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Building
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BUILDING
BETTER
GRAMMAR
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 BUILDING
Beebeik
GRAMMAR

Gina Baaklini Hogan

Citrus Community College

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Building Better Grammar © 2013 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

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Table of Contents
Preface viii

UNIT ONE: Subjects, Verbs, and Subject-Verb Agreement

CHAPTER ONE: The First Building Block

Subjects 2
Nouns 3
Singular and Plural Nouns 4
Types of Nouns 4
Pronouns 8
Subject Pronouns 8
Indefinite Pronouns 10
Identifying the Subject 11
Simple and Compound Subjects 12
Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 14
Subjects in Imperative Sentences 15
Subjects as Distinct from Prepositional Phrases 16
Subjects in Declarative Sentences with Here and There 18
Subjects in Interrogative Sentences 19
Sentences with Gerunds and Infinitives as Subjects 20
Infinitives 20
Chapter One Skills Review: Subjects 25

CHAPTER TWO: The Second Building Block

Verbs 26
Action and Being Verbs 26
Simple and Compound Verbs 28
Verb Tenses 29
The Simple Tense 30
Simple Present 30
Simple Past 32
Simple Future 33
The Perfect Tense 34
Present Perfect 35
Paste Perfect ¥35
Future Perfect 36
The Progressive Tense 37
Present Progressive 38
Past Progressive 38
Future Progressive 38
vi CONTENTS

The Perfect Progressive Tense 40

Present Perfect Progressive 40
Past Perfect Progressive 40
Future Perfect Progressive 40
Regular and Irregular Verbs 44
Regular Verbs 45
Tricky Situations with Regular Verbs 45
Irregular Verbs 47
Tricky Situations with Irregular Verbs 50
Verb Tense Consistency 53
Active and Passive Voice 56
Chapter Two Skills Review: Verbs 59

CHAPTER THREE: The Third Building Block

Subject-Verb Agreement 61
Subject-Verb Agreement 61
Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement 62
Singular Subject Rules 63
Plural Subject Rules 65
Subject Agreement and Regular and Irregular Verbs 66
Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 69
Sentences That Start with Prepositional Phrases 69
Sentence Starting with Here, There, What, Where, and Why 70
Sentences with Either/or, Neither/nor, and Or 72
Sentences with Interrupters 73
Chapter Three Skills Review: Subject-Verb Agreement 78

UNIT TWO: Pronouns

CHAPTER FOUR: The Fourth Building Block

Pronouns 82
Pronoun Usage 82
Subjective Case 83
Objective Case 86
Possessive Case 88
Other Pronouns 89
Who vs. Whom 89
Demonstrative Pronouns 90
Relative Pronouns 92
Interrogative Pronouns 93
Reflexive Pronouns 94
 CONTENTS vii

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 95
Pronoun Agreement with Person 96
Pronoun Agreement with Number 97
Tricky Situations with Pronouns and Numbers 98
Pronoun Agreement with Gender 101
Chapter Four Skills Review: Pronouns 106

UNIT THREE: Clauses and Kinds of Sentences

CHAPTER FIVE: The Fifth Building Block

Clauses 110
Clauses 110
Types of Clauses 112
Independent Clause: A Clause That Makes Sense on Its Own 112
Dependent Clause: A Clause That Requires More Information to Make
Complete Sense 113
Chapter Five Skills Review: Clauses 119

CHAPTER SIX: The Sixth Building Block

Kinds of Sentences 120
Simple Sentences 120
Sentence Variety 122
Joining Independent Clauses: Compound Sentences 123
Coordinating Conjunctions 123
Adverbial Conjunctions 126
Semicolons 129
Joining an Independent Clause with a Dependent Clause: Complex
Sentences— 133
Subordinating Conjunctions 133
Joining Multiple Independent and Dependent Clauses: Compound-Complex
Sentences 139
Chapter Six Skills Review 1: Kinds of Sentences 145
Chapter Six Skills Review 2: Sentence Combining 146

CHAPTER SEVEN: The Seventh Building Block

Avoiding Common Sentence Errors 150
Fragments 150
Run-ons_ 155
Comma Splices 157
Chapter Seven Skills Review: Common Sentence Errors 162
viii CONTENTS

UNIT FOUR: Descriptors, Modifiers, Parallelism

CHAPTER EIGHT: The Eighth Building Block

Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers 166
Descriptive Modifiers 166
Adjectives 167
Adverbs 169
Common Mistakes with Adjectives and Adverbs 172
Comparative and Superlative Forms 173
Regular Adjectives and Adverbs 173
Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs 175
Four More Tricky Adjectives and Adverbs 176
Chapter Eight Skills Review: Adjectives and Adverbs 180

CHAPTER NINE: The Ninth Building Block

Using Modifiers Correctly 182
Misplaced Modifiers 182
Dangling Modifiers 186
Chapter Nine Skills Review: Dangling or Misplaced Modifiers 191

CHAPTER TEN: The Tenth Building Block

Parallelism 192
Parallelism 192
Parallelism with Pairs 193
Parallelism with Lists 193
Parallelism in Comparisons (Zhan or As) 196
Parallelism with Paired Expressions 198
Chapter Ten Skills Review: Parallelism 202

UNIT FIVE: Punctuation

CHAPTER ELEVEN: The Eleventh Building Block

Comma Use 206
Commas Used to Separate 206
Commas and Conjunctions 206
Commas and Items ina List 209
Commas and Introductory Expressions 210
Commas to Enclose 211
Commas and Interrupters 211
Commas and Direct Address 213
Commas with Dates and Addresses 214
Chapter Eleven Skills Review: Commas 218
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER TWELVE: The Twelfth Building Block

Other Types of Punctuation 220
Apostrophe’ 220
Semicolon; 223
Colon: 224
Dash —and Parenthesis () 226
Hyphen- 229
Quotation Marks “” 230
Chapter Twelve Skills Review: Punctuation 236

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Parts of Speech 239

Nouns 239
Pronouns 239
Verbs 240
Adjectives 241
Adverbs 241
Prepositions 242
Conjunctions 242
Interjections 244
AppendixA Skills Review: Identifying Parts of Speech 244

APPENDIX B: Spelling 246

Create Spelling Lists 247
Learn the ei/ie rule 247
Know Commonly Misspelled Words 247
Know Commonly Confused Words 249
Know Word Endings 252
Appendix B Skills Review: Spelling 253

APPENDIX C: English as a Second Language Concerns 254

Nouns 254
mrticles 255
Verbs 256
Prepositions 257
Appendix C Skills Review: ESL Concerns 258

* Index 260
 Preface
BUILDING BLOCKS OF WRITING
Sentence construction is an essential skill for college writing. It helps create con-
cise and clear paragraphs, essays, research papers, or reports. Teaching grammar in
blocks as part of a building activity provides students with an easy-to-remember
image that helps them understand and apply good sentence construction. This
building process helps students to see how each grammar concept or building
block sets the foundation for the next concept or building block; as a result,
their confidence in writing grows the more they learn and practice. In my classes,
I teach that the first foundational block is writing correct sentences, the second
is writing effective paragraphs, and finally, writing effective essays. Just as real
concrete foundations require specific raw materials (sand, water, cement, and
gravel) that bind and mold together into a design, each writing building block
(grammar, paragraphs, and essays) requires specific ingredients. For example, in
grammar, to build a correct sentence you need nouns, verbs, prepositions, con-
junctions, and so on.
As the first book of the Building Better series, Building Better Grammar builds
students’ knowledge of effective sentence construction to get them to the next
step of putting sentences together successfully for coherent paragraphs, covered
in Building Better Paragraphs, as well as preparing students’ foundational skills for
essay writing, covered in Building Better Essays.
The Building Better series developed out of a need to help more students succeed
in learning to write effectively. Teaching writing as a building activity where con-
cepts build on each other has worked well in my developmental writing courses.
This technique of “building writing” makes the writing process a manageable one
because it allows students to practice each concept or block separately, to see how
it shapes subsequent blocks, and to increase their understanding and confidence
along the way. In addition, this series also developed out of necessity—a need
for cost-effective books that offer simple, accurate, student-friendly explanations.
Many writing books present grammar content in too complex a manner without
enough opportunities for practice, or present so many topics that can simply
overwhelm the student. The Building Better series evolved with developmental
students in mind; however, the textbooks are designed to be flexible enough that
all college students or writing instructors can use them as quick reference guides.
Any student who needs help writing concise and grammatically correct sentences
can benefit from the pedagogy of Building Better Grammar. Instructors looking
for a rich focus on sentence construction, easy-to-remember, simple,
and brief
 PRET AGE xi

explanations, and a variety of practice exercises will find it in Building Better

Grammar.

Building Better Grammar is simple, accessible, and clear. It’s a great place to begin—
i<¢ . . . « .

more than a reference—and not just a workbook.”

—Elizabeth Sarcone, Delta State University

“I see a trend after 18 years of college teaching. High school graduates know very
little about grammar as they exit H.S., and I find I have to teach what has been left
untaught. ‘This text provides explanations of grammar that I really don’t have time to
teach during my lectures. I would use Building Better Grammar as assigned reading
on my syllabus. It’s that good. I trust the explanation given herein.”
—Barbara Davis, Yavapai College

HALLMARKS OF BUILDING BETTER GRAMMAR

The Building Block Organization
Why organize grammar instruction into this unique building block manner?
Students struggle to figure out how to construct grammatically sound sentences.
Yet, once Gina Hogan played with when and how she presented the grammar
concepts in her classes, she found that students who learn the basic elements of
a sentence (like subjects, verbs, and prepositions) first gain great confidence and
proficiency in the elements a complete sentence should have. Then, when they
transition to building more challenging sentences (like compound, complex, and
compound-complex), they retain their proficiency in keeping intact the basic struc-
ture of a complete sentence, yet they feel comfortable in adjusting the format to
achieve more variety, and their confidence in their writing capabilities increases.
By providing students with the elements needed for effective sentences—
subjects, verbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and much more—students will feel
encouraged to write their own sentences. Realistic model sentences demonstrate
the kind of sentence writing expected of students.

“Many times textbooks heavily emphasize terminology instead of practicality...

The approach proposed for Building Better Grammar seems to be more in line with
streamlining some of the wordiness involved that may sometimes turn off students
and some instructors alike. Breaking down the learning process so that it builds upon
itself makes good sense. Developmental English learners cannot be assumed to know
or understand some precepts, and this approach of covering material before we build
upon it might work wonders for comprehension and application.”
—Maria Villar-Smith, Miami Dade College
x ii PREFACE

Building Skills
Students being introduced to writing sentences need a clear, consistent approach
to feel comfortable with a task they feel is insurmountable. Developing writers
are also usually developing readers, so Gina Hogan has been careful to simply
explain all the concepts related to building or writing grammatically sound sen-
tences. The chapters flow into gently encouraging students to apply their building
sentence skills to editing fiction and nonfiction texts and to writing on different
topics in preparation for academic writing.
Students participate in real, structured writing exercises throughout the
chapters of Building Better Grammar. The Building Skills exercises ask students
to employ increased levels of effort and independence with varied opportuni-
ties to immediately practice newly learned skills, transitioning from identifying
successful sentence writing in practice sets to producing their own effective
sentences. Engaging, modern subjects in the Building Skills exercises serve to
stimulate and encourage inventive writing from your students. These exercises
increase successively in difficulty and provide students with practice in editing,
so they can improve in spotting grammar errors in their own writing. Building
Skills Together exercises promotes collaborative work essential to writing and
engagement among students. The Chapter Skills Review at the end of each
chapter provides comprehensive practice for each grammar concept and can be
used as a post-test or a chapter or diagnostic quiz.

“I'm very impressed with the clarity presented here, and I truly appreciate the practice
sets! I so enjoy looking over the exercises here and imagining how I would employ
individual and group work while covering this material. Students will gain excellent
practice with each set of exercises designed for the new concepts presented. This
allows for practice before the instruction is forgotten. Students get to employ what
they are learning immediately! The exercises are fun and challenging. I sense confi-
dence will be gained upon the completion of the exercises both in class and at home.”
—Traci Gourdine, American River College

“At first I was surprised that you had students write a paragraph right in the mid-
dle of the text because composition skills would be worked on much later, But the
method you used—having students answer questions about college stress using cor-
rect verb tenses and then put those answers into an organized paragraph—was a great
idea, one which I will definitely use in the future. A seamless move from grammar
to composition.”
—Michael Duffy, Moorpark College
 PREFACE xii

Memory Tips
Memory Tips present students with inventive, class-tested methods for remem-
bering writing conventions and processes, many times with a unique mnemonic
device. By highlighting important concepts, students can remember the steps to
sentence construction and feel empowered when they set out to do the task on
their own.

