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 Contents vii

Using SPSS 450 The “Best-Fitting” Line 552

Practice Problems 453 Slope and Intercept 553
Notes 461 Calculating the Slope and Intercept 556
Goodness-of-Fit Measures 557
CHAPTER 12 Testing the Statistical R-Squared (r2) 557
Significance of Relationships in Standard Error of the Estimate 558
Cross-Tabulations 463 Dichotomous (“Dummy”) Independent
Variables 559
The Logic of Hypothesis Testing with
Multiple Regression 563
Chi-Square 466
Statistical Inference for Regression 565
The Steps of a Chi-Square Test 469
The F-Statistic 566
Size and Direction of Effects: Analysis of
Standard Error of the Slope 568
Residuals 475
Assumptions of Regression 571
Example: Gender and Perceptions of
Health 477 Chapter Summary 573
Assumptions of Chi-Square 481 Using Stata 575
Statistical Significance and Sample Size 481 Using SPSS 581
Chapter Summary 486 Practice Problems 588
Using Stata 487 Notes 598
Using SPSS 489
SOLUTIONS TO ODD-NUMBERED
Practice Problems 492
PRACTICE PROBLEMS 599
Notes 500
GLOSSARY 649
APPENDIX A Normal Table 656
CHAPTER 13 Ruling Out Competing
APPENDIX B Table of t-Values 658
Explanations for Relationships
between Variables 501 APPENDIX C F-Table, for Alpha = .05 660
APPENDIX D Chi-Square Table 662
Criteria for Causal Relationships 506
APPENDIX E Selected List of Formulas 664
Modeling Spurious Relationships 508
Modeling Non-Spurious Relationships 513 APPENDIX F Choosing Tests for Bivariate
Relationships 666
Chapter Summary 520
INDEX 667
Using Stata 521
Using SPSS 526
Practice Problems 532
Notes 541

CHAPTER 14 Describing Linear

Relationships between
Variables 542
Correlation Coefficients 544
Calculating Correlation Coefficients 545
Scatterplots: Visualizing Correlations 546
Regression: Fitting a Line to a
Scatterplot 550
 Preface

The idea for Statistics for Social Understand- more than sixty combined years of teach-
ing: With Stata and SPSS began with our ing experience in this area. We drew on
desire to offer a different kind of book to our teaching experience and research on
our statistics students. We wanted a book the teaching and learning of statistics
that would introduce students to the way to write what we think will be a more
statistics are actually used in the social effective textbook for fostering student
­
­sciences: as a tool for advancing under- learning.
standing of the social world. We wanted In addition, we are excited to share
thorough coverage of statistical topics, our experiences teaching statistics to
with a balanced approach to calculation ­social ­science students by authoring the
and the use of statistical software, and book’s ancillary materials, which include
we wanted the textbook to cover the use not only practice problems, test banks,
of software as a way to explore data and and data sets but also suggested class ex-
­answer exciting questions. We also wanted ercises, P­ owerPoint slides, assignments,
a textbook that incorporated Stata, which lecture notes, and class exercises.
is widely used in graduate programs and Statistics for Social Understanding is dis-
is increasingly used in undergraduate tinguished by several features: (1) It is the
classes, as well as SPSS, which remains only major introductory statistics book to
widespread. We wanted a book designed integrate Stata and SPSS, giving instruc-
for introductory students in the social sci- tors a choice of which software package
ences, including those with little quantita- to use. (2) It teaches statistics the way
tive background, but one that did not talk they are used in the social sciences. This
down to students and that covered the includes beginning every chapter with
conceptual aspects of statistics in detail examples from real research and taking
even when the mathematical ­details were students through research questions as
minimized. We wanted a clearly written, we cover statistical techniques or software
engaging book, with plenty of practice applications. It also includes extensive
problems of every type and easily avail- discussion of relationships between vari-
able data sets for classroom use. ables, through the earlier placement of the
We are excited to introduce this book chapter on cross-tabulation, the addition
to students and instructors. We are three of a dedicated chapter on causality, and
­experienced instructors of statistics, two comparative examples throughout every
sociologists and a political scientist, with chapter of the book. (3) It is informed by

viii
 Preface ix

research on the teaching and learning of 2) Draws on teaching

quantitative material and uses principles and learning research
of universal design to optimize its con-
tents for a variety of learning styles. Our approach is informed by research on
teaching and learning in math and statis-
tics and takes a universal design approach
Distinguishing to accommodate multiple learning styles.
We take the following research-based
Features approaches:

1) Integrates Stata and SPSS • Research on teaching math shows that

students learn better when teachers use
While most existing textbooks use only
multiple examples and explanations
SPSS or assume that students will pur-
of topics.2 The book explains topics in
chase an additional, costly, supplemen-
multiple ways, using both alternative
tal text for Stata, this book can be used
verbal explanations and visual repre-
with either Stata or SPSS. We include
sentations. As e­ xperienced instructors,
parallel sections for both SPSS and Stata
we know the topics that students fre-
at the end of every chapter. These sec-
quently stumble over and give special
tions are written to ensure that students
attention to ­explaining these areas in
understand that software is a tool to be
multiple ways. This ­approach also ac-
used to improve their own statistical
commodates differences in learning
reasoning, not a replacement for it.1 The
styles across students.
book walks students through how to use
Stata and SPSS to analyze interesting • Some chapter examples and practice
and relevant research questions. We not problems lead students through the
only provide students with the syntax process of addressing a problem by
or menu selections that they will use to acknowledging commonly held mis-
­
carry out these commands but also care- conceptions before presenting the
fully explain the statistical procedures proper solution. This approach is based
that the commands are telling Stata or on research that shows that simply
SPSS to perform. In this way, we encour- presenting students with information
age students to engage in statistical rea- that corrects their statistical miscon-
soning as they use software, not to think ceptions is not enough to change these
of Stata or SPSS as doing the statistical “strong and resilient” misconceptions.3
reasoning for them. For Stata, we teach Students need to be able to examine
students the basic underlying structure the differences in the reasoning under-
of Stata syntax. This approach facilitates lying incorrect and correct strategies
a more intuitive understanding of how of statistical work.
the program works, promoting greater • Each chapter provides numerous, care-
confidence and competence among stu- fully proofread, practice problems, with
dents. For SPSS, we teach students to additional practice problems on the
navigate the menus fluently. text’s website. Students learn best by
x Preface

