1500
New salary: 2000
Salary difference: 500
1 row updated.
Experiment 12:
Create a table and perform the search operation on table using indexing and non-indexing techniques.

Sol:

SQL> CREATE TABLE TEACHER(STAFF_ID VARCHAR2(4) PRIMARY KEY, STAFF_NAME

VARCHAR2(30), QUALIFICATION VARCHAR2(10), HIREDATE DATE, JOB VARCHAR2(30),
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(15), PH_NUM NUMBER(10), SALARY NUMBER(7, 2), DEPARTMENT
VARCHAR2(10));

Table created.
SQL> insert into teacher values('T101','SUNITHA','MCA','29-JUN-06','ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR','VIJAYAWADA',9985061308,23000,'MCA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T102','FRED SMITH','MTECH','07-MAR-03','ASSOCIATE PROFES-

SOR','GUNTUR',9985063445,36000,'MBA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T103','JACK BARNES','BTECH','27-JUN-

07','PROFESSOR','TENALI',9985012345,27000,'MTECH');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T104','JANE DOE','MCA','04-JUL-06','ASSISTANT

PROFESSOR','VIJAYAWADA',9985045678,29000,'BTECH');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T105','JOE SHMOE','MBA','16-AUG-08','ASSOCIATE PROFES-

SOR','ELURU',9987651308,36000,'MCA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T106','JON BAKER','MSC(COM)','12-JAN-03','PROFESSOR','HY-

DERABAD',8876561308,46000,'MCA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T107','JOHN DOE','MSC(PHY)','06-FEB-04','ASSISTANT PROFES-

SOR','VIJAYAWADA',8345661308,31000,'MBA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T108','KIM SMITH','MCA','10-MAR-08','ASSISTANT PROFES-

SOR','VIZAG',8374561308,26000,'MTECH');
1 row created.
SQL>insert into teacher values('T109','MARY PARKER','MTECH','02-APR-09','PROFESSOR','NEL-
LORE',7893427649,52000,'MBA');
1 row created.
SQL>insert into teacher values('T110','SAMUEL JOHN','BTECH','19-MAY-05','ASSISTANT PRO-
FESSOR','ELURU',9982222208,26000,'MBA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T111','FRANKLIN WONG','MBA','20-AUG-06','ASSOCIATE PRO-

FESSOR','VIZAG',9985033333,20000,'MTECH');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T112','SLICIA ZELAYA','MCA','16-SEP-04','ASSISTANT PROFES-

SOR','VIJAYAWADA',9985202020,33000,'BTECH');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T113','JENNIFER WALLACE','MSC(MATHS)','25-OCT-03','PRO-

FESSOR','HYDERABAD',9902192033,54000,'MCA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T114','RAMESH NARAYANA','MCA','24-NOV-04','ASSOCIATE

PROFESSOR','NARASARAOPET',9988776655,34000,'MBA');
1 row created.

SQL>insert into teacher values('T115','JOYCE ENGLISH','MBA','22-DEC-06','ASSISTANT PRO-

FESSOR','VIJAYAWADA',9998765443,45000,'MBA');
1 row created.

To show the query execution timing use the following query

SQL> Set timing on;

Retrieve details of teacher before creation of index.

SQL> select *from teacher;

STAF STAFF_NAME QUALIFICAT HIREDATE JOB ADDRESS PH_NUM SALARY DEPARTMENT

---- ------------------------------ ---------- ---------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
T101 SUNITHA MCA 29-06-06 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9985061308 23000 MCA
T102 FRED SMITH MTECH 07-MAR-03 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR GUNTUR 9985063445 36000 MBA
T103 JACK BARNES BTECH 27-JUN-07 PROFESSOR TENALI 9985012345 27000 MTECH
T104 JANE DOE MCA 04-JUL-06 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9985045678 29000 BTECH
T105 JOE SHMOE MBA 16-AUG-08 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ELURU 9987651308 36000 MCA
T106 JON BAKER MSC(COM) 12-JAN-03 PROFESSOR HYDERABAD 8876561308 46000 MCA
T107 JOHN DOE MSC(PHY) 06-FEB-04 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 8345661308 31000 MBA
T108 KIM SMITH MCA 10-MAR-08 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIZAG 8374561308 26000 MTECH
T109 MARY PARKER MTECH 02-APR-09 PROFESSOR NELLORE 7893427649 52000 MBA
T110 SAMUEL JOHN BTECH 19-MAY-05 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR ELURU 9982222208 26000 MBA
T111 FRANKLIN WONG MBA 20-AUG-06 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR VIZAG 9985033333 20000 MTECH
T112 SLICIA ZELAYA MCA 16-SEP-04 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9985202020 33000 BTECH
T113 JENNIFER WALLACE MSC(MATHS) 25-OCT-03 PROFESSOR HYDERABAD 9902192033 54000 MCA
T114 RAMESH NARAYANA MCA 24-NOV-04 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR NARASARAOPET 9988776655
34000 MBA
T115 JOYCE ENGLISH MBA 22-DEC-06 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9998765443 45000 MBA

15 rows selected.
Elapsed: 00:00:00.24

Index creation:
SQL> create index teacher_job_ind on teacher(job);
Index created.
Elapsed: 00:00:00.00
Retrieve details of teacher after creation of index.

SQL> select *from teacher;

STAF STAFF_NAME QUALIFICAT HIREDATE JOB ADDRESS PH_NUM SALARY DEPARTMENT

---- ------------------------------ ---------- ---------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
T101 SUNITHA MCA 29-06-06 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9985061308 23000 MCA
T102 FRED SMITH MTECH 07-MAR-03 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR GUNTUR 9985063445 36000 MBA
T103 JACK BARNES BTECH 27-JUN-07 PROFESSOR TENALI 9985012345 27000 MTECH
T104 JANE DOE MCA 04-JUL-06 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9985045678 29000 BTECH
T105 JOE SHMOE MBA 16-AUG-08 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ELURU 9987651308 36000 MCA
T106 JON BAKER MSC(COM) 12-JAN-03 PROFESSOR HYDERABAD 8876561308 46000 MCA
T107 JOHN DOE MSC(PHY) 06-FEB-04 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 8345661308 31000 MBA
T108 KIM SMITH MCA 10-MAR-08 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIZAG 8374561308 26000 MTECH
T109 MARY PARKER MTECH 02-APR-09 PROFESSOR NELLORE 7893427649 52000 MBA
T110 SAMUEL JOHN BTECH 19-MAY-05 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR ELURU 9982222208 26000 MBA
T111 FRANKLIN WONG MBA 20-AUG-06 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR VIZAG 9985033333 20000 MTECH
T112 SLICIA ZELAYA MCA 16-SEP-04 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9985202020 33000 BTECH
T113 JENNIFER WALLACE MSC(MATHS) 25-OCT-03 PROFESSOR HYDERABAD 9902192033 54000 MCA
T114 RAMESH NARAYANA MCA 24-NOV-04 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR NARASARAOPET 9988776655
34000 MBA
T115 JOYCE ENGLISH MBA 22-DEC-06 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR VIJAYAWADA 9998765443 45000 MBA

15 rows selected.
Elapsed: 00:00:00.13