“I like that prior concepts are repeated with a variation in wording and approach,
such as the first Memory Tip box in Chapter 6. This encourages students to learn the
concept, not just memorize rules without understanding.”
—Linda Ficken, Cape Fear Community College

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Instructor's Resource Manual. By Gina Hogan of Citrus Community College.
Streamline and maximize the effectiveness of your course preparation using such
resources as complete answer keys to Building Skills and Building Skills Together
exercises, as well as Teaching Tips designed to guide instructors through teaching
each chapter.
Instructor Companion Site. The Building Better series Instructor Companion
Website includes password-protected PowerPoint slides to accompany the text,
additional quizzing, and a digital version of the Instructor’s Resource Manual.
Instructors can register for access to this resource at login.cengage.com.
Aplia for Basic Writing Levels 1 and 2. Founded in 2000 by economist and
Stanford professor Paul Romer, Aplia is dedicated to improving learning by in-
creasing student effort and engagement. Aplia is an online, auto-graded homework
solution that keeps your students engaged and prepared for class and has been used
by more than 850,000 students at over 850 institutions. Aplia’s online solutions
provide developmental writing students with clear, succinct, and engaging writing
instruction and practice to help them build the confidence they need to master
basic writing and grammar skills. Aplia for Basic Writing: Level 1 (Sentence to
Paragraph) and Aplia for Basic Writing: Level 2 (Paragraph to Essay) feature ongo-
ing individualized practice, immediate feedback, and grades that can be automati-
cally uploaded, so instructors can see where students are having difficulty (allowing
’ for personalized assistance). Visit www.aplia.com/cengage for more details.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to my parents, who instilled in me a strong love for learning and
teaching. I deeply appreciate my husband and children for their enduring sup-
port and constant encouragement. I extend my ongoing gratitude to all college
xiv PREFACE

students, but especially developmental students, who allow me to be part of their

academic journeys.
I am indebted more than I can say to Annie Todd at Cengage Learning for
her belief in the Building Better series and their author. I extend a huge thanks
to Marita Sermolins, my Development Editor, for her expertise, dedication, and
thoughtful supervision. I offer my heartfelt gratitude to Judith Kunst for her
excellent reviewing, accuracy checking, and editing.
Much gratitude and appreciation is due the many colleagues around the coun-
try whose helpful feedback informed many parts of this book:
Karen Abele, Sauk Valley Community College
Cheyenne Adams, Del Mar College
Matthew Allen, Wright College
Rachel Beckner, Western Oklahoma State College
Thomas Beery, Rhodes State College
Steven Berman, Oakland Community College
Jolan Bishop, Southeastern Community College
Randy Boone, Northampton Community College
Peggy Brent, Hinds Community College
Bessie Brown, Hinds Community College
Steven Budd, Los Medanos College
Judy Covington, Trident Technical College
James Crooks, Shasta College
Barbara Davis, Yavapai College
Nicole DeKasha, Elgin Community College
Margie Dernaika, Southwest Tennessee Community College
Joann Donigan, Delaware Valley College
Michael Duffy, Moorpark College
Linda Eicken, Cape Fear Community College
Traci Gourdine, American River College
Judith Harper, SUNY Adirondack
Elaine Herrick, Temple College
Leslie Hope, Los Angeles Valley College
Terry Irish, Clackamas Community College
Kimberlie Johnson, North Idaho College
Jill Lahnstein, Cape Fear Community College
Anna Maheshwari, Schoolcraft College
 PREFACE xv

Kristene McClure, Glendale Community College

Lori Morrow, Rose State College
Susan Plachta, St. Clair County Community College
Stephanie Richardson, Genesee Community College
Marsha Rutter, Southwestern College
Elizabeth Sarcone, Delta State University
James Sodon, St. Louis Community College—Florissant Valley
Lynn Steiner, Cuesta College
Robert Stuber, Minnesota State Colleges—Southeast Technical
Suba Subbarao, Oakland Community College
Sheri Van Court, Brookhaven College
Maria Villar-Smith, Miami Dade College
Lynn Watson, Santa Rosa Junior College
Finally, my acknowledgement section is not complete without this: I dedicate
this book to my wonderful family—Halim, Hiam, Bill, Remy, and Christopher.
Your steadfast belief in me gives me wings to fly high!
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UNIT ONE: Subjects, Verbs, and
Subject-Verb Agreement
CHAPTER ONE: The First Building Block
Subjects

If you tell a friend that you just saw a movie you really enjoyed, your friend is
likely to ask, “What is it about?” When we study grammar, that same question
is among the first things we ask when presented with a single sentence. What
is it about? “Subject” is grammar’s name for the answer to that question, and
learning to identify the subject in any sentence is the first building block to good
writing.
The words you use to describe what the movie is about to your friend will prob-
ably start like this:
“A boy who...”
“Monsters that...”
“A town that...”
plese er
Of course, you will also tell your friend what the boy, the monsters, the town,
or it did, but these words establish who or what you are discussing. Words that
tell who or what is doing or being something are subjects. In grammar, subjects in
sentences are words that come in the forms of nouns and pronouns.

(6) MEMORY TIP

noun

A subject can ONLY be a ee eG

Nouns and pronouns help indicate the “doer” or “actor” in each sentence, and
they are two parts of speech.
2
 Nouns 3

MEMORY TIP
Traditional grammar classifies words into eight basic types called parts of
speech. It is important to recognize and identify the eight different parts
of speech, so that you can understand grammar explanations and use the
right word form in the right place.
a nouns conjunctions
& pronouns adjectives
@ verbs adverbs
H prepositions m interjections
See Appendix A on page 239 for a complete explanation.

NOUNS
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, or activity. Nouns
may function as subjects in sentences. Nouns are used to label things, places,
and people, creating a common language between human beings. If people did
not use nouns, they would be pointing and gesturing to one another rather than
speaking actual words. A noun can name a:
@ Person: “stranger” is the name given to a person with whom we come into
contact in some way, but whom we do not know.
= Place: “mountain” is the name given to a high and often rocky area of a land
mass with steep or sloping sides.
mw Thing: “radar” is the name given to electronic equipment that transmits and
receives high-frequency radio waves to detect or track distant objects.
m Idea: “democracy” is the name given to a way of organizing human society
which allows and encourages all people in a given community or country to
choose their leaders through a voting process.
m Activity: “studying” is the name given to the process of learning about a sub-
ject through careful reading and thinking. Nouns that name activities may be
gerunds or nouns formed from verbs.

(6) MEMORY TIP

Some nouns are formed from verbs. These nouns are called gerunds and
are formed by adding -ing to a verb to name an activity; for example, talk-
ing, swimming, sewing, or cooking. Gerunds can be subjects in a sentence.

Cooking is fun.
4 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

Singular and Plural Nouns

Nouns come in singular or plural forms.

= Singular nouns refer to one person, place, idea, activity, or thing.

boy town box

# Plural nouns refer to two or more people, places, ideas, activities, or

things. To form the plural noun, add —s or —es to the singular noun; a few
nouns change spelling in other ways to form the plural; and a few stay the
same regardless of number.

Add -s or -es: boy/boys town/towns box/boxes

Change the spelling: child/children man/men medium/media
Same spelling: sheep/sheep __fish/fish

Types of Nouns
Labels for all the people, places, and things we have encountered over hundreds
of years now number into the tens of thousands, and new nouns are being added
all the time. It is helpful to divide such a big group into smaller categories, so four
different types of nouns exist:
1. Proper Nouns. A proper noun is a specific name of a place , a person, or
a thing. The first letter of a proper noun is always capitalized no matter
where it occurs in a sentence.
Mr. Smith Professor Hogan California
Los Angeles Honda

2. Common Nouns. Common nouns are not capitalized and are ordinary
and universal names that are assigned to things, people, or places.
computer tree dog chair desk
teacher school park girl boy

(6) MEMORY TIP

Remember a common noun is the general name to things, people, or places, whereas
a proper noun is the specific and capitalized name to things, people, or places.

Common Noun Proper Noun

cookie Oreo
gelatin Jello
facial tissue Kleenex
restaurant McDonald's
company Ford Motor Company
film Titanic
 Nouns 5

3. Abstract Nouns. Abstract nouns are names used for things that cannot
be tasted, seen, touched, heard, or smelled, but are felt as an emotion
or
believed in as a philosophy.
freedom love trust faith

4. Collective Nouns. Typically, words that identify more than one person,
place, or thing are made plural in the English language, but collective nouns
are an exception. Collective nouns name groups of people, things, or ideas
as single entities. Words like crew, team, or family are single entities that are
composed of at least two people. It takes at least two people to make a team,
but the word eam refers to one single entity or cluster of people.
group (it takes more than one person to make up a group)
army (it takes many soldiers to make an army)
jury (it takes at least 12 members to make one jury)
Here are some more examples of collective nouns you might encounter.
council minority navy department
public school senate society
team troupe faculty family
firm group jury majority
army audience board cabinet
class committee company corporation

Identify the words below as one of the following nouns: proper, common, abstract,
or collective.
Example: love __abstract

. army
. Mary Smith
. committee
. whale
. truth
a Leter
. beauty
. satellite
. pavement
. loyalty
Se
PO
GN
CORN
NOR
OOP
oh
a
6 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

Underline all the nouns in the following sentences.

Example: Marissa is a strong swimmer.

1. We had chicken at the Chinese restaurant; then, we had ice cream.

2. Love is not an easy emotion to understand.
3, Charlie and Mandy have had a good marital relationship for the last twenty years.
4 . At the championship game, the excited spectators cheered loudly for the
basketball team.
5. Yesterday, my brother and his friend sold tickets for the concert.
6. Anger leads to bad reactions such as physical or verbal abuse.
7. Mr. Redd is my favorite math teacher because he cares about his students.
8. McDonald’s is where I have lunch every day because it is close to my office.
9. The Chicago Symphony plays a Mozart concerto once a year, so I never miss it.
10. The jury submitted its surprising verdict for the murder case.

Underline the common nouns once and the proper nouns twice.

The weather was warm and sunny, so Mary and Ginny decided to go ona
picnic at Huntington Beach. In their red picnic hamper, they placed four ham
sandwiches, two Granny Smith apples, a jug of lemonade, and six choco-
late cookies. They packed their foldout chairs and beach ball. Before they
left the house, they applied sunscreen lotion on their arms and legs and
grabbed their straw hats. Although the beach was crowded with beachgo-
ers, Mary and Ginny found a good picnic location away from the crowded
Dan's Surf Shop and Starbucks café.

In small groups, write a short paragraph about a public place such as a park, res-
taurant, or library. Use the following prompts to describe the public place.
 Nouns 7

1. Three different sentences using a proper noun in each sentence.

2. Three different sentences using a common noun in each sentence.

3. Two different sentences using collective nouns in each sentence.

4. One sentence using an abstract noun.

In small groups, write a paragraph of five to ten sentences using various nouns to
describe an ideal vacation. Once you have completed your sentences, underline
all the nouns in your paragraph.

: kaa
8 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

PRONOUNS
Subjects in sentences may be nouns or pronouns. Whereas a noun labels a person,
thing, place, or activity, a pronoun names a person or thing doing or being something
in a sentence. Pronouns come in many forms, and Chapter Four will provide detailed
explanations. However, two main types of pronouns—subject pronouns and indefinite
pronouns—are essential to your understanding of actors or subjects in sentences.

Subject Pronouns
A pronoun that identifies and names the specific person or thing doing or being
something in a sentence is a subject pronoun. The subject pronouns—J, you, he,
she, it, we, and they—function as the person or thing doing or being something
in the sentence.

| ate the last piece of pizza.

T identifies the person who is eating in this sentence.

You need to submit the completed application form to the superviso

r.
You identifies the person who needs to submit in this sentence.

He asked about the election votes.

He identifies the person who is asking in this sentence.

It had big letters on the side and a blaring horn.

It identifies the thing in this sentence.
We need to ensure the diving equipment is working
properly.
We identifies the person in this sentence.
 Pronouns 9

They went mountain climbing during the worst weather.

They identifies the person in this sentence.

(&) MEMORY TIP

The subject pronouns are:
|

Subject pronouns also replace nouns to reduce repetition. Consider this

paragraph:

Mary has trouble with time. Mary often goes to bed late, and Mary gets up
late the next morning. Mary often misses her ride to work, and Mary gets in
trouble with her boss. Recently, Mary did not schedule into her calendar her
online college registration appointment. As a result, Mary missed registering
for any classes for the fall semester. Mary has to try adding the classes instead.

In this paragraph, the noun Mary is stated so many times that it distracts the
reader and makes the paragraph boring to read. To fix this problem, pronouns
can be used in place of the nouns to clarify and enliven the paragraph.