doing, and the book provides numer- World Values Survey, and School Survey
ous opportunities for problem-solving. on Crime and Safety. Applied questions
• The book avoids the “busy” layout draw from sociology, political science,
used by some textbooks, which can criminology, and related fields. Several
distract students’ attention from the data sets, including all of those used in
content, particularly those with learn- the software sections, are available to stu-
ing differences. Drawing on the prin- dents and instructors (in both Stata and
ciples of universal design, our book SPSS formats) through the textbook’s
utilizes a clean, streamlined layout website. By using and making available
that will allow all students to focus on major social science data sets, we engage
the content without unnecessary dis- students in a problem-focused effort to
tractions.4 Boxes are clearly labeled make sense of real and engaging data
as either “In Depth,” which provide and enable them to ask and answer their
more detailed discussion or coverage own questions. Robust ancillary mate-
of more complex topics, or “Applica- rials, such as sample class exercises and
tion,” which provide additional exam- assignments, make it easy for instructors
ples. We avoid sidebars; terms defined to structure students’ engagement with
in the glossary are bolded and defined these data. The SPSS and Stata sections at
in the text, not in a sidebar. the end of each chapter allow students to
follow along.
• In keeping with principles of universal
Throughout the book, we discuss
design, we use both text and images to
­issues and questions that working ­social
explain material (with more figures
scientists routinely confront, such as how
and illustrations than in many books).
to use missing data, recode variables
­(including conceptual and statistical con-
3) Incorporates real-world siderations), combine variables into new
research and a real-world measures, think about outliers or atypi-
approach to the use of cal cases, choose appropriate measures,
statistics weigh considerations of causation, and
interpret results.
Each chapter begins with an engaging The focus in every chapter on relation-
real-world social science question and ships between variables or comparisons
examples from research. Chapters inte- across groups also reflects our commit-
grate examples and applications through- ment to showing students the power of
out. Chapters raise real-world questions statistics to answer important real-world
that can be addressed using a given tech- questions.
nique, explain the technique, provide an
example using the same question, and 4) Uses accessible, non-
show how related questions can also be condescending approach
addressed using Stata or SPSS. We use and tone
data sets that are widely used in the social
sciences, including the General Social Sur- We have written a text that is student-friendly
vey, American National Election Study, but not condescending. We have found that,
 Preface xi

in an effort to assuage students’ anxiety for topics that are most important to
about statistics, some texts strike a tone that understanding statistical social sciences.
communicates the expectation that students Our aim is to give students the tools
lack confidence in their abilities. We are they might use as working ­ researchers
conscious of the possibility that addressing in a variety of professions (from jobs in
students with the assumption that they hate small organizations where they might be
or are intimidated by statistics could acti- reading and writing up external data or
vate stereotype threat—the well-established doing program evaluation, to research
fact that, when students feel that they are or data analysis jobs) and prepare them
expected to perform poorly, their anxiety for ­higher-level statistics classes if they
over disproving that stereotype makes their choose to take them.
performance worse than it otherwise would
be. In selecting examples, we have remained
alert to the risk of stereotype threat, choos-
ing examples that do not activate (or even
For Instructors
challenge) gender or racial stereotypes Organization of the Text
about academic performance.
The textbook begins with descriptive sta-
tistics in chapters 2 through 5. One key dif-
5) Balances calculation
ference from many introductory statistics
and concepts
texts is that we introduce cross-tabulations
This book is aimed at courses that teach early, after frequency distributions and
statistics from the perspective of social before central tendency and variability.
science. Thus, the book frames the point In our experience as instructors, we have
of learning statistics as the analysis of noticed that students often begin think-
important social science questions. While ing about relationships between variables
we include some formulas and hand cal- at the very beginning of the class, asking
culation, we do so in order to help stu- questions about how groups differ in their
dents understand where the numbers frequency distributions of some variable,
come from. We believe students need to for example. Cross-tabulations follow nat-
be able to reason statistically, not simply urally at this point in the class and allow
use software to produce results, but we students to engage in real-world data anal-
recognize that most working research- ysis and investigate questions of causality
ers rely on statistical software, and we relatively early in the course. Chapters
strike a balance among these skills. At the 6 and 7 lay the foundation for inferential
same time, we spend more time on con- statistics, covering probability, the nor-
ceptual understanding, including more mal distribution, and sampling distribu-
in-depth consideration of topics relating tions. We cover elementary probability
to causality, and we include topics often in the context of the normal distribution,
omitted from other texts such as the use with a focus on the logic of probability
of confidence intervals as a follow-up to and probabilistic reasoning in order to lay
a hypothesis test. A lighter focus on hand the groundwork for an understanding of
calculation opens up time in the semester inferential statistics. Chapters 8 through
xii Preface

12 cover the basics of inferential statistics, don’t understand and ask questions or
including confidence intervals, hypothesis attend especially to that material in class.
testing, z- and t-tests, analysis of v­ ariance, After class, look back at the “Chapter
and chi-square. C ­hapter 13, unusual Summary” and work the practice prob-
among introductory statistics texts, focuses lems to consolidate your understanding.
on the logic of causality and control vari- If you found a chapter especially difficult
ables. Most existing texts address this topic on your first pass through, try to reread
more briefly (or not at all), but, in our expe- it after you have covered the material in
rience, it is an important topic that we all class. This may seem time-consuming, but
supplement in lecture. Finally, chapter 14 you not only will improve your under-
covers correlation and regression. While standing (and your grade) but will save
that chapter is pitched to an introductory time when it comes to studying for mid-
level, we pay more attention to multiple term and final exams or completing class
regression than do many texts, because it projects. As another student explained:
is so widely used, and we have a box on
logistic regression to introduce students The textbook format let me go through
to the range of models that working social the material from class at a slower
scientists employ. pace and I could turn to it for step-by-
step help in doing the assignments.
Instructors who wish to cover chap-
ters in a different order—for example,
Similarly, you should look through the
delaying cross-tabulations until later in
software sections before you conduct
the s­emester—can readily do so. Some
these exercises in class or lab. You do not
courses may not cover probability or
need to try to memorize the SPSS or Stata
analysis of variance, and those chapters
commands, but familiarize yourself with
can be omitted. For instructors who want
the procedures and the reasons for them.
to follow the order of this book in their
As with the rest of the chapter, hands-on
class, the ancillary materials make it easy
practice is key here, too.
to do so.
Remember, you are taking this class
because you want to understand the social
world. As another of our students wrote:
For Students
If you are not too familiar with work-
In a course evaluation, one of our students ing with numbers, that is just fine!
offered advice to future students: This course is designed as an analyt-
Use the textbook! it is incredibly specific ical course which means that you will
and helpful. be focusing more so on the meaning
behind numbers and statistics rather
We agree, and not just because we wrote than just focusing on finding “correct”
it! We suggest reading the assigned sec- answers.
tion of the chapter before class and work-
ing the example problems, pencil in hand, The companion website contains more
as you read. Make a note of anything you study materials and gives you access to
 Preface xiii

the data sets used for the software sections PowerPoint® Slides. The PowerPoint
in the textbook. You can use these data sets presentation provides lecture slides for
and your newfound skill in SPSS or Stata every chapter. In addition, multiple choice
to investigate questions you are interested review slides for classroom use are avail-
in, beyond those we cover. able for each chapter. The presentation is
Chapter 1 contains more tips on study- available to adopters for download on the
ing and learning as well as overcoming text’s catalog page at https://rowman.
math anxiety. com/ISBN/9781538109830.