Mary has trouble with time. She often goes to bed late, and she gets up late
the next morning. She often misses her ride to work, and she gets in trouble
with her boss. Recently, she did not schedule into her calendar her online
college registration appointment. As a result, she missed registering for any
classes for the fall semester. She has to try adding the classes instead.

Whether they stand alone or replace nouns in sentences, the pronouns J, you,
he, she, it, we, and they may be used as the subject in sentences.

Underline the subject pronouns in the following sentences. Some sentences may
have more than one subject pronoun.
Example: I want to participate in the running marathon this year.
1. She is my best friend, and she helps me with everything.
2. They ran down to the lake for a swim because it was too hot.
3. It rained all day yesterday, and I felt miserable.
4, We worked hard and long on our physics project.
5. He gives good advice because he is a wonderful counselor.
em
10 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

6. Cooking is hard for me, so I avoid it.

7. For hours we waited outside in the rain for a glimpse of the celebrity.
8. When the cat pounced on the mouse, it shrieked.
9. Chemistry is a difficult subject, but I work hard at understanding it.
10. They played a dirty trick on the poor, helpless child.

Underline the noun(s) in each sentence, and, on the provided line, replace with
the appropriate subject pronoun.
Example: Every morning, Billy Lee and Clarissa go for a walk.__they
1. James and Sara will get married next June.
2. The girl brought a chocolate cake for the gathering.
3. The musician finished his solo performance.
4, Anxious, Jerry called his ill girlfriend.
5. During the storm, the big oak tree fell on my mother’s car.

Indefinite Pronouns
Another type of pronoun that can function as the subject in a sentence is the
indefinite pronoun. An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person
or thing, so it is vague and “not definite.” Even though they refer to a less clearly
identified noun, indefinite pronouns often take the function of the subject in the
sentence. These are the most common indefinite pronouns:
anybody nobody somebody everybody
anything nothing something everything
anyone no one someone everyone
each either neither none

Anyone can contribute to the project.

Most were asleep when the fire alarm went off.
None of the food is fresh.

BUILDING SKILLS 1-7: Indefinite Pronouns

Replace the underlined words in each sentence with an indefinite pronoun from
the box of words provided.
 Identifying the Subject 11

anybody nobody somebody everybody

anything nothing something everything
anyone no one someone everyone
each either neither none

Example: Every single thing in life has a price. Everything

. Does any student have a question?
. Give this to any person in the class.
. Not one person knew how to solve the math problem.
. Is there some person who knows how to use this machine?
. Every single person danced to the music.
. There must be a person who can play the piano.
. Some single thing should be done about his behavior.
. Every single one of the voters voted yes.
Ma
ey
S|. Not
[SS
SS
ES
(eh
Ney a single person could stay after school.
10. One of the people in the club fainted.

IDENTIFYING THE SUBJECT

Your understanding of nouns and pronouns will help you recognize subjects in
sentences. Learning to identify the subject in any sentence is the first building block
to good writing. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
Arrived early.

What does this group of words tell you? Not much. You are left asking
“Who or what arrived early?” The “who” or “what” is not identified here,
so we do not know the subject in this sentence. Each sentence must have a
subject that tells who or what is doing something or who or what is being
described.

Gina arrived early.

Who or what arrived early? Gina. This is then the subject or the “who” that
arrived early. Just as the words Arrived early cannot stand alone without an actor
(Gina), so the word Gina cannot stand alone without an action. A correct sentence
must express a complete thought or have a full meaning that stands by itself. That
completion or independence requires BOTH a subject (actor) and a verb (ac-
tion). Verbs are the second building block of grammar and will be defined in the
next chapter.
12 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

In any sentence, the subject tells the reader who or what is doing or being
something. To locate the subject in a sentence, always ask Who or what is doing
or being something?

Mary is my sister.

Who or what és my sister? A person named Mary. Since you know subjects can
ONLY be nouns or pronouns, check your answer: Is Mary a noun or pronoun? It
is a proper noun; thus, it is the subject in the sentence. Of course, this sentence
may have included a pronoun as a subject like so:

She is my sister.

He listens to his iPod.

To determine the subject in this sentence, ask who or what is doing the listening?
The answer is he. Is the word /e a noun or pronoun? It is a pronoun. You know
that the subject can only be a noun or pronoun; therefore, e must be the subject
in the sentence, and it is the pronoun doing the action. Of course, this sentence
may have included a noun as subject.
John listens to his iPod.

(6) MEMORY TIP

To find the subject of a sentence, ask yourself : “who or what is doing or
being something?”
The answer to that question must always be a noun or a pronoun.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS

A complete sentence has the subject as one of its main building blocks. The
number of subjects in a sentence determines whether the sentence has a simple
or compound subject.

1. Simple subject. When a sentence has one noun or pronoun doing the
action, that sentence has one subject known as a simple subject.
Daniel plays the drums.
Who plays the drums?
Daniel + one noun
Because there is one subject, the sentence has a simple subject.

2. Compound subject. The word compound means a combination of at least

two things. When a sentence has two or more nouns or pronouns doing
the same action, those are called compound subjects.
 Simple and Compound Subjects 13

Daniel and Marty play the drums.

Who plays the drums?
Daniel and Marty < two nouns.
Because there are two subjects, the sentence has a compound subject.

(6) MEMORY TIP

1 subject simple subject
2 or more subjects compound subjects
Note: The word and between words often signifies that there may be
compound elements,

Underline the subject in each sentence and determine if the subject is simple (SS)
or compound (CS). Remember: Subjects can be nouns or pronouns.

Example: SS The factory has a good reputation among the residents of this
neighborhood.

. Frank and Ginnie danced all night at the Vanity Fair Ball.
eK
NO . Terry laughs hysterically at any joke.
. I was surprised I did well on my biology exam even though
I had not studied.
. Letty and Tom had a hurtful argument.
. Someone stole the precious family heirloom from my
grandmother's home.
. Coldplay and Maroon 5 are strong bands on the musical charts.
. The new smartphone is not working well for me.
Math and English are my worst subjects.
The container truck and the motorcycle crashed into each other.
. Everyone came to the formal dance to see who will be
named Dance Queen.
_ Jenny, Marissa, and Valerie are on the college's volleyball team.
. Sports shows, talk shows, and late-night shows are my
favorite television shows.
. No one is telling the truth about this mysterious crime.
kee
14. CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

14, Tom and Terry need a new computer for their office work.
15. We did not want to go to sleep after we saw that horror movie.
16. Nothing makes sense about this math problem.
17. She likes Chinese food more than Mexican food.
18. Lasagna and pizza are my family’s favorite meals.
19. Somebody help this hurt child!
20. My cousin wants to become an emergency room nurse.

In small groups, compose eight sentences about a popular television show. Write
four sentences with simple subjects and four sentences with compound subjects.

RECOGNIZING SUBJECTS IN TRICKY SITUATIONS

The first building block in a complete sentence is the subject. Learning to iden-
tify the subject correctly will allow you to add, subtract, switch, and evaluate
additional elements to your sentences, bringing power and flexibility to your
 Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 15

writing. Most often, the subject can easily be identified; however, at times it
may be difficult to spot because of the structure of the sentence. Five specific
sentence structures make identifying the subject tricky:

w Imperative sentences
Sentences with prepositional phrases
w Declarative sentences with here and there
m Interrogative sentences
m Sentences with gerunds and infinitives

Subjects in Imperative Sentences

A subject may be invisible but understood in an imperative sentence, the name
given to a sentence that issues a command.

Sit in that chair!

Who or what sits in that chair? This is an order or command, so the subject is
whoever is receiving the command—you. In other words, the complete sentence is
You sit in that chair! Because the subject of an imperative sentence is invisible yet
understood, we call that subject the “implied you.” Note that imperative or com-
mand sentences frequently end with an exclamation point to show strong emotion.

Please do not throw snowballs!

Who or what throws (or wants to throw) snowballs? You please avoid throwing
snowballs.

Read the sentences and write yes by the ones that have an implied subject and no
by the ones that do not have an implied subject.
Example: yes Be careful as you cross the street.

1. Finish your homework!

____2. My iPod is in its charging dock.

pees. Call Ort!

az 4, Take your time reading the history test.
5. His old car broke down on the way to work.
6. Stop annoying your sister!
7. John is cleaning his dirty room.
8. Shut off the cell phone!
16 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

9, They stopped by for a late dinner.

10. Please be home on time.

Subjects as Distinct from Prepositional Phrases

Preposition is the name given to words that signal place (above, inside, behind),
time (before, after, within), or source (to, from, for, of, by). The word preposition
comes from two Latin words that mean “placed before.” Prepositions are words
that can be placed before a noun or pronoun to show the relationship that ex-
ists between that noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence. In
fact, the prepositions of, zo, and in are among the most frequently used words in
English.

| wrote a letter to him.

The word to is a preposition. It shows the relationship between /etter and

him. There are many, many prepositions; some of the most common are
listed here:

above
among
below behind
beneath es
between
b
eer rhe
inside
ie} oy oo
outside
over ie} i=}

through under

Pp
c

within
 Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 17

(&) MEMORY TIP

An easy way to help you remember prepositions is to think of the expres-
sion the house. Then put as many prepositional words as you can in front
of the words the house:

above the house from the house

around the house with the house
by the house to the house
behind the house near the house
between the house under the house
of the house over the house
off the house on the house

Not all prepositions are one word long. Sometimes they may combine several
words such as next to, according to, because of, on account of, along with, in addition
to, and many more.
At other times, this part of speech commonly appears as part of a descriptive
group of words called a prepositional phrase. An easy way to spot prepositional
phrases is to recognize that such phrases begin with a preposition and end with
a noun or pronoun.

Preposition Preposition
L 1
Into
the building — noun After her — pronoun

Prepositions and prepositional phrases provide additional information to the

reader because they express the time, place, or source of the action, but they do
not and cannot include the subject of the sentence. Help yourself locate the sub-
ject by crossing out the prepositional phrase to eliminate it from the sentence.
Then look for the noun or pronoun.
Into the room walked Mother.

Step 1: - 4ntothetoom walked Mother.

Step 2: Who or what walked? Mother
Step o: Mother is a noun and the subject in the sentence.
18 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

Cross out the prepositional phrases in the following sentences. Then, underline
the subject(s).
Example: Beneaththe big-oaktree sat the newlyweds.
1. Under the porch and into a dirt hole slithered a long black snake.
. In the darkness, the hungry wolf howled at the top of the mountain.
. In the city downtown, a window washer dangled on the side of the tall building.

. An abandoned cabin stood at the bottom of the valley.

. The medical helicopter flew into the foggy night sky.
. On a warm day, the little children played contentedly down by the stream.
. Across the way and beyond the mysterious woods stands the majestic castle.
. The marathon runners jogged victoriously toward the finish line.

. To burn more calories, she jogged up the steep hill.

YT)
OES
ton
S|
ee)
Ney

10. Under the dead body lay the bloody murder weapon.

Subjects in Declarative Sentences with Here and There

The words here and there may appear at the beginning of a sentence that declares
a statement.
Here is my book.

In such declarative sentences, remember that here or there cannot function as

the subject of a sentence because these two words are not nouns or pronouns.
In fact, they are prepositions that show location, and prepositions cannot be the
subject in the sentence. In trying to determine the subject in a sentence that
begins with here and there, cross out the words here or there and flip the sentence
around, so the noun or pronoun starts the sentence first.

Here is my book.
Change it to: My book is here.
Who or what is here? My book. The word book is a noun; therefore, it is the
subject in the sentence.
 Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 19

Underline the subject(s) in each sentence.

Example: Here is my lost passport!

. There was a party after the football game.

. My Aunt Nessa and Uncle Vern are here for the reading of the will.
- More dog food is there in that bag that is inside the pantry.
. Here are the recipes and ingredients you need for the bake sale.
There is no news about the train accident to share with you.
. Here is the announcement you wanted typed this morning.
There are many reasons for her deception.
. Here comes Lynn's boyfriend with another girl.
0 . The answer to that complicated question is right here.
KRWHND
AW
ON
10. Here is the major issue: she betrayed her friend.

Subjects in Interrogative Sentences

Interrogative sentences are sentences that ask questions and end with a question
mark, such as: Where is my book? To spot the subject in these sentences, answer
the question with a full statement, then try to identify the subject.
Where is my laptop?

You might answer: My laptop is on the table. Who or what is on the table? The
laptop, which is a noun; therefore, it is the subject in the sentence.

Underline the subject in each sentence.

Example: Where is my brown leather wallet?
1. Where is the championship trophy for the quarterback?
2. Why is Sandy angry at Mindy?
3. Did Sara feed the two small children?
4. Did the male suspect confess to the gruesome murder?
5. What did the urgent e-mail she sent you say?
20 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

Turn each statement into a question then a command:

6. Harry is painting the garage.
Question:
Command:
7. Nancy helps with the project.
Question:
Command:
8. Doug left his backpack behind.
Question:
Command:

9, Mirabelle goes to her room.