For Students
Ancillaries
Companion Website. Accompanying the
This book is accompanied by a learning text is an open-access Companion Website
package, written by the authors, that is designed to reinforce key topics and con-
designed to enhance the experience of
­ cepts. For each chapter, students will have
both instructors and students. access to:
Publicly available data sets used in the
For Instructors Stata and SPSS sections
Instructor’s Manual with Solutions. Flashcards of key concepts
This valuable resource includes a sam-
Discussion questions
ple course syllabus and links to the pub-
licly available data sets used in the Stata Students can access the Companion
and SPSS sections of the text. For each Website from their computers or mobile
chapter, it includes lecture notes, sug- devices at https://textbooks.rowman.
gested classroom activities, discussion com/whittier.
questions, and the solutions to the prac-
tice problems. The Instructor’s Manual
with Solutions is available to adopt- Acknowledgements
ers for download on the text’s catalog
page at https://rowman.com/ISBN/ We are grateful to many manuscript
9781538109830. ­reviewers, both those who are identified
here and those who chose to remain anon-
Test Bank. The Test Bank includes both ymous, for their in-depth and thoughtful
short answer and multiple choice items comments as we developed this text. We
and is available in either Word or Respon- are fortunate to have benefited from their
dus format. In either format, the Test Bank knowledgeable and helpful input. We
can be fully edited and customized to best thank the following reviewers:
meet your needs. The Test Bank is avail-
able to adopters for download on the text’s Jacqueline Bergdahl, Department of
catalog page at https://rowman.com/ Sociology and Anthropology, Wright
ISBN/9781538109830. State University
xiv Preface

Christopher F. Biga, Department of Sociol­ Jeffrey Timberlake, Department of Sociol-

ogy, University of Alabama at Birmingham ogy, University of Cincinnati
Andrea R. Burch, Department of Sociol-
ogy, Alfred University We also thank our research assistants at
Sarah Croco, Department of Government, Smith College. Sarah Feldman helped
University of Maryland—College Park with generating clear figures and
Michael Danza, Department of Sociology, ­practice problems and gave feedback on
Copper Mountain College the text early on, Elaona Lemoto assisted
William Douglas, Department of Commu- with the final stages, and Sydney Pine
nication, University of Houston helped with the ancillary materials.
Ginny Garcia-Alexander, Department of Dan B ­ennet, from the Smith College
Sociology, Portland State University ­Information Technology Media Produc-
Donald Gooch, Department of Govern- tion department, helped us figure out
ment, Stephen F. Austin State University how to generate high-quality screen-
J. Patrick Henry, Department of Sociology, shots for the SPSS and Stata sections.
Eckerd College Leslie King offered helpful feedback
Dadao Hou, Department of Sociology, on early drafts of some chapters, and
Texas A&M University Bobby Innes-Gold read and c­ ommented
Kyungkook Kang, Department of Political on some chapters.
Science, University of Central Florida At Rowman & Littlefield, we are grate-
Omar Keshk, Department of International ful to Nancy Roberts and Megan Manzano
Relations, Ohio State University for their help as we developed and wrote
Pamela Leong, Department of Sociology, the book and Alden Perkins for her coor-
Salem State University dination of the production process. Aswin
Kyle C. Longest, Department of Sociology, Venkateshwaran, Ramanan Sundararajan,
Furman University and Deepika Velumani at Integra expertly
Jie Lu, Department of Government, Amer- shepherded the copy-editing and produc-
ican University—Kogod School of tion process. We are grateful to Bill ­Rising
Business of Stata's author support program for his
Catherine Moran, Department of Sociol- detailed comments on the accuracy of the
ogy, University of New Hampshire text and the Stata code. We also thank
Dawne Mouzon, Department of Pub- Sarah Perkins for mathematical proof-
lic Policy, Rutgers University—New reading. Amy Whitaker coordinated and
Brunswick—Livingston executed the sales and marketing efforts.
Dennis Patterson, Department of Political Finally, our greatest thanks go to
Science, Texas Tech University our students. Their questions, points of
Michael Restivo, Department of Sociology, confusion, and enthusiasm for learning
SUNY Geneseo helped us craft this text and inspire us in
Jeffrey Stone, Department of Sociology, our teaching. This book is dedicated to
California State University—Los Angeles them.
 Preface xv

Notes
1
S. Friel. 2007. “The Research Frontier: Where Tech- 3
J. Garfield and D. Ben-Zvi. 2007. “How Students Learn
nology Interacts with the Teaching and Learning of Statistics Revisited: A Current Review of Research on
Data Analysis.” In M. K. Heid and G. W. Blume (eds.), Teaching and Learning Statistics.” International Statisti-
­Research on Technology and the Teaching and Learn- cal Review 75: 372–396.
ing of ­Mathematics: Syntheses and Perspectives, 4
S. E. Burgstahler. 2015. Universal Design in Higher
Volume 2 (pp. 279–331). Greenwich: Information Age ­Education: From Principles to Practice. Cambridge, MA:
Publishing, Inc. Harvard Education Press.
2
J. R. Star. 2016. “Small Steps Forward: Improving Math- 5
S. J. Spencer, C. Logel, and P. G. Davies. 2016.
ematics Instruction Incrementally.” Phi Delta Kappan 97: ­“Stereotype Threat.” Annual Review of Psychology 67:
58–62. 415–437.
 About the Authors

Nancy Whittier is Sophia Smith Professor of interests focus on social inequality in

Sociology at Smith College. She has taught the American education system and on
statistics and research methods for twenty- first-generation college students. Her
five years and also teaches classes on work appears in various scholarly jour-
gender, sexuality, and social movements. nals, including The Sociological Quarterly,
She is the author of Frenemies: Feminists, Sociological Perspectives, The Teachers Col-
Conservatives, and Sexual Violence; The Pol- lege Record, The Journal of Negro Education
itics of Child Sexual Abuse: Emotions, Social and Sociology Compass.
Movements, and the State; Feminist Gen- Howard J. Gold is Professor of Govern-
erations and numerous articles on social ment at Smith College. He has taught statis-
movements, gender, and sexual violence. tics for thirty years and also teaches courses
She is co-editor (with David S. Meyer and on American elections, public opinion
Belinda Robnett) of Social Movements: Iden- and the media, and political behavior. His
tities, Culture, and the State and (with Verta research focuses on public opinion, par-
­
Taylor and Leila Rupp) Feminist Frontiers. tisanship, and voting behavior. He is the
Tina Wildhagen is Associate Professor co-author (with Donald Baumer) of Par-
of Sociology and Dean of the Sophomore ties, Polarization and Democracy in the United
Class at Smith College. She has taught sta- States and author of Hollow M ­ andates: Amer-
tistics and quantitative research methods ican Public Opinion and the Conservative Shift.
for more than a decade and also teaches His work has also ­appeared in American
courses on privilege and power in Amer- Politics Quarterly, P ­olitical Research Quar-
ican education and inequality in higher terly, Polity, Public Opinion Quarterly, and
education. Her research and teaching the Social Science Journal.

xvi
 Introduction
Chapter 1 Using Statistics to Study the
Social World

Why Study Statistics?

We all live in social situations. We observe our surroundings, are socialized into our
cultures, navigate social norms, make political judgments and decisions, and participate
in social institutions. Social sciences assume that what we can see as individuals is not
the whole story of our social world. Political and social institutions and processes exist
on a large scale that is difficult to see without systematic research. For most students
in a social science statistics class, this basic insight is part of what drove your interest
in this field. Maybe you want to understand political processes more thoroughly,
understand how inequalities are produced, or understand the operation of the criminal
justice system.
Many students reading this book are taking a statistics class because it is required
for their major. Some readers are passionate about statistics, but most of you are
­probably mainly interested in sociology, political science, criminology, anthropol-
ogy, education, or whatever your specific major is. Whatever your specific interest,
statistics can deepen your understanding and build your toolkit for communicating
social science insights to diverse audiences. You may think of statistics as a form
of math, but, in fact, statistics are more about thinking with numbers than they are
about ­computation. Although we do cover some simple computation in this book, our
emphasis is on understanding the logic and application of statistics and interpreting
their meaning for concrete topics in the social sciences. There is a good reason that
statistics are required for many social science majors: Statistical methods can tell us
a lot about the most interesting and important questions that social scientists study.
Statistics also can tell you a lot about the questions that motivated your own interest
in social sciences.

1
2 CHAPTER 1  Introduction

Statistics and quantitative data are important tools for understanding large-scale
social and political processes and institutions as well as how these structures shape
individual lives. They help us to comprehend trends and patterns that are too large for
us to see in other ways. Statistics do this in three main ways. First, they help us simply
to describe large-scale patterns. For example, what is the average income of residents in
a given state? Second, statistics help us determine the factors that shape these patterns.
This includes simple comparisons, such as how income varies by gender or by age.
It also includes more complicated mathematical models that can show how multiple
forces shape a given outcome. How do gender, age, race, and education interact to
shape income, for example? Third, statistics help us understand how and whether we
can generalize from data gathered from only some members of a group to draw con-
clusions about all members of that group. This aspect of statistics, called inferential sta-
tistics, uses ideas about probability to determine what kinds of generalizations we can
make. It is what allows researchers to draw meaningful conclusions from data about
relatively small numbers of people.
In this book, we emphasize what we can do with statistics, focusing on real social
science research and analyzing real data. Readers of this book will develop a strong
sense of how quantitative social scientists conduct their research and will get plenty
of practice in analyzing social science data. Not all of this book’s readers will pursue
careers as researchers, but many of you will have careers that include analyzing and
presenting information. And, all of you face the task of making sense of mountains
of information, including social science research findings, communicated by various
­media. This book provides essential tools for doing so.
Recently, some commentators have noted that we have entered a “post-fact,” or
“post-truth,” era. People mean different things by this, but one meaning is that the
sheer volume of people and agencies producing facts has multiplied to the point that
an expert can be found to attest to the accuracy of just about any claim.1 Just think of
the amount of information that you are exposed to on a weekly basis from various
social media platforms, websites, television, and other forms of media. How do you
make sense of it? How do you, for example, decide whether a claim you read online is
true or false? Statistics can powerfully influence opinion because they use numerical
data, which American culture assumes are objective and legitimate. But not all claims
are equally factual, even those that appear to be backed up by statistics. This book will
equip you with an understanding of how statistics work so that you can evaluate the
meaning and credibility of statistical data for yourself.
When quantitative research is carefully conceived and conducted, the results
of statistical analyses can yield valuable information not only about how the social
world works but also about how to effectively address social problems. For example,
in her 2007 book Marked, sociologist Devah Pager examined how having a criminal
record affects men’s employment prospects in blue collar jobs.2 She conducted a study
in which she hired paid research assistants, called testers, to submit fake résumés in
person to potential employers. The résumés were the same, with the only difference
 Research Questions and the Research Process 3

being that some of them listed a parole officer as a reference, indicating that the appli-
cant had spent time in prison, while the others did not have a parole officer as a ref-
erence. Did résumés without the parole officer reference fare better in the job search
process? Yes, they did. On average former offenders were 46% less likely to receive
a callback about the job, and the results of the analysis suggested that this difference
could be generalized to the overall population of men applying for blue collar jobs,
not just the testers in her study.3 Pager also varied the race of the testers applying
for jobs—half were white, and half were black. She found that having the mark of a
criminal record reduced the chances of a callback by 64% for black testers and 50%
for white testers, indicating that the damage of a criminal record is particularly acute
for black men.
By varying only whether the applicant had a criminal record, Pager controlled for
alternative explanations of the negative effect of a criminal record on the likelihood of
receiving a callback for a job. In other words, employers were reacting to the criminal
record itself, not factors that might be associated with a criminal record, such as erratic
work histories.
Pager’s study contains many of the key elements of statistical analysis that we dis-
cuss in this book: assessment of the relationship between two variables (criminal record
and employer callbacks); a careful investigation of whether one of the variables (crimi-
nal record) has a causal impact on the other (employer callback) and, if so, whether that
causal impact varies by another factor (race); and examination of the generalizability of
the results.