Question:
Command:

10. The students turned in their tests.

Question:
Command:

Sentences with Gerunds and Infinitives as Subjects

Gerunds are verbs that function as nouns and have an -ing ending. Because gerunds
are derived from verbs and have an -ing ending, they express action. However,
gerunds may occupy slots traditionally held by nouns in sentences such as sub-
jects. They do so when they name an activity such as smoking, cooking, shopping, or
exercising. Gerunds may occur as one word, or they may be part of a gerund phrase.

Reading is my most relaxing summer activity.

Who or what is most relaxing? Reading. It is an activity; therefore, it is the gerund

that is the subject in the sentence.
Eating on the run is one of the unhealthiest American habits.

Who or what is one of the unhealthiest American habits? Eating on the run,
which is an activity or a gerund phrase that is the subject in the sentence.

Infinitives
The infinitive verb is the simplest base form of the verb, and the form that ap-
pears as the headword in dictionaries. For example, the dictionary entry or infini-
tive for gossip looks like this:
 Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 21

Gos.sip /gos'sip/ n 1 conversation about the personal details of other peo-

ple's lives, whether rumor or fact, especially when malicious 2 someone who
habitually discusses the personal details of others’ lives vi spread rumors

Because infinitives are derived from verbs, they do express actions or states of
being; however, in some sentences, they may function as nouns or subjects.
Gossip spreads quickly at my workplace.

This sentence is about the activity or the noun gossip, which is the subject in the
sentence.
The #o infinitive is the base form of the verb preceded by the word to. It forms
noun phrases, which can be subjects.

To graduate from college is my greatest achievement.

Who or what is my greatest achievement? To graduate, which is an infinitive

functioning as the noun that is the subject in the sentence.

(&) MEMORY TIP

Infinitives = To + Verb (in its basic form)

to sleep to chew to eat to bring

Infinitives should not be confused with prepositional phrases. The word to

that is combined with a verb is not a preposition in this case.

Underline the subject in each sentence and write gerund or infinitive on

each line.
Example: gerund Talking loudly is not allowed in the chapel.
1. To learn about crimes is all I want to do.
2. Playing basketball requires physical strength.
3. To sleep is the only thing Jenny wants to do after her double
shift at the diner.
4, Winning the final soccer game surprised our team.
5. To put out the campfire was John’s responsibility.
6. Working nights can be difficult when one is a single parent.
>
22 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

7. Singing on national television is the dream of many people.

8. To read to pediatric cancer patients is Nora's noble
contribution.
9. Drinking alcohol, like smoking, should be banned from
restaurants.
10. To find a wedding dress is every bride’s main task after
deciding to marty.

Working with a partner or small group, complete the following tasks:

1. Write three imperative sentences.

2. Write three sentences with prepositional phrases.

3. Write three declarative sentences.

 Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 23

4. Write three interrogative sentences.

5. Write four sentences with gerunds and infinitives as subjects.

@
F in Writing
In small groups, underline the subject or subjects in each sentence.

(1) College students do not get good grades for their health habits.

(2) Often on their own for the first time, college students leave behind their
families’ way of eating, sleeping, and relaxing and develop new habits and

routines—usually not healthier ones. (3) Sometimes, students do not get

enough sleep or keep irregular schedules that throw their sleep patterns off.
(4) Often, there are not enough hours during the day for all the things students
need or want to do such as study, socialize, pursue extracurricular activities,
surf the Internet, work at part-time jobs, and participate in community service.
(5) Sleeping less and juggling more causes students to become exhausted and
suffer greater risks for colds, flu, digestive problems, and other maladies.
—Adapted from Dianne Hales, An Invitation to Health
24 CHAPTER ONE: Subjects

In small groups, underline the subject or subjects in each sentence. Then, deter-
mine the type of subject (noun or pronoun) and, when applicable, the tricky situ-
ation it is in (imperative, prepositional phrase, declarative with here and there,
interrogative, gerund, or infinitive). The first sentence is done for you.

(1) The pawl was perfect. (2) It had real presence and sat on a coffee table.
(3) Everyone, who has purchased a house or who has wanted to sell a house, was
familiar with the tricks used to convince a buyer that the house is quite special: a
cozy fire in the fireplace in the early evening; flowers in a pitcher on the kitchen
counter; or the wafting aroma of spring from a single drop of scent vaporizer.
(4) Andrea was a real-estate agent. (5) For prospective buyers who were dog
lovers, she dropped off her dog at the same time she placed the bowl in the
house that was up for sale. (6) She put a dish of water in the kitchen for Mondo,
took his squeaking plastic frog out of her purse, and dropped it on the floor.
(7) Tackling and whacking his favorite toy were Mondo’'s favorite activities.
(8) The bowl, Andrea thought, was both subtle and noticeable. (9) Its glaze
was the color of cream and seemed to glow no matter what light it was placed
in. (10) There were a few bits of color in it-tiny geometric flashes. (11) Some
of these bits were tinged with flecks of silver. (12) They were as mysterious
as cells seen under a microscope. (13) It was difficult not to study them. (14)
They shimmered, flashed for a split second, and then resumed their shape. (15)
Something about the colors with their random placement suggested motion.
(16) People who liked country furniture commented on the bowl. (17) It turned
out that people who love antique furniture loved it just as much. (18) But the
bowl was not all that ostentatious or even so noticeable. (19) No one suspected
that it had been put in place deliberately. (20) Oftentimes, the owners, who
were always asked to be away or to step outside when the house was being
shown, did not even know that the bowl had been in their house. (21) Andrea

was sure that the bowl brought her luck. (21) Bids were often put in on the
houses that had the bowl. (22) What magic did this bowl hold?
—From Ann Beattie’s Janus
 Recognizing Subjects in Tricky Situations 25

Underline or insert the subject(s) in the following sentences.

1 . Leave your iPod here.
2 . Staying with his mother is not an option.
a . Through the castle’s halls echoed the sound of joyful music.
4 . There was a crowd at the Virgin Records store because of the new hit album.
D> Under a pile of leaves slithered a poisonous black snake.
6 . Stop trying to bother me!
ie There was a call for you from your girlfriend.
8 . Anyone could have broken into the bank’s safe.
9 . Into the field rode the prized white horse.
10. Finish your chores before you go with your friends.
. Do not decorate that vase in that way!
. Somebody ate all the hidden candy.
. To pay taxes is the obligation of every American citizen.
. Across the street and on the corner stood a suspicious-looking man.
. Around the house was the gruesome evidence of the murder.
. After months of practice, Emily and Cameron won the running marathon.
Everyone is gathered for a celebration in the hall.
. Owen, Pat, and Aaron all live together in one tiny apartment.
. Here come John and Jim with the election banner.
. Will Bob and Wade be at the department meeting at 2 p.M.?
. Anything could happen in a desert storm.
. Securing an agreement with the rebels was the president’s primary goal.
. There was a long line at the bookstore today.
. Something is not right with this income statement.
. Among the garden flowers sat a quiet child with a teddy bear.
CHAPTER TWO: The Second Building Block
Verbs

When your friend asks you what your favorite movie is about, you may say,
“Zombies,” but your friend will want more information than that. What do the
zombies do? How did they become zombies? What happens to them in the end?
A movie, after all, is a moving picture—the action is the whole point. A sentence,
too, must have action. The action of a sentence can be huge, like an airplane
crashing into a mountain, or tiny, like a pencil resting on a table. Big or small,
the words that show the action of a sentence are called verbs. Verbs are the second
building block in grammar. Complete sentences must have subjects and verbs.

ACTION AND BEING VERBS

Every complete sentence must have a verb. Any words that show what someone
or something does, did, or will do, or what someone or something is, was, or will
be are called verbs. To find verbs in a sentence, we need to find the subject in
the sentence and ask the following question: What is the subject doing or being?

He kicks the ball to the other players.

He is anew member of the team.

The subject in both of these sentences is the pronoun /e, The verbs are hicks
(action) and is (being).
Verbs come in two main types: action or being verbs.
1. Action verbs or verbs that show what the subject does, did, or will do.
Examples of action verbs include: jump, eat, play, sleep, speak, walk, move,
feed, practice, and hundreds more.

She moved the table.

She practiced the piano.

26
 Action and Being Verbs 27

Underline the action verb in each of the following sentences.

Example: Mark crashed his new car yesterday.
1. Sylvia edits her essay after she writes it.
- Everyone talks about the amazing new movie.
. Robin sings and dances beautifully.
. Impatiently, we wait for the judge’s decision.
. They announced the contest winner on Friday.
- Ron and Elaine both got big prizes.
. At artwork, she draws slowly but carefully.
. Gerald practices for the Olympic Games.
SS]
ee)
Noy)
STS)
ES
SA
@ . She performs some difficult dance steps.
10. They always invite us to their chili cook-off,

2. Being verbs are verbs that show what someone or something is, was, or will be.
Examples of being verbs include the verb to be: is, am, are, was, were, will be.
This action movie is funny.
lam hungry.

MEMORY TIP
The most problematic verb in the English language is the verb to be. It is
made up of the following words:

| O

Underline the being verbs in each of the following sentences.

Example: She is the sister of the newly elected governor.
1. The state fair is a big treat for children.
2. I am the wife of apowerful man.
28 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

° . We are all excellent pie bakers.

4 . The judges are experts in these contests.
5 . One farmer’s house was the place where the tornado touched down.
6. The dress will be a gorgeous blue-green creation.
7. I will be a lawyer by the time I turn twenty-five.
8. They were a marvelous group of creative quilt-makers.
9. Iam fond of mystery novels set in the Regency era.
10. He was a friendly clerk at the old bank.

In small groups, read this paragraph and underline the action or being verb in
each sentence.
(1) Experts in the field of archaeology study the life ways of people from
the past by excavating and analyzing the material people left behind. (2) The
purpose of archaeology is not to fill up museums by collecting exotic relics
from prehistoric societies. (3) Rather, it is to understand cultural adapta-
tions of ancient people by reconstructing their cultures. (4) Archaeologists
concentrate on societies of the past, so they are limited to working with
material remains such as written records. (5) From these material remains,
archaeologists are able to infer many cultural aspects including ideas and
behavior patterns held by people thousands or millions of years ago.
— From Ferrari/Andreatta, Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND VERBS

Like subjects, verbs can be counted in a sentence. If there is one verb in the sen-
tence, it is a simple verb.
Jenny dances beautifully.
What can Jenny do? Dance. This sentence has one verb or a simple verb.
If there are two or more verbs in the sentence, they are compound verbs.

Jenny dances and sings beautifully.

What can Jenny do? Dance and sing. This sentence has two verbs or compound verbs.
 Verb Tenses 29

(&) MEMORY TIP

The word compound means a combination of at least two things.
The word
and between words often indicates compound elements.

Underline the verbs and identify the verbs as simple or compound on the lines.
Example: They argued and fought all night long. Compound
1. The train screeched and rumbled loudly into the busy station.
2. My sister entered and won the contest for best artist.
3. The referee lost count of the tennis balls.
4 . I prepared the vegetables and cooked the meat for
tonight's dinner.
Wa. The plumber broke and removed the rusted water pipe.
6, The international flags fluttered in the wind.
7. He read the signs carefully and followed the winding road
to his destination.
8. The sun came through the window and faded the expensive
tablecloth.
9. They danced until the music stopped.
10. My unfriendly dog barks and growls at strangers.

VERB TENSES
Verbs are tools that can help you express time in your sentences. Tense is the form
of the verb that shows at what time the subject is performing the action. Past,
present, and future are the basic categories of time, and therefore represent the
three major tenses.

(All time before now) (Now) (All time beyond now)

Talked Will talk
Within each of those three tenses, there are four additional forms that allow a
writer to describe extremely specific times in which things happen.
30 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Progressive Progressive
Present
writing

Future
SEE | ates eel
She wrote
ace She had She was She had been

written writing been writing

Altogether, then, there are twelve tenses. To learn these tenses and get used to the
various shifts you can make, you need to practice moving single verbs through all
twelve tenses. That practice is called conjugation. In order to understand how
to conjugate through the tenses, remember that the subject, whether it is a noun
or a pronoun, determines the form of the verb. This group of subject pronouns
provides a clear and simple way to move a verb through conjugation:

Notice that the ending on the verb for he/she/it changes. That is the effect of the
subject's number on the verb. Chapter Three, “Subject-Verb Agreement,” explains
this effect.

The Simple Tense

The simple tense shows that an action or state of being happens simply in four
ways:
& now (in the present)
m yesterday (sometime in the past)
= tomorrow (sometime in the future)
habitually (over and over again across time)

Simple Present
The simple present tense shows that an action or state of being is happening
now. It is used to describe a present situation.

| eat a hearty breakfast in the morning.