Research Questions and the Research Process

Most research starts with a research question, which asks how two or more variables
are related. A variable is any characteristic that has more than one category or value.
In the social sciences, we must be able to answer our research questions using data.
In many cases, these questions may be fairly general. For example, sociologist Kristen
Luker writes about beginning a research project with a question about why women were
having abortions despite the availability of birth control.4 A criminologist may begin
by wanting to know what kinds of rehabilitation programs reduce recidivism. In other
cases, a question may expand on prior research. For example, research has shown that
Internet skills vary by class, race, and age.5 Do these factors affect the way Internet users
blog or contribute to Wikipedia? Or, if we know that children tend to generally share their
parents’ political viewpoints, does this hold true in votes for candidates in primaries?
Some research begins with a hypothesis, a specific prediction about how variables
are related. For example, a researcher studying political protest might hypothesize
that larger protests produce more news media coverage. Other research begins at a
more exploratory level. For example, the same researcher might collect data on several
possible variables about protests, such as the issue they focus on, the organizations
4 CHAPTER 1  Introduction

that sponsor them, whether they include violence, as well as their size, in order to
explore what shapes media coverage. Statistical methods can support both approaches
to research.
This book focuses on quantitative analysis—that is, analyses that use statistical
techniques to analyze numerical data. Many social scientists also use qualitative meth-
ods. Qualitative methods start with data that are not numerical, such as the text of
documents, interviews, or field observations. Qualitative data analysis often focuses on
meanings, processes, and interactions; like quantitative research, it may test hypotheses
or be more exploratory in nature. Qualitative research analysis often uses specialized
software programs. Increasingly, many researchers use mixed methods, which employ
both qualitative and quantitative data and analysis. While this book focuses on quan-
titative analysis, combining both methods can yield a richer and more accurate under-
standing of social phenomena than either approach alone.

Pinning Things Down: Variables and

Measurement
Answering any kind of social science research question entails gathering data.
Gathering useful data requires formulating the research question as precisely as
possible. Quantitative researchers first identify and define the question’s key concepts.
Concepts are the abstract factors or ideas, not always directly observable, that the
researcher wants to study. Many concepts have multiple dimensions. For example,
a researcher interested in how people’s social class affects their sense of well-being
must define what social class and well-being mean before examining whether they are
related. Using existing research and theory, the researcher might define a social class
as a segment of the population with similar levels of financial, social, and cultural
resources. She might decide that well-being is one’s sense of overall health, satisfaction,
and comfort in life. Stating clear definitions of concepts ensures that the researcher
and her audience understand what is meant by those concepts in the particular project
at hand.
Once researchers specify, or define, their concepts, they must decide how to mea-
sure these concepts. Deciding how to measure a concept is also referred to as oper-
ationalizing a concept, or operationalization. Operationalization, the process of
transforming concepts into variables, determines how the researcher will observe con-
cepts using empirical data. Staying with the example of social class and well-being,
how would we place people into different class categories? Using the conceptual defi-
nition described above, the researcher might decide to use people’s income, wealth,
highest level of education, and occupation to measure their social class. All of these
are empirical indicators of financial, social, and cultural resources. To operationalize
well-being, the researcher might decide to measure an array of behaviors (e.g., number
of times per week that one exercises) and attitudes (e.g., overall sense of satisfaction
with one’s life).
 Pinning Things Down: Variables and Measurement 5

Concept

Theorecal
Well-being
Definion:
Sense of overall, health, sasfacon, and
comfort in life

Dimensions

Physical Mental Spiritual

Well-being Well-being Well-being

Variables

Empirical
Frequency Number Rang of Frequency Sense of Sense of
Stress View of
of sick healthy of meaning purpose
of exercise level self
days eang habits depression in life in life

Figure 1.1 Conceptualization and Measurement of a Key Concept

This process of conceptualization and measurement, or operationalization, is how

concepts become variables in quantitative research. Figure 1.1 offers a visual represen-
tation of this process for the concept of well-being.
Figure 1.1 shows how researchers move from defining a key concept to specifying
how that concept will be empirically measured and transformed into variables. Start-
ing from the top of the figure and moving down, we can see how the process works.
First, the concept of well-being is defined. Next, the dimensions of the concept (phys-
ical, mental, and spiritual) are specified. Finally, the researcher establishes empirical
measures for each dimension (e.g., frequency of exercise as an indicator of physical
well-being). These empirical measures are called variables. The arrow on the right side
of Figure 1.1 shows how moving from defining concepts to measuring them shifts from
the theoretical or abstract to the empirical realm, where variables can be measured.
Studying relationships among variables is the central focus of quantitative social sci-
ence research.
A variable, remember, is any single factor that has more than one category or value.
For example, gender is a variable with multiple categories (e.g., man, woman, gender
non-binary, etc.). For some variables, such as body mass index, there is an established
standard for determining the value of the variable for different individuals (e.g., body
mass index is equal to weight divided by height squared). For variables that lack a clear
measurement standard, such as sense of purpose in life, researchers must establish their
categories and methods of measurement, usually guided by existing research.
In quantitative social science research, the survey item is among the most com-
mon tools used to operationalize concepts. Survey items have either closed- or open-
ended response options. Closed-ended survey items provide survey respondents with
6 CHAPTER 1  Introduction

predefined response categories. The number of categories can range from as little as
two (e.g., yes or no) to very many (e.g., a feeling thermometer that asks respondents to
rate their feeling about something on a scale from 0 to 100 degrees). With closed-ended
survey items, the researcher decides on the measurement of the concept before admin-
istering the survey. Open-ended survey items do not provide response categories. For
example, an item might ask respondents to name the issue that is most important to
them in casting a vote for a candidate. Open-ended items give respondents more lee-
way in answering questions. Once the researcher has all responses to an open-ended
item, the researcher often devises response categories informed by the responses them-
selves and then assigns respondents to those categories based on their responses. For
example, with an open-ended question about which issues are important to voters, the
researcher might combine various responses having to do with jobs or the economy
into one category.

Units of Analysis
In the social sciences, researchers are interested in studying the characteristics of
individuals but also the characteristics of groups. Who or what is being studied is
the unit of analysis. A study of people’s voting patterns and political party affiliation
focuses on understanding individuals. But a study of counties that voted for a
Republican vs. Democratic candidate focuses on understanding characteristics of a
group, in this case counties. In the first case, researchers might seek to understand
what explains people’s votes; in the second case, researchers might seek to understand
what characteristics are associated with Republican vs. Democratic counties. When
the unit of measurement is the group, we sometimes also refer to it as aggregate level.
Aggregate-level units that researchers might be interested in include geographic
areas, organizations, religious congregations, families, sports teams, musical groups,
or businesses. One must be careful about making inferences across different levels
of measurement. A county may be Republican, but at the individual level, there are
both Democratic and Republican residents of that county. Drawing conclusions about
individuals based on the groups to which they belong is an error in logic known as the
ecological fallacy.

Measurement Error: Validity and Reliability

Most variables in the social sciences include some amount of error, which means that the
values recorded for a variable are to some degree inaccurate. Even many variables that
one might suspect would be simple to measure accurately, such as income, contain error.
How much money did you receive as income in the last calendar year? Some readers
may know the exact figure. But others would have to offer an estimate, maybe because
they cannot recall or because they worked multiple jobs and have trouble keeping
 Measurement Error: Validity and Reliability 7

track of the income produced by each of them. Still others might purposefully report a
number that is higher or lower than their actual income. Researchers never know for
sure how much error their variables contain, but we can evaluate and minimize error in
measurement by assessing the validity and reliability of our variables.
Validity indicates the extent to which variables actually measure what they claim
to measure. When measures have a high degree of validity, this means that there is a
strong connection between the measurement of a concept and its conceptual definition.
In other words, valid measures are accurate indicators of the underlying concept. Imag-
ine a researcher who claims that he has found that happiness declines as people exercise
more. How is that researcher measuring happiness? It turns out that he has operational-
ized happiness through responses to two survey questions: “How much energy do you
feel you have?” and “How much do you look forward to participating in family activ-
ities?” Do you think answers to these questions are good measures of happiness? They
may get at elements of happiness—happier people may have more energy or look for-
ward to participating in activities more. But they are not direct measures of happiness,
and we could argue that they measure other things instead (such as how busy people
are or their health). What about a researcher who wants to measure the prevalence of
food insecurity, in which people do not have consistent access to sufficient food? This
could be operationalized in a survey question such as, “How often do you have insuf-
ficient food for yourself and your family” or “How often do you go hungry because
of inability to get sufficient food for yourself or your family?” It could also be oper-
ationalized by the number and size of food pantries per capita or food stamp usage.
Which way of operationalizing food insecurity is more accurate? The survey questions
have greater validity because both food pantries and food stamp usage are affected by
forces other than food insecurity (urban areas may have more food pantries per capita
than rural areas, not all people eligible for food stamps use them, and so forth). If the
researcher were interested instead in social services to reduce food insecurity, looking
at food pantries and food stamps would be a valid measure.
Even if a measure is valid, it may not yield consistent answers. This is the ques-
tion of reliability. Reliable measures are those whose values are unaffected by the
measurement process or the measurement instrument itself (e.g., the survey). Imagine
asking the same group of college students to rate how often in a typical week they
spend time with friends, with the following response choices: “often,” “a few times,”
“occasionally,” and “rarely.” These response choices are likely to lead to problems with
reliability, because they are not precise. A student who gets together with friends about
five times a week might choose “often” or “a few times,” and if you asked her the
question again a week later she might choose the other option, even if her underlying
estimate of how often she spent time with friends was unchanged. In other words, the
same students may give quite different, or inconsistent, responses if asked the ques-
tion repeatedly.
Measures also tend not to be reliable when they ask questions that respondents may
not have detailed understanding or information about. For example, a survey might ask
how many minutes a week people spend doing housework, or a survey of Americans
8 CHAPTER 1  Introduction

might ask their opinion of Britain’s foreign policy toward Chile. Because people do not
generally precisely track minutes spent doing housework, and Americans are unlikely
to know much about British foreign policy, their responses to such questions will be
inconsistent.
Reliability and validity do not necessarily coincide. For example, the time shown on
a clock may be reliable without being valid. Some households may deliberately set their
clocks to be a few minutes fast, ensuring that when the alarm goes off at what the clock
says is 6:45, the actual time is 6:30. In this case, the clock consistently—that is, reliably—
tells time, but that time is always wrong (or invalid).
Figure 1.2 uses a feeling thermometer, which asks people to rate their feeling about
something on a scale from 0 to 100 degrees, to illustrate how reliability and validity
can coincide or not. Imagine these are an individual’s responses to the same feeling
thermometer item asked five separate times. The true value of the person’s feeling is
42 degrees. In scenario A, the responses have a high degree of validity, or accuracy,
because they are all near 42 degrees, the accurate value. There is also a high degree of
reliability because the responses are consistent. Researchers strive to attain scenario A
by obtaining accurate and consistent measures. In scenario B, there is still a high degree
of consistency, and therefore reliability, in the measure. However, validity is low because
the responses are far from the true value of 42 degrees. Finally, scenario C reflects both
low reliability and low validity. The responses are inconsistent, or scattered across the

A. High Reliability, High Validity B. High Reliability, Low Validity C. Low Reliability, Low Validity

100 100 100

50 50 50
True value: 42 True value: 42 True value: 42

0 0 0

Figure 1.2 Visualizing Reliability and Validity

 Another Random Document on
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OLD INNS

OF OLD ENGLAND, VOLUME 1 (OF 2) ***
THE OLD INNS OF OLD ENGLAND

WORKS BY THE SAME

AUTHOR
The Portsmouth Road, and its
Tributaries: To-day and in Days
of Old.
The Dover Road: Annals of an
Ancient Turnpike.
The Bath Road: History, Fashion,
and Frivolity on an Old
Highway.
The Exeter Road: The Story of the
West of England Highway.
The Great North Road: The Old
Mail Road to Scotland. Two
Vols.
The Norwich Road: An East
Anglian Highway.
The Holyhead Road: The Mail-
Coach Road to Dublin. Two
 Vols.
The Cambridge, Ely, and King’s
Lynn Road: The Great Fenland
Highway.
The Newmarket, Bury,
Thetford, and Cromer Road:
Sport and History on an East
Anglian Turnpike.
The Oxford, Gloucester, and
Milford Haven Road: The
Ready Way to South Wales.
Two Vols.
The Brighton Road: Speed, Sport,
and History on the Classic
Highway.
The Hastings Road and the
“Happy Springs of Tunbridge.”
Cycle Rides Round London.
A Practical Handbook of
Drawing for Modern
Methods of Reproduction.
Stage-Coach and Mail in Days
of Yore. Two Vols. The
Ingoldsby Country: Literary
Landmarks of “The Ingoldsby
Legends.”
The Hardy Country: Literary
Landmarks of the Wessex
Novels.
The Dorset Coast.
The South Devon Coast. [In the
Press.

Larger Image

THE ROADSIDE INN.

THE OLD INNS

OF OLD ENGLAND
 A PICTURESQUE ACCOUNT OF THE
ANCIENT AND STORIED HOSTELRIES
OF OUR OWN COUNTRY

VOL. I
By CHARLES G. HARPER

Illustrated chiefly by the Author, and from Prints

and Photographs

London:
CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1906
All rights reserved
 PRINTED AND BOUND BY
HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.,
LONDON AND AYLESBURY.