It is also used for regular routines or habits. You can use words like always,
usually,
never, every day, and twice a week to show how often.
 Verb Tenses 31

| go to work every day.

He often buys the newspaper from the corner vendor.

It may also be used to describe general truths as scientific facts.

Once every 28 days, the moon circles the earth.

MEMORY TIP
With the present verb tense, the subject changes the ending of the verb.
The change is most apparent when the subject is a third person (he or she
or it), Then, the verb must have an -s added to the end.
He studies for his medical exams.
She calls the paramedics every time her father falls.
It sets in the West and rises in the East.

If the verb is not an action but a to be verb, keep in mind that the verb to be
changes depending on the subject pronoun.

MEMORY TIP
The most problematic verb in the English language is the verb fo be. It is
conjugated like this:

as we
ere te
are

Write a sentence using the simple present tense for each of the verbs given.
Example: write I write in my diary every night.
1. stop

2. catch

3. speak
32 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

4, hope

5. watch

Underline the simple present verbs in each sentence and identify the purpose
behind its use (present situation, habitual, or general facts).
Example: habitual They go to the movie theater every Saturday morning.
1. Every Wednesday, Mrs. Pauley drives her three children
to dance practice.
2. Usually, I work as a lab assistant at JPL, but now, I am on
leave of absence for two months.
3. The earth is 4.5 billion years old.
4, In the afternoons, I usually take a fifteen-minute nap be-
fore I start my paperwork.
5. It takes light 8 min. 20 sec. to travel from the sun to the
earth,

Simple Past
The simple past tense shows that an action happened at a point in the past and is
over now. You can use words like before, yesterday, years ago, in the past, and many
more to indicate this tense in your writing. With most verbs, this verb tense is
indicated with the addition of —ed at the end of the verb.
Yesterday, | talked to John about the camping trip.

(6) MEMORY TIP

Verbs that take an -ed ending to change to past tense are called regular
verbs. Most verbs in English are regular.
 Verb Tenses 33

In the following sentences, underline the verbs and write them in Past tense on
the provided lines,
Example: The nervous children perform during the long musical. performed
1. The car stops working on cold days.
2. The woman glares at me for buying the last book on the shelf.
3. They visit me in the summer for two weeks.
4. The invisible monster in the movie appears every two minutes.
5. My niece places her laptop on the gleaming wood floors.

Simple Future
The simple future tense shows that an action will happen in the future. To indicate
this tense, you can use words like tomorrow, next week or month, in the coming years,
and many more. To construct this verb tense, always add the word will before the verb.
| will go to the mall next week.

Complete the sentences with the simple future tense of the verb provided in
parentheses.
Example: Next week, we (have) will have final exams.
1. Tomorrow, Mike (start) his new job.
2. The seafood for the restaurant (come)
from Mr. Alexander’s daily catch. I hope the downtown bus (be)
on time this once.
3. Lynn (earn) her first allowance this week.
4. We (arrive) at the hotel earlier than
scheduled.
5. The license plate for my new car (come) in
the mail in the next two weeks.
34 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

(&) MEMORY TIP

This table summarizes how a verb is conjugated in simple tense.

Present verb | talk.

She talks.

They talked.

will + verb | will talk.

He will talk.

The Perfect Tense

The perfect tense shows actions happening before a specific time in the past,
present, or future.
He has finished his homework on time for several weeks.
He had finished his homework on time until he got sick.
By the time he graduates, he will have finished over a thousand home-
work assignments.
Perfect tense adds a helping verb to the past tense or past participle of the verb.
Past participle is the grammatical label for the —ed form of the verb formed by
adding —d or —ed, to the base form of regular verbs and an —en or —” ending to
the base form of irregular verbs.
| have ended my vacation.
| have stolen the cash.
After this month, | will have saved a thousand dollars.

Notice that it takes more than one word to show action in the sentences above.
In fact, a verb may consist of as many as three words. Taken as a unit, these words
form a verb phrase.

(6) MEMORY TIP

A verb phrase is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verbs.
With the perfect tense, the helping verbs to use are as follows:
 Verb Tenses 35

Present Perfect
The present perfect tense shows that an action begun in the past has continued
until now; it can also show that an action has just happened. Words like never, ever,
not yet, so far, up to now, just, always, already, before, since, and for years, and several
times are often used with the present perfect tense to further describe the action.
These words are not verbs but words or adverbs that signal the present perfect tense.

(@] MEMORY TIP

Inserting never, ever, not yet, so far, up to now, just, always, already,
before, since, and for years, several times, or adverbs in the middle of
a verb phrase does not affect the tense or change the form in any Way.
Chapter Eight explains these adverbs.

| have just finished my homework.

He has always enjoyed his day off from work.

You use the present perfect to:

= Describe a past experience.

In my youth, | have visited France.

@ Talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

You have grown since the last time | saw you.

w Indicate accomplishments of humanity or individuals.

Our daughter has learned to drive.
Scientists have studied other planets.

= Suggest an action is not complete and more actions are possible.

| have dealt with many problems so far while working on this project.

To construct the present perfect verb tense, follow this formula:

have or has (depending on the subject doing the action) + past participle
| have finished my homework.
He has enjoyed his day off from work.

Past Perfect
The past perfect tense shows an action that has happened before another action in
the past. Adverbs like before or prior to are often used with the past perfect tense.
To construct the past perfect tense, use this formula:
had + past
participle
The class had finished the project long before the bell rang.
r
36 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Future Perfect
The future perfect tense expresses that something will occur before another action
in the future. It can also show that something will happen by or before a specific
time in the future. Adverbs like defore or by are often used with future perfect tense.
To construct the future perfect verb tense, use the following formula:
will have + past participle

| will have finished my chores by the time my day ends.

| (6) MEMORY TIP

When constructing the verb phrase that puts the action of a sentence in
perfect tense, use only have, has, had, or will have as your helping verbs.
A verb in the perfect tense = helping verb + past participle

Present Perfect | has or have + past tense of verb | | have talked.

oS He has talked.

BUILDING SKILLS 2-8: Perfect Tense

Fill in the blank with the verb form in parentheses.
Example: By the time he comes home from work, she (cook) will have cooked
dinner. (future perfect)
1 . Since I have known you, I (enjoy) our friendship. (present
perfect)
2. The class already (analyze) that book last
week. (past perfect)
3. Since getting her undergraduate degree, she (specialize) in
political anthropology. (present perfect)
4, By next week, the Smiths (buy) a new house. (future perfect)
5. By tomorrow night, it (snow) three feet more. (future perfect)
6. For their engagement, Tom (buy) his girlfriend gold ear-
rings. (present perfect)
7. She (work) in advertising for one year before she was pro-
moted. (past perfect)
 Verb Tenses 37

8. Before spring comes, Jim (spend) his entire yearly salary.

(future perfect)
9. Clare always (do) her work on time.
(present perfect)
10. By end of this week, I (find) my lost cell phone. (future perfect).
11. The students (discuss) the Shakespeare play since it was
assigned as class work. (present perfect)
12. By the time they came home, the food left on the table (become)
stale. (past perfect)
13. Before turning 40 years old, she (had) three children. (past
perfect)
14, The employees (find) it easy to work with the new com-
puter system. (present perfect)
15. By the end of the show, the dancer (danced) three dances.
(future perfect)

The Progressive Tense

The progressive tense shows actions happening continuously, now, in the past,
or in the future. The progressive verb tense follows this form:

Helping verb zo be + present participle

Just like a past participle, the present participle is the grammatical label for the
—ing form of the verb. A present participle takes the —ing ending for all regular and
irregular verbs; if the verb ends in —e, the e is dropped when adding —ing like so:
Talk > Talking Create Creating

(6) MEMORY TIP

The verb to be is the helping verb for the progressive tenses. It is
conjugated like this:

Future

am

are

will be
38 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Present Progressive
The present progressive tense shows action that is continuously in progress right
now. In English, zow can mean this second, today, this month, this year, this cen-
tury, and so on. Sometimes, you use this tense to say that you are in the process
of doing a longer action; however, you might not be doing it at this exact second.

| am studying to be a nurse.

Sometimes, you may use this tense to indicate that something will or will not
happen in the near future.

She is meeting her friends at the new club.

The present progressive also uses words such as always or constantly to express
the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens.
They are always coming to class late.

Adverbs or adverb phrases like now, currently, at this moment, this week, or this
month are commonly used with the present progressive verb tense to signal when
something is happening. To construct the present progressive verb tense, use the fol-
lowing formula:
present tense of the verb ¢o be (és, am, are) + present participle

Right now, | am reading this interesting book.

Right now, he is reading his essay.
Right now, we are reading our papers aloud.

Past Progressive
The past progressive tense shows action that is continuously in progress in the
past. Use this verb tense to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted.
Adverbs or adverb phrases like yesterday at this time or when this happened are often
used with the past progressive verb tense. To construct the past progressive verb
tense, use the following formula:

past tense of the verb to be (was, were) + present participle

Yesterday at 2 p.m., | was cleaning my room.
They were painting the wall when the fire started.

Future Progressive
The future progressive tense shows action that will be continuously in progress
at a future time. Use this verb tense to indicate that a longer action in the future
will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Adverbs or adverb phrases
 Verb Tenses 39

like tomorrow morning and this time tomorrow are frequently used with this verb
tense. To construct the future progressive verb tense, use the following formula:

future tense of the verb to be (will be) + present participle

| will be working on the project this time tomorrow.

| will be sleeping when she arrives home tonight.

MEMORY TIP
A verb in the progressive tense = verb to be + present participle of verb

Present is, am, or are + present lam talking

Progressive participle of verb He is talking

Past was or were + present | was talking.

Progressive participle of verb They were talking

Future will + be + present participle | | will be talking.

Progressive of verb

Underline the appropriate progressive tense.

Example: This time tomorrow, I (will work, will be working) at my new job.
. Right now, Kevin (is taking, takes) a much needed nap.
. I (was sleeping, slept) when the rain started falling.
. By this time tomorrow, she (will be painting, will paint) her room.
. This Friday, we (are going, go) out to dinner.
_ I (was sitting, sat) down to dinner when the doorbell rang.
. At this moment, my boyfriend (is thinking, thinks) about his mistake.
© . By
PES
Ol
GN
MI
NOU the time Doug is in college, he (will be thinking, will think) about what
to major in.
8. Greg (was walking, walked) when he was hit by the motorcycle.
9, Finally, the baby (is sleeping, sleeps) soundly.
10. This time next year, we (will be skiing, will ski) on the snow-capped mountain.
40 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

The Perfect Progressive Tense

The perfect progressive tense is a combination of both the perfect tense and the
progressive tense, and it indicates action that has continuously been happening
before another action happens, happened, or will happen. Perfect progressive
tense requires the use of combining a helping verb—has, have, had, will have—
with the word been and the present participle (—ing) of the verb.

Present Perfect Progressive

The present perfect progressive tense shows action that has been continuously
happening up to the present moment. Use this verb tense to show that something
started in the past and has continued up until now. For five minutes, for two weeks,
and since Monday are all durations which can be used with the present perfect
progressive tense. The present perfect progressive has the meaning of /ately or
recently. To construct the present perfect progressive verb tense, use the following
formula:
have or has + been + present participle

| have been cleaning my room for the last six hours.

Past Perfect Progressive

The past perfect progressive tense shows action that has been in progress con-
tinuously up to the point of another action in the past. This tense is related to the
present perfect progressive; however, the duration does not continue until now
because it stops before something else in the past. Using the past perfect progres-
sive before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect. The
words when, since, until, or for are often used with this verb. To construct the past
perfect progressive verb tense, use the following formula:
had + been + present participle

| had been driving on my own when | started ridesharing.

Future Perfect Progressive

The future perfect progressive tense shows action that will be in progress con-
tinuously up to the point of another action in the future. The words before, when,
or for years are often used with future perfect progressive. To construct the future
perfect progressive verb tense, use the following formula:
will have + been + present participle

| will have been washing dishes for one hour before you will come home.
 Verb Tenses 41

(@) MEMORY TIP

A verb in the perfect progressive tense = helping verb+ been +
present
participle

Present Perfect has or have + been + | have been talking.

Progressive present participle He has been talking
Past Perfect had + been + present | had been talking.
Progressive participle
Future Perfect will + have + been + | will have been talking.
Progressive present participle

Change the verbs in these sentences to perfect progressive. Write the sentences
on the provided lines.
Example: Gina helps me with homework.
Present: Gina has been helping me with homework.
Past: Gina had been helping me with homework.
Future: Gina will have been helping me with homework.