It is somewhat singular that no book has hitherto been published

dealing either largely or exclusively with Old Inns and their story. I
suppose that is because there are so many difficulties in the way of
one who would write an account of them. The chief of these is that
of arrangement and classification; the next is that of selection; the
last that of coming to a conclusion. I would ask those who read
these pages, and have perhaps some favourite inn they do not find
mentioned or illustrated here, to remember that the merely
picturesque inns that have no story, or anything beyond their own
picturesqueness to render them remarkable, are—let us be thankful
for it!—still with us in great numbers, and that to have illustrated or
mentioned even a tithe of them would have been impossible. I can
think of no literary and artistic work more delightful than the quest
of queer old rustic inns, but two stout volumes will probably be
found to contain as much on the subject as most people wish to
know—and it is always open to anyone who does not find his own
especial favourite here to condemn the author for his ignorance, or,
worse, for his perverted taste.
As for methods, those are of the simplest. You start by knowing, ten
years beforehand, what you intend to produce; and incidentally, in
the course of a busy literary life, collect, note, sketch, and make
extracts from Heaven only knows how many musty literary dustbins
and sloughs of despond. Then, having reached the psychological
moment when you must come to grips with the work, you sort that
accumulation, and, mapping out England into tours, with inns strung
like beads upon your itinerary, bring the book, after some five
thousand miles of travel, at last into being.
It should be added that very many inns are incidentally illustrated or
referred to in the series of books on great roads by the present
writer; but as those works dealing with Roads, another treating of
the History of Coaching, and the present volumes are all part of one
comprehensive plan dealing with the History of Travel in general, the
allusions to inns in the various road-books have but rarely been
repeated; while it will be found that if, in order to secure a
representative number of inns, it has been, in some cases, found
unavoidable to retrace old footsteps, new illustrations and new
matter have, as a rule, been brought to bear.
The Old Inns of London have not been touched upon very largely,
for most of them are, unhappily, gone. Only the few existing ones
have been treated, and then merely in association with others in the
country. To write an account of the Old Inns of London would now
be to discourse, in the manner of an antiquary, on things that have
ceased to be.
CHARLES G. HARPER.
Petersham,
Surrey.
September, 1906.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

I. Introductory 1
II. The Ancient History of Inns 13
III. General History of Inns 28
IV. The Eighteenth Century 42
V. Latter Days 57
VI. Pilgrims’ Inns and Monastic Hostels 76
VII. Pilgrims’ Inns and Monastic Hostels (continued) 117
VIII. Historic Inns 144
IX. Inns of Old Romance 188
X. Pickwickian Inns 210
XI. Dickensian Inns 265
XII. Highwaymen’s Inns 303
 LIST of
ILLUSTRATIONS

SEPARATE PLATES
The Roadside Inn Frontispiece
FACING PAGE

The Last of the Old Galleried Inns of London: The 32

“George,” Southwark. (Photo by T. W. Tyrrell)
The Kitchen of a Country Inn, 1797: showing the Turnspit 48
Dog. (From the engraving after Rowlandson)
Westgate, Canterbury, and the “Falstaff” Inn 86
Charing Cross, about 1829, showing the “Golden Cross” 218
Inn. (From the engraving after T. Hosmer Shepherd)
The “Golden Cross,” Successor of the Pickwickian Inn, as 220
Rebuilt 1828
Rochester in Pickwickian Days, showing the Old Bridge and 224
“Wright’s”
The “Belle Sauvage.” (From a drawing by T. Hosmer 228
Shepherd)
The Dickens Room, “Leather Bottle,” Cobham 230
The “Bull Inn,” Whitechapel. (From the water-colour 246
drawing by P. Palfrey)
The “White Hart,” Bath 252
The “Bush,” Bristol 256
The “Coach and Horses,” Isleworth 276
The “Lion,” Shrewsbury, showing the Annexe adjoining, 298
where Dickens stayed

The “Green Man,” Hatton 318

The Highwayman’s Hiding-hole 318

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
Vignette, The Old-time Innkeeper Title-page
PAGE