1. Tom talks to me about the navy.

Present:

Past:

Future:

2. Mrs. Johnson asks me about her cat.

Present:

Past:

Future:

3. Mack wishes he were more careful with his artwork.

Present:

Past:

Future:
42 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

4, Lance nags Sophia to buy him a new car.

Present:

Past:

Future:

5. David buys his weekly groceries from Savings R Us.

Present:

Past:

Future:

Table 2.1 Verb Tense Round-Up

eer ar oro
ee iy [inva Ltwilney
Perfect | have been playing | | had been playing | | will have been
Progressive playing

Present
| Past Perfect __| Progressive _|
Example: Cry cry cried have/has/had | is/am/are/was/
cried were crying

3. make
4. serve

8. marry
 Verb Tenses 43

Each pair of sentences is grammatically correct. In small groups, identify the

tense used in each sentence. Then explain the difference in meaning between the
sentences in each pair.
Example: The bus arrived at 8:00.
The bus will have arrived at 8:00.
Tenses Used: Past, Future Perfect; In the first sentence, the action occurred
once and ended. In the second sentence, the action will be completed in the
future before another action will be completed.
1. Peter lived in Colorado for three years.

Peter has lived in Colorado for three years.

Tenses Used:
44 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Zi Was she working?

Had she been working?

Tenses Used:

Oo_ As of December 31, they will have awarded new scholarships twice this year.
As of December 31, they will be awarding new scholarships twice this year.
Tenses Used:

HN. Have the directions been explained clearly?

Had the directions been explained clearly?

Tenses Used:

. She attends the fitness club.

She has been attending the fitness club.

Tenses Used:

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

You have learned the twelve verb tenses and may have seen the spelling of a verb
change according to the tense in which it is being used. Regardless of verb tense,
in English there are two main types of verbs: regular and irregular.

(6) MEMORY TIP

The key factor in determining whether a verb is regular or irregular is in
identifying its past tense or past participle.
 Regular and Irregular Verbs 45

Regular Verbs
Regular verbs are predictable and follow a clear pattern as they shift tenses.
Regular verbs take an -ed ending in past tense and in past participle, and
the
spelling of the base form of the verb itself generally does not change and follows
a regular pattern-as it goes through the twelve tenses. The past tense and past
participle of regular verbs end in ed.

Past Participle

(s) MEMORY TIP

If the verb can take an —ed in simple past tense, the verb does not change
in its base form; therefore, it is called a regular verb. Table 2.2 lists some
common regular verbs.

Tricky Situations with Regular Verbs

There are three tricky situations with spelling regular verbs in other tenses. First,
verbs that end in ~e add a —d only in the past and perfect tenses.
decide not decideed but decided

Second, verbs that end in ~y drop the —y and add —ied in the past and perfect tenses.
cry not cryed but cried

Third, some verbs that end in a consonant double the last letter before adding -ed
in the past and perfect tenses.
knit not knited but knitted

Table 2.2 Regular Verb Forms

cry (have/has/had) cried

(have/has/had) finished

(have /has/had) happened

46 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Table 2.2 Regular Verb Forms (Continued)

learn learned (have/has/had) learned

started (have/has/had) started

wanted (have/has/had) wanted

On the line, write the past tense of each verb in parentheses.

Example: To impress her with his intelligence, he (talk) talked about his re-
search project.
1. To conserve energy, they (turn) off every light in their
house.
. To improve my swing, I (practice) golf in the afternoons.
. The wind was fierce, so they (wait) for the storm to end.
. Virginia cooked the meal, and Henry (wash) the dishes.
. The kittens (look) frail and neglected.
. Sue (play) the flute last year.
. Raoul (fish) all day yesterday, but he did not catch anything.
. For the last week, my mother (work) late at the office.
. Alyssa (bake)
Bw
WV
Gy
“I
oc
\9
© cookies for last night’s recital.
10. Last Wednesday, a kind technician (fix) our television.

(&] MEMORY TIP

The simple past tense determines if a verb is regular or irregular.

Pa Precent |
Bie
Regular verb | open | opened | have opened (-ed

Irregular verb | have frozen

(new spelling) (changes)
 Regular and Irregular Verbs 47

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs do not take an —ed ending in past tense; instead, the spelling
of
the base form of the verb itself changes significantly and does not follow a
regular
pattern as it goes through the twelve tenses. One way to learn these irregular
verbs is to memorize their spellings or to look them up in a dictionary. Table 2.3
provides a list of some irregular verbs.

Past Participle

MEMORY TIP
lf the verb CANNOT take an —ed in simple past tense, the verb changes in
its base form; therefore, it is called an irregular verb.

Table 2.3 Irregular Verb Forms

PAST PARTICIPLE
PAST (HAS/HAVE/HAD)
aa

break broke broken

build built built

burst burst burst

48 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Table 2.3 Irregular Verb Forms (Continued)

ial
el eB
eav
]
a te
]
fed fd
—+

fin

g te got

gave given
Ww
grow
had a
hid
i hit Tienes |
hi ie

u Age hurt
aa
hu ig

:
—oO

—= @O _—

light —=fi.

oO
=5 n oO

;=
mean

meet

zele
|e ue) ot

quit
read
ride
5)
 Regular and Irregular Verbs 49

Table 2.3 (Continued)

a inane etd amd Orpag TO

al
Nan
tiig ein anai san aeaa
ania willinaginioai ilaiaaiaRen
2."|Re

otoO ear
=

think thought thought

a
understand understood understood

wear wore worn

won won

wrote written
50 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Read each sentence and underline the appropriate past tense or perfect tense verb.
Example: The lava from the volcano (burst, bursted) unexpectedly.
. Al had (spoke, spoken) to his father this morning.
. This morning, the blue jay (sang, sung) beautifully.
. Lola has (drunk, drank) all her medicine.
The new shirt (shrank, shrunk) from being washed in hot water.
. Bessie (began, begun) taking charge of the situation.
. Every summer, I have (grown, grewed) tomatoes in my garden.
. Someone has (stolen, stole) my iPod.
. The lake (froze, frozen) during the cold winter months.
OW
=
DH
RW
MW They had (payed, paid) a big price for their new car.
DONA
10. Otis (hid, hided) the stolen money in a cookie jar.

Tricky Situations with Irregular Verbs

Some irregular verbs are especially confusing because they change into new words
when conjugated. The most confusing irregular verbs are to be and to have.

Table 2.4 Two Troublesome Irregular Verbs

has been

They are have been

To Have

PRESENT PAST
 Regular and Irregular Verbs 51

Underline the correct verb to complete each sentence.

Example: Three years ago, they (was, were) my biggest financial supporters.
1. Mandy, Brandy, and Cindy (is, am, are) sisters.
. He (is, am, are) calling for pizza delivery.
. Yesterday, she (was, were) upset about her math grade.
. We (has been, have been) on this road for the last six hours.
. My dress and shoes (is, are, am) in a pile on the floor.
. The bus (is, are, am) late for its pick-up schedule.
. This coffee shop (has been, have been) open for three years.
. You (have been, has been) my friend since third grade.
LS). You
CO
ESS
Wy
Toy
SSI)
().
Ve) must always (be, are, is) on time for his class.
10. They (is, are, am) the winners in this competition.

Underline the correct verb to complete each sentence.

Example: We (has, have) many problems with our new house.
1. The governor of California (has, have) problems with the state budget.
. We (have had, have) water damage since the last rainstorm.
. He (has, had) pneumonia last month.
. I (have, has) some explaining to do about the new locks on the doors.
. We (have, has) next Monday off as it is a holiday.
. I (have had, had) nothing but trouble since I bought this old car.
. Angie and Frank (have, has) no money for their trip.
. The college (has, have) a new auditorium.
Wa. Ella
eS)
ESS
-@\,
CoS)
Ney and I (have, has) a chemistry test tomorrow, and we are nervous about it.
10. The new house (has, had) four bedrooms and three bathrooms.

Some verbs are so close in meaning and so irregular in conjugation that they are
frequently misused and misspelled. Lie and Jay, rise and raise, and sit and set are
52 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

all tricky in this way. Whenever you see or want to use one of these six verbs, ask
yourself two questions:
1. What is the exact meaning I intend in this situation?
2. What is the exact time I intend for this action, and what tense is required
to express it?

Past | Past Participle

Lie To take a lying position or to be lie(s) lay have/has/had
lying down. lain
Example: | lie down for a nap
every afternoon.

To go up. rise(s ) rose | have/has/had

Example: The sun rises in the risen
morning.
To force something to move up. raise(s) | raised |have/has/had
Example: She raised the window
to let in the fresh air.
To take a sitting position or to be have/has/had
sitting down. sat
Example: | sit down in the chair.
To put, to place something have/has/had
Example: | set the plant by the set
window.

Underline the correct verb for each sentence.

Example: My digital microscope (lays, lies) on top of my scattered science
papers.
1. (Lie, Lay) your papers on this table.
. My brother is sick, so he will (lie, lay) down in bed today.
. My wallet has (lain, laid) on my desk for the last two days.
. (Lie, Lay) your head on the pillow.
. Lhave (lain, laid) awake until the sun came up.
. The teacher (lay, laid) his notebook on the podium.
OO
OE. James
INS)
ONG
Sl (lain, laid) a bet on the football game.
 Verb Tense Consistency 53

8. The sun does not (lay, laid) on the horizon very long as it is setting.
9. When you (lie, lay) down after a big meal, you fall asleep quickly.
10. The cleaners (lie, lay) the sheets over the furniture.

Underline the correct verb for each sentence.

Example: He (sets, sits) the alarm clock to wake up at four in the morning.
1. Tom (sits, sets) his iPod in its charging dock station.
. (Rise, Raise) the flag of the United States of America.
. We have (risen, raised) our children to be good people.
. Did you see the smoke (rise, raise) from the chimney?
. “(Rise, Raise) and shine!” called my sister.
The flowers in my garden (raise, rise) their faces to the sun every day.
. I need to (rise, raise) the bars on my weight machine.
. We need to (rise, raise) money for the school.
. The store owner (sits, sets) high prices for the fresh vegetables.
10. The pool’s water level (raised, rose) four inches after the heavy rains.

VERB TENSE CONSISTENCY

Although the actions that take place in a story, report, poem, legal document,
speech, or letter may show movement between different times, keeping to one
tense within each sentence creates clearer writing. Inconsistent shifts in tense can
cause confusion. Generally, writers maintain one tense for the main sentence or text
and indicate changes in time frame by changing tense relative to that primary tense.

(@) MEMORY TIP

Do NOT shift tenses within a sentence; make all the verbs in the same
tense as the first verb you used in the sentence.
Incorrect: He treats her like a child and is laughing at her when she
does something funny.
Correct: He treats her like a child and laughs at her when she
does something funny.
OR
He is treating her like a child and is laughing at her
when she is doing something funny.
54 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Rewrite the following sentences so the verbs are consistent.

Example: He is knowing that he will be cautious when he talked to strangers.

He knows that he is cautious when he talks to strangers.

1. I cut my hair every six weeks because it will be growing too fast.

2. The flowers are blooming this spring, and I looked forward to their fragrance
and beauty.

3. Missy and I take the same English class, but Missy will have been doing better
than I.

4, Since August, Octavio has planned his trip to Europe, and he will be saving
money for it.

5. The washer and dryer are on sale, and | am affording them at this time.

Working in small groups, underline all the verbs in this excerpt taken from
Raymond Carver's The Bath; then, change them to present tense. When you have
finished changing all the verbs, discuss with your group mates how the text has
changed. What have you lost (or gained) by changing the verbs? What verbs did
you not change, and why not? The first sentence has been completed for you.

(1) Saturday afternoon the mother hege to the bakery in the shopping
center. (2) After she looked through a loose-leaf binder of cake photo-
graphs, she ordered chocolate cake. (3) The cake she chose was decorated
with a spaceship and a launching pad under a sprinkling of white stars.
(4) She asked the baker to ice the name SCOTTY in green as if it were the
name of the spaceship. (5) The baker listened thoughtfully when the mother
told him Scotty was turning eight years old. (6) He was an older man, this
baker, and he wore a curious apron, a heavy thing with loops that went
 Verb Tense Consistency 55

under his arms and around his back, then crossed in front
again where they
were tied in a very thick knot. (7) He kept wiping his hands
on the front of
the apron as he listened to the woman, his wet eyes examine
d her lips as
she studied the samples and talked. (8) He let her take her time.
(9) He was
in no hurry. (10) The mother decided on the spaceship cake, and
then she
gave the baker her name and her telephone number. (11) The cake was
to be
ready Monday morning, in plenty of time for the party Monday afterno
on.
(12) This was all that the baker said to the woman. (13) No pleasantries and
nothing that was not necessary.
—From Raymond Carver, The Bath

Part A: Using complete sentences, in small groups, answer the six questions on
the topic of college stress.
Part B: Then, with your group, rewrite the sentences into a paragraph using one
consistent verb tense—present, past, or future. You may add more sentences to
your paragraph, but be sure to use one specific tense throughout.