Preface v
List of Illustrations xi
The Old Inns of Old England, The “Black Bear,” 1
Sandbach
The Oldest Inhabited House in England: The “Fighting 5
Cocks,” St. Albans
The “Dick Whittington,” Cloth Fair 6
“Ye Olde Rover’s Return,” Manchester 7
The Oldest Licensed House in Great Britain: The 11
“Seven Stars,” Manchester
An Ale-stake. (From the Louterell Psalter) 15
Elynor Rummyng 21
The “Running Horse,” Leatherhead 25
Facsimile of an Account rendered to John Palmer in 54
1787
The Last Days of the “Swan with Two Necks” 55
Crypt at the “George,” Rochester 83
Sign of the “Falstaff,” Canterbury 88
House formerly a Pilgrims’ Hostel, Compton 91
The “Star,” Alfriston 93
Carving at the “Star,” Alfriston 95
The “Green Dragon,” Wymondham 96
The Pilgrims’ Hostel, Battle 97
The “New Inn,” Gloucester 99
Courtyard, “New Inn,” Gloucester 103
The “George,” Glastonbury 109
High Street, Glastonbury, in the Eighteenth Century 115
(From the etching by Rowlandson)
The “George,” St. Albans 119
The “Angel,” Grantham 121
The “George,” Norton St. Philip 125
Yard of the “George,” Norton St. Philip 131
Yard of the “George,” Winchcombe 135
The “Lord Crewe Arms,” Blanchland 139
The “Old King’s Head,” Aylesbury 141
The “Reindeer,” Banbury 145
Yard of the “Reindeer,” Banbury 149
The Globe Room, “Reindeer” Inn, Banbury 153
The “Music House,” Norwich 157
The “Dolphin,” Potter Heigham 159
The “Nag’s Head,” Thame 161
Yard of the “Greyhound,” Thame 163
The “Crown and Treaty,” Uxbridge 165
The “Treaty Room,” “Crown and Treaty,” Uxbridge 167
The “Three Crowns,” Chagford 169
The “Red Lion,” Hillingdon 170
Yard of the “Saracen’s Head,” Southwell 173
King Charles’ Bedroom, “Saracen’s Head,” Southwell 177
The “Cock and Pymat” 181
Porch of the “Red Lion,” High Wycombe 184
The “White Hart,” Somerton 186
The “Ostrich,” Colnbrook 191
Yard of the “Ostrich,” Colnbrook 199
“Piff’s Elm” 203
The “Golden Cross,” in Pickwickian Days 215
The “Bull,” Rochester 223
The “Swan,” Town Malling: Identified with the “Blue 226
Lion,” Muggleton
Sign of the “Bull and Mouth” 227
The “Leather Bottle,” Cobham 229
The “Waggon and Horses,” Beckhampton 233
“Shepherd’s Shore” 235
“Beckhampton Inn” 239
The “Angel,” Bury St. Edmunds 241
The “George the Fourth Tavern,” Clare Market 243
Doorway of the “Great White Horse,” Ipswich 247
The “Great White Horse,” Ipswich 250
Sign of the “White Hart,” Bath 255
“The Bell,” Berkeley Heath 257
The “Hop-pole,” Tewkesbury 259
The “Pomfret Arms,” Towcester: formerly the 260
“Saracen’s Head”
The Yard of the “Pomfret Arms” 261
“Osborne’s Hotel, Adelphi” 263
The “White Horse,” Eaton Socon 267
The “George,” Greta Bridge 269
The “Coach and Horses,” near Petersfield 271
“Bottom” Inn 273
The “King’s Head,” Chigwell, the “Maypole” of Barnaby 279
Rudge
The “Green Dragon,” Alderbury 283
The “George,” Amesbury 285
Interior of the “Green Dragon,” Alderbury 287
Sign of the “Black Bull,” Holborn 289
The “Crispin and Crispianus,” Strood 293
The “Ship and Lobster” 297
“Jack Straw’s Castle” 301
The “Three Houses Inn,” Sandal 308
The “Crown” Inn, Hempstead 309
“Turpin’s Cave,” near Chingford 311
The “Green Dragon,” Welton 312
The “Three Magpies,” Sipson Green 313
The “Old Magpies” 315
The “Green Man,” Putney 321
The “Spaniards,” Hampstead Heath 323
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
The Old Inns of Old England!—how alluring and how inexhaustible a
theme! When you set out to reckon up the number of those old inns
that demand a mention, how vast a subject it is! For although the
Vandal—identified here with the brewer and the ground-landlord—
has been busy in London and the great centres of population,
destroying many of those famous old hostelries our grandfathers
knew and appreciated, and building in their stead “hotels” of the
most grandiose and palatial kind, there are happily still remaining to
us a large number of the genuine old cosy haunts where the
traveller, stained with the marks of travel, may enter and take his
ease without being ashamed of his travel-stains or put out of
countenance by the modish visitors of this complicated age, who
dress usually as if going to a ball, and whose patronage has rung the
death-knell of many an inn once quaint and curious, but now merely
“replete with every modern convenience.”
I thank Heaven—and it is no small matter, for surely one may be
thankful for a good inn—that there yet remain many old inns in this
Old England of ours, and that it is not yet quite (although nearly) a
misdemeanour for the wayfarer to drink a tankard of ale and eat a
modest lunch of bread and cheese in a stone-flagged, sanded rustic
parlour; or even, having come at the close of day to his halting-
place, to indulge in the mild dissipation and local gossip in the bar of
an old-time hostelry.
This is one of the last surviving joys of travel in these strange times
when you journey from great towns for sake of change and find at
every resort that the town has come down before you, in the shape
of an hotel more or less palatial, wherein you are expected to dine
largely off polished marble surroundings and Turkey carpets, and
where every trace of local colour is effaced. A barrier is raised there
between yourself and the place. You are in it, but not of it or among
it; but something alien, like the German or Swiss waiters themselves,
the manager, and the very directors and shareholders of the big
concern.
At the old-fashioned inn, on the other hand, the whole establishment
is eloquent of the place, and while you certainly get less show and
glitter, you do, at any rate, find real comfort, and early realise that
you have found that change for which you have come.
But, as far as mere name goes, most inns are “hotels” nowadays. It
is as though innkeepers were labouring under the illusion that “inn”
connotes something inferior, and “hotel” a superior order of things.
Even along the roads, in rustic situations, the mere word “inn”—an
ancient and entirely honourable title—is become little used or
understood, and, generally speaking, if you ask a rustic for the next
“inn” he stares vacantly before his mind grasps the fact that you
mean what he calls a “pub,” or, in some districts oftener still, a
“house.” Just a “house.” Some employment for the speculative mind
is offered by the fact that in rural England an inn is “a house” and
the workhouse “the House.” Both bulk largely in the bucolic scheme
of existence, and, as a temperance lecturer might point out,
constant attendance at the one leads inevitably to the other. At all
events, both are great institutions, and prominent among the
landmarks of Old England.
Which is the oldest, and which the most picturesque, inn this
England of ours can show? That is a double-barrelled question
whose first part no man can answer, and the reply to whose second
half depends so entirely upon individual likings and preferences that
one naturally hesitates before being drawn into the contention that
would surely arise on any particular one being singled out for that
supreme honour. Equally with the morning newspapers—and the
evening—each claiming the “largest circulation,” and, like the several
Banbury Cake shops, each the “original,” there are several “oldest
licensed” inns, and very many arrogating the reputation of the “most
picturesque.”
The “Fighting Cocks” inn at St. Albans, down by the river Ver, below
the Abbey, claims to be—not the oldest inn—but the oldest inhabited
house, in the kingdom: a pretension that does not appear to be
based on anything more than sheer impudence; unless, indeed, we
take the claim to be a joke, to which an inscription,

The Old Round House,

Rebuilt after the Flood,

formerly gave the clue. But that has disappeared. The Flood, in this
case, seeing that the building lies low, by the river Ver, does not
necessarily mean the Deluge.
This curious little octagonal building is, however, of a very great age,
for it was once, as “St. Germain’s Gate,” the water-gate of the
monastery. The more ancient embattled upper part disappeared six
hundred years ago, and the present brick-and-timber storey takes its
place.
 THE OLDEST INHABITED HOUSE IN ENGLAND: THE “FIGHTING
COCKS,” ST. ALBANS.

The City of London’s oldest licensed inn is, by its own claiming, the
“Dick Whittington,” in Cloth Fair, Smithfield, but it only claims to have
been licensed in the fifteenth century, when it might reasonably—
without much fear of contradiction—have made it a century earlier.
This is an unusual modesty, fully deserving mention. It is only an
“inn” by courtesy, for, however interesting and picturesque the
grimy, tottering old lath-and-plaster house may be to the stranger,
imagination does not picture any one staying either in the house or
in Cloth Fair itself while other houses and other neighbourhoods
remain to choose from; and, indeed, the “Dick Whittington” does not
pretend to be anything else than a public-house. The quaint little
figure at the angle, in the gloom of the overhanging upper storey, is
one of the queer, unconventional imaginings of our remote
forefathers, and will repay examination.

THE “DICK WHITTINGTON,” CLOTH FAIR.

Our next claimant in the way of antiquity is the “Seven Stars” inn at
Manchester, a place little dreamt of, in such a connection, by most
people; for, although Manchester is an ancient city, it is so
modernised in general appearance that it is a place wherein the
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