PartA

Sentence 1: Is being a college student stressful?

Sentence 2: What are some general factors that stress college students?

Sentence 3: What are some mental or emotional reactions to college stress?

Sentence 4: What are some physical reactions to college stress?

Sentence 5: What specific college factor stresses college students the most? Why?

kant
56 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

Sentence 6: How should students cope with that stress? Or what can students
do to reduce stress?

Part B
Students and Stress

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Tense is the form of the verb that shows when the subject is performing the ac-
tion. Voice is the form of the verb that shows whether the subject is performing
or receiving the action. There are two voices in English: active and passive.
Active Voice: Her mom ate the cake.
Gary drives to campus.

In a sentence with active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action ex-
pressed in the verb. In these two examples, her mom and Gary are the subjects perform-
ing the verbs aze and drives, With the active voice, fewer words are used for a clearer and
more direct sentence. In general, clarity and directness are always good qualities to have
in your writing, so you may be encouraged to use the active voice whenever possible.
Most action verbs, like ate and drives, can also be used in the passive voice. A
passive verb is created using a form of to be and the past participle of a given verb
(an —n or —en ending to the verb).

Passive Voice: The cake was eaten by her mom.

Gary was driven to campus.

In the first example, her mom is still performing the action of eating the cake; yet
the words her mom are now the object of the preposition by and not the subject
of the sentence. In the second example, the person doing the action is not identi-
fied, but Gary is the receiver of the action.
 Active and Passive Voice 57

At times, however, the passive voice can be the right choice. It works
in the
following situations:

= You simply do not know who was responsible for an action.

m You need to be tactful so as not to be hurtful or embarrassing in identifying
the subject.
# You do not need to mention the person or thing responsible because it is
irrelevant or less important.

Passive Voice: Da Vinci's Mona Lisa was viewed by thousands of art lovers
this year.
It is not important to know who the specific art lovers are in this particular
sentence.

(%) MEMORY TIP

m in the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightfor-
ward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sen-
tence along.

m In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither ado-er or |

a be-er, but is acted upon by an unnamed someone or something.

BUILDING SKILLS 2-19: Verb Voice

Rewrite the following sentences so the verbs are in active voice.
Examples: The new house was decorated by Marlena.
Marlena decorated the new house.

1. This controversial book was read by Thomas.

2. The confidential letter was delivered by the kind mail carrier.

3. The delicious pizza was baked by them.

58 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

4, The fire was started by the broken electric wire.

5. The rude and hurtful comment was made by one of the twins.

Read this excerpt passage from James Baldwin's Sonny's Blues and identify each
verb. Determine the tense of each verb. The first sentence is completed for you.
Simple Past
| read about it in the paper, in the subway, on my way to work. | read it, and
| could not believe it, and | read it again. Then perhaps | just stared at it, at the
newsprint that was spelling out his name, spelling out the story. | stared at it in
the swinging lights of the subway car, and in the faces and bodies of the people,
and in my own face, trapped in the darkness, which roared outside.
It was not to be believed and | kept telling myself that, as | was walking from
the subway station to the high school. And at the same time | could not doubt it.
| was scared, scared for Sonny. He was becoming real to me again. A great block
of ice was settling in my belly and all day long, it was melting there slowly while
| was teaching my classes in algebra. It was a special kind of ice. It kept melt-
ing, sending trickles of ice water all up and down my veins, but it never got less.
Sometimes it hardened and seemed to expand until | felt my guts were going to
come spilling out or that | was going to choke or scream. This will always be at a
moment when | am remembering some specific thing Sonny had once said or done.
When he was about as old as the boys, in my classes his face had been bright
and open, there was a lot of copper in it; and he had had wonderfully direct
brown eyes, and great gentleness and privacy. | will always be wondering what
he may have looked like now. He had been picked up, the evening before, in a
raid on an apartment downtown, for peddling and using heroin.
| had kept it outside me for a long time, | had not wanted to know. | had had
my suspicions, but | did not name them. | was putting them away all the time. |
was telling myself that Sonny was wild, but he was not crazy. And he had always
been a good boy, he had not ever turned hard or evil or disrespectful, the way
 Active and Passive Voice 59

kids can, So quick, so quick, especially in Harlem. | did not

want to believe that
| will see my brother going down, coming to nothing, all
that light in his face
gone out, in the condition | had already seen so many others.
Yet it happened
and here | was, talking about algebra to a lot of boys...

—From James Baldwin, Sonny’ Blues

Rewrite the following sentences, changing the underlined verbs to the correct tense.

1. It is closed now, but the library open during last summer.

2. Because the computer virus corrupt the whole program, I lose important
information, and I was not able to complete the assignment.

3. By the time I left for work, the snow fall heavily on the ground.

4, We dance for two hours when the fireworks show began.

5. Before the day ends, I paint the other side of the house.

6. He bathe the baby when the doorbell rang.

7. Tomorrow morning, I meet with the general manager about the new job.

8. The football team play its challenging rivals next Wednesday.

60 CHAPTER TWO: Verbs

9. After he watched The Speed Racers, Trey wanted to drive a fast car.

10. I work for six months by the time I start college this fall.

11. The group of rockers practice for three weeks for this weekend’s music
contest.

12. We practice our dancing for two weeks before we auditioned for Dancing
Steps.

13. Ben pass his test before he received his driver's license.

14. He go to his sister’s house many times.

15. The director edit the new show now.

CHAPTER THREE: The Third Building Block
Subject-Verb Agreement

In Chapters One and Two, you learned that subjects and verbs are the two major
building blocks of a sentence and of English grammar as a whole. However, these
two basic elements must agree with each other for the sentence to be effective and
clear. Think of two little boys dividing a bag of candy between them. If one boy
takes one piece, the other boy will take one piece; if one boy takes two pieces,
the other boy will take two pieces. As long as the number of pieces taken by one
boy matches the number of pieces taken by the other boy, they are happy—if
not, get ready for a fight! The basic elements of a good sentence require a similar
agreement. Learning to make subjects and verbs agree is the third building block
of grammar. This agreement is most apparent when the verb is in simple pres-
ent tense, because that is the only verb tense that requires an s ending with the
pronouns he, she, or it.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Because subjects and verbs must be present in every grammatically complete
sentence, they have a strong relationship with one another, especially in simple
present tense. When the two elements do not agree, the sentence stumbles, as in
these examples:

Dogs is my favorite animals.

Jim eat a hamburger nearly every day.
One of the most precious resources in the United States are water.

61
62 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

MEMORY TIP
The subject-verb agreement is most apparent when the verb is in simple
present tense because that is the only verb tense that requires an -s
ending when the subject is singular or can be replaced with the subject
pronouns he, she, or it.
| walk. We walk.
You walk. They walk.
He/she/it walks.

What exactly is the disagreement between the subject and verb in these sentences?
The subject and verb disagree in number. A word that refers to one person or
thing is singular in number. A word that refers to more than one is plural in
number.
Singular: dog, car, this, each, either, he, she, it
Plural: dogs, cars, these, both, they

MEMORY TIP
Number in English is determined by using the following subject pronouns
to replace the subject:
If the subject can be replaced with he, she, or it — its number is singular.
If the subject can be replaced with we or they — its number is plural.

Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement

In order to agree, a verb must follow the form of its subject in number.

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. An effective test to

tell if the subject is singular would be to see if you could replace the noun
with a singular pronoun like he, she, or it.

My brother (play, plays) football.

My brother can be replaced with the pronoun he. Therefore, brother is sin-
gular, and the verb that agrees with the subject pronoun he is plays.

Correct: My brother plays football.

 Subject-Verb Agreement 63

2. If the subject is plural, the verb must agree with it. An effective test
to
tell if the subject is plural would be to see if you could replace the noun
with a plural pronoun like we or they,
My brothers (play, plays) football.

My brothers can be replaced with the pronoun they. Therefore, brothers is

plural, and the verb that agrees with the subject pronoun they is play.
Correct: My brothers play football.

To be successful at subject-verb agreement, it is helpful to understand the

various forms that singular and plural subjects come in and to consider
the verb endings or changes needed for correct subject-verb agreement.

MEMORY TIP
Singular subjects can be: Plural subjects can be:
1. Simple singular nouns 1. Simple plural nouns
2. Collective nouns 2. Compound nouns
3. Words or phrases showing amounts 3. Indefinite pronouns
4. Indefinite pronouns

Singular Subject Rules

1. Simple and singular nouns. A sentence can have one singular noun as
the subject. This single noun can be replaced with any of the singular
pronouns or he/she/it. For subject-verb agreement, locate the subject and
check to see if it can be replaced with the singular pronouns /e/she/it.
A student (talk, talks) during the lecture.

He or she talks. Therefore, A student talks is the correct answer.

2. Collective nouns. Recall that collective nouns name groups composed of

members, usually people or things. A collective noun is a single thing or
unit made up of more than one person like army, group, or committee. The
members of the unit usually function as a singular unit and can be replaced
by the pronoun iz. Test by replacing the collective noun with the pronoun iz.
The team (play, plays) well tonight.

It plays. Therefore, The team plays is the correct answer.

3. Words or phrases that state amounts. Some subjects express periods of

time, fractions, weights, measurements, quantity, and amounts of money.
64 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

(6) MEMORY TIP

Although collective nouns usually function as a singular entity, they can
also act individually.
The group acting as one singular entity is replaced with the pronoun it:
The group discusses the research findings.
It
The group acting as individuals replaced with the pronoun they:
The members of the group discuss the research findings.
They

These subjects are usually singular or act as one thing or as a single unit
that can be replaced with the subject pronoun it.
Six dollars (cover, covers) the price for the movie ticket.

It covers. Therefore, six dollars covers is the correct answer.

Half an hour (seems, seem) too long when you are at the doctor.

It seems. Therefore, half'an hour seems is the correct answer.

Two pounds of potatoes (sits, sit) in the pantry.
It sits. Therefore, two pounds sits is the correct answer.
Three-fourth of the painting (shows, show) the artist’s muse.

It shows. Therefore, three-fourth of the painting shows is the correct answer.

4, Indefinite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that refer to a less

clearly identified noun. Indefinite pronouns that end in-one,-body, or-thing
are always singular. For subject-verb agreement, locate the subject indefinite
pronoun and test by replacing it with the singular pronouns /e/she/it.
Each student (explain, explains) the meaning of the song.

He or she explains, Therefore, Each student explains is the correct answer.

MEMORY TIP
The most common indefinite singular pronouns that are replaced with he/
she/it are:
anybody nobody somebody everybody
anything nothing something everything
anyone no one someone everyone
each either neither none
 Subject-Verb Agreement 65

Underline the subject and circle the verb that agrees with the subject in
each
sentence.
Example: The class (go, oes) on a field trip.
1 . Ed (chooses, choose) clear goals for his life.
. Susan (understand, understands) the meaning of the word ubiquitous.
. The committee (gather, gathers) every Monday and Wednesday.
Everyone in school (longs, long) for the long semester to end.
The jury (examines, examine) the evidence in the civil case.
. The team (plays, play) with more spirit when the stadium is packed
)RO
OC
with fans.
. Each of my children (practice, practices) playing on a musical instrument.
. The New Wave band (perform, performs) the opening act at the concert.
Com]

9. Each club member (check, checks) in at the front desk before being admitted.
. Every Halloween, the child (go, goes) trick or treating.

Plural Subject Rules

1. Simple and plural nouns. A sentence can have one plural noun or subject
that can be replaced with the pronouns we or they. For subject-verb agree-
ment, test the subject by replacing it with the plural pronouns we or they.
The students (complain, complains) about their assignments.

We complain. They complain. The students complain.

2. Compound nouns. A sentence can have two or more subjects that can be
replaced with the pronouns we or they. Test by replacing with the plural
pronoun they.
The students and the teacher (discuss, discusses) the story's theme.

They discuss. The students and the teacher discuss.

3. Plural indefinite pronoun. The indefinite pronouns that are plural in

number are: several, few, both, many. Test by replacing any of them with
the plural pronouns we or they.
Many (work, works) the graveyard shift.

We work. They work. Many work.

66 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

MEMORY TIP
The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some can be sin-
gular or plural, depending on how they are used. They are singular when
they refer to the quantity. They are plural when they refer to a number.
Some of the juice is spilled. (quantity)
Some of the invoices need to be mailed. (number)
Most of the music is nice to hear. (quantity)
All of the cake is eaten. (quantity)
All of the pictures are lost. (number)

Underline the subject and circle the verb that agrees with the subject in each
sentence.

Example: Apple pie and ice cream (3) goes) well together.
1: My thoughts often (become, becomes) confused when I sit down to write an
essay.
. Some of my friends (work, works) on the weekends for more money.
. Phil and Boris (want, wants) to buy a new computer for their new business office.
. Both baseball pitchers (make, makes) more money from product endorsements.
. When it is hot and humid, my clothes (stick, sticks) to me.
ND. A computer course and a reference guide (offer, offers) necessary skills for
WwW
KR
NA

video game players.

. Mothers (like, likes) to see their children grow into independent adults.
. Some boys (pitch, pitches) with one hand and (bat, bats) with another.
Com

9. Video editing and computer graphics (provide, provides) new business

possibilities.
. The manager and sales clerk (try, tries) to convince them to buy the expen-
sive video model.

Subject Agreement and Regular and Irregular Verbs

Recall that a regular verb is one whose base form does not change as it moves
through the verb tenses. For example:

Past Participle
paint ;
 Subject-Verb Agreement 67

In subject-verb agreement, the regular verb will not change its spelling but will
take an -s ending if the subject is singular or can be replaced with the pronouns
he, she, ox it.

paints (the spelling of the verb did not

change but -s is the verb ending)

To be successful at subject-verb agreement, always locate the subject first, de-

termine its number, then, judge whether the regular verb agrees with it in pres-
ent tense. If the subject is singular, the verb should generally have an -s added
to match its singular form with its subject. If the subject is plural (often ending
in -s), the verb should match its plural form by not adding an -s.

MEMORY TIP
Singular Subject > Verb with -s The contractor builds the house.
Plural Subject > Verb without -s The contractors build the houses.

Circle the verb that agrees with the subject in each sentence.
Example: The supervisors at my work always (Gonitop, monitors) our performance.
. Jack and Lyn (want, wants) to join the new choir group.
. Teenagers (prefers, prefer) music lessons to math lessons.
. Cheryl, Sue, and Marissa (belong, belongs) to the same volleyball club.
. Many of Roger's friends (have, has) football practice every day.
_ I find it funny that Todd and his nephew (is, are) professional house painters.
. The sugar cookies in the oven (is, are) for this afternoon's tea party.
. Every week, my nieces and their mother (have, has) lessons in martial arts.
_ The doctors in this clinic (bring, brings) hope to their patients.
. Stress and nightmares (keep, keeps) me from sleeping at night.
eS
Sy
SGN
~~)
Com
NO®
OS

10. Bill and Chris (is, are) good soccer players.

68 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

While the base form of a regular verb does not change as it moves through the
tenses, the base form of an irregular verb may change, sometimes into completely
different words. The most troublesome irregular verbs for subject-verb agreement
ate to be, to do, and to have. Look at the box here and notice how they change
with the pronouns fe, she, or it.

Irregular Verb Subject-Verb Agreement

Iam I do I have
You are You do You have
He/she/it is He/she/it does He/she/it has
We are We have
They are They have
Those three irregular verbs change completely in present tense if the subject is
singular or if the subject can be replaced with the pronouns /e/she/it. Consider
the following examples with the verb to be:
Simple Subjects:
Singular subject
The son (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
Plural subject
The sons (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
Compound Subjects:
Compound subject
The father and the son (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
Collective Noun:
Collective noun acting as a single unit
The family (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
Collective nouns acting as individuals

The xectscle pinay (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
Indefinite Pronoun:
Indefinite pronoun-singular
Everyone (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
Indefinite pronoun-plural
All the family members (is, are) late for the meeting with the lawyer.
 Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 69

Circle the verb that agrees with the subject in each sentence.
Example: She (Gas, have) a test this week.
1. He (does, do) what he can to help his struggling friends.
. Six balls (is, are) enough for the tennis game.
. The trusty mechanic (has, have) replaced the worn brake pads on my car.
. The group (is, are) finished with the chemistry project.
. This week, Norma (has, have) three final exams.
. A bag of groceries (is, are) sitting on the kitchen counter.
. Each student (has, have) the wrong book for class.
. The crowd (is, are) angry with the politician at the podium.
IGN
COM
SORT
Oo
OE . Somebody (is, are) guilty of the crime of theft.
10. Society (has, have) exact standards for behaving in professional settings.

TRICKY SITUATIONS IN SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Sometimes, the arrangement of words in some sentences can make it difficult to
locate the subject and verb to make them agree. It may be helpful to know the
four tricky situations; then, you will know how to determine what to do.

(6) MEMORY TIP

An easy way to spot prepositional phrases is to consider that such phrases
begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun.
Preposition Preposition
a A
| Into the building > noun After her > pronoun

Sentences That Start with Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases are words that indicate location, time, or source (take the
time to learn and recognize the prepositions listed in Appendix A), but they do
not and cannot include the subject of the sentence.
To find the subject in a sentence with a prepositional phrase, consider crossing
out the prepositional phrase and looking for the noun or pronoun that remains.
Outside the wall (walk, walks) an armed guard.
Outside the-watt (walk, walks) an armed guard.
70 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

An armed guard can be replaced by he.

He walks outside the wall.
Outside the wall walks an armed guard.

Poisonous ferns (grows, grow) along the winding road to the red
house.

Poisonous ferns can be replaced by they.

Poisonous ferns grow along the winding road to the red house.

(6) MEMORY TIP

There are many, many prepositions; some of the most common are listed
here:

above
among around
below behind
beneath beside
between beyond

y infinto to
inside near

out outside

over

through
S xe)

within

An easy way to help you remember prepositions is to think of the expres-

sion the house. Then put as many prepositional words as you can in front
of the words the house:
above the house from the house
around the house with the house
by the house to the house

Sentences Starting with Here, There, What, Where, When, and Why
Here, there, what, where, when, how, and why can never be the subjects in the
sentences because they are location or preposition words or words related to
questions. For location words, reverse the sentence, so you can find the subject
 Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 71

and verb. For questions, answer the question in a full statement, then
locate the
subject and verb.

Here (comes, come) my friend.

Reverse: My friend (comes, come) here.
My friend can be replaced with he or she.
Here comes my friend.

Here (comes, come) my friends.

Reverse: My friends (comes, come) here.
They come here.
My friends come here.

There (is, are) my book.

Reverse: My book (is, are) there.
My book can be replaced with it.
My book is there.
There is my book.

There (is, are) my books.

Reverse: My books (is, are) there.
My books can be replaced with they.
My books are there.
There are my books.

Where (is, are) my book?

Answer Statement: My book (is, are) on the desk.
My book can be replaced with it.
My book is on the desk.
Where is my book?

Where (is, are) my pens?

Answer Statement: My pens (is, are) on the desk.
My pens can be replaced with they.
My pens are on the desk.
Where are my pens?

Why (is, are) my document on the desk?

Answer Statement: My document (is, are) on the desk.
My document can be replaced with it.
My document is on the desk because | put it there.
Why is my document on the desk?
72 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

Why (is, are) my books on the desk?

Reverse: My books (is, are) on the desk because | put them there.
My book can be replaced with they.
My books are on the desk because | put them there.
Why are my books on the desk?

Circle the verb that agrees with the subject in each sentence.
Example: Underneath the plastic cover @eep9, sleep) the drunk man.
1. There (is, are) a light shining through the woods.
2. What (is, are) the recipe for this cake?
3. During the hottest part of the day and under the big tree (sits, sit) a group of
children.
4 . When (is, are) the party guests arriving?
5 . When (is, are) the party guest arriving?
G6. Here (is, are) the keys to that new convertible car.
7. The receipts from the shoe store (is, are) in my wallet.
8. The receipt from the shoe store (fit, fits) in my wallet.
9. There (is, are) two important financial decisions to be made.
10. Why (does, do) the dishwasher beep at the end of each cycle?
11. At the end of my workday (comes, come) a sense of completion.
12. Near the top of the hill (sits, sit) a restaurant with a view of the countryside.
13. Annie, where (do, does) these letters go?
14. In the sick man’s eyes, there (is, are) peace and acceptance.
15. At the back of the theater (stands, stand) two ushers.

Sentences with Either/Or, Neither/Nor, and Or

When you have a sentence that includes either/or, neither/nor, or or, be sure
to locate the subject that is closer to the verb to determine what happens to
the verb.

Either the students or the teacher (talk, talks) about the bad test.
 Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 73

Teacher is the subject closest to the verb, and it can be replace

d with he/she;
then, the correct answer is:

Either the students or the teacher talks about the bad

test.

Either the student or the teachers (talk, talks) about the

bad test.
Teachers is the subject closes to the verb and it can be replaced with they;
then, the correct answer is:
Either the student or the teachers talk about the bad test.

The same would apply to neither/nor but here is what it looks like with or:

The students or the teacher (talk, talks) about the bad test.

The teacher can be replaced with he/she.

The students or the teacher talks about the bad test.

(%) MEMORY TIP

An easier way to remember interrupters may be by using the word SCOOop-
ables. Scoopables refer to the non-essential information between two com-
mas that separates the subject and the verb.
Subject verb
8 L
Tom, the next-door neighbor, is an agent with the Federal Bureau of
Investigation.
lf you removed the scoopable, the sentence is still clearly understood.
Tom is an agent with the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Sentences with Interrupters

Interrupters could be a word or a group of words that appears between the subject
and verb, but these words are not important to the basic meaning of the sentence and
“interrupt” the structure of the sentence. When the interrupters are “scooped out” or
removed from the sentence, the sentence still makes perfect sense. The nonessential
information that comes between the subject and verb must be put between commas.

The students, not the teacher, (talk, talks).

74 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

The students, not-the teacher, (talk, talks).

The students can be replaced with they.
The students, not the teacher, talk.

Harry, not his cousins, (win, wins) at the horse races.

Harry, not-his-cousins, (win, wins) at the horse races.
Harry can be replaced with he.
Harry, not his cousins, wins at the horse races.

Circle the verb that agrees with the subject in each sentence.
Example: Eugene, the one who teaches biology and chemistry, (9, are) sick today.
1. Neither John nor his teachers (have, has) a solution to his dilemma.
2. Quentin, the captain of three teams, (is, are) going to have knee surgery.
3. Either stress or pain from my legs (keeps, keep) me awake at night.
4, The old house, the one owned by the Ramseys, (stands, stand) behind the
grove of orange trees.
5. My brother or my sister (takes, take) the dog for his daily walk.
6. Al, despite all his friends and admirers, (remains, remain) a lonely man.
7. Either the rose bushes or the lemon tree (fits, fit) in that spot in the yard.
8. Either the rose bushes or the lemon trees (fits, fit) in that spot in the yard.
9. Your friends, the ones who know your sister, (parties, party) too hard.
10. The wine stewards, not Robert, (recommend, recommends) this
white wine.
11. He claims that neither employer (spend, spends) much money
on bonuses.
12. The swimmers or the coach (needs, need) to see the videotape from the
last meet.
13. Harold, one of the lawyers, (selects, select) the cases carefully.
14. The girl across the street or the boys around the corner (play, plays) in the
empty parking lot.
15. Nora, one of the talented skiers, (falls, fall) hard down the slope.
 Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 75

BUILDING SKILLS 3-7: Subject-Verb Agreement in Writing

Write the subject on the first line and the correct verb on the second
line.
Example: Children (is, are) affected by the images they see in various media.
Children are
1. Television (is, are) a common fixture in
American homes.
2. Violence on television (concerns, concern)
many parents.
3. Here, the term violence (refer, refers) to use
of physical force against another person.
4. On average, the American child (spends,
spend) 20 to 25 hours each week watching TV.
5. Children’s cartoons (has, have) one violent
act every three minutes.
6. Before reaching adolescence, the average
North American youngster (see, sees) several
thousand murders on TY.
7. What (is, are) the impact of this steady
diet of televised violence?
8. A child, according to social cognitive theory,
(learn, learns) by observing others and
imitating what she or he sees.
9. These researchers (predict, predicts) more
aggressive behavior from children who are
exposed to violent TV.
10. In the end, the aggressive behaviors may
either (put, puts) them behind bars or (ruin,
ruins) their interactions with others.
—Adapted from Kail/Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View

Working with a partner, complete the following sentences using subject-verb

agreement rules. The sentences have been started for you.
Example: Simple subject:
This campus is abandoned during the summer months. gee
76 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Compound subject:
iihesmenancavomenes eee eee

2. Collective noun:
This group

3. Indefinite pronoun:
Somebody.

4, Prepositional phrase:
Into the sky

5. Here/There with a singular subject:

Here

6. Here/There with a plural subject:

There

7. Question words:
Where

8. Either/Or:
Either he , or he

9. Interrupters (or Scoopables):

With a singular subject:
With a plural subject:

10. Here/There with a plural subject:

There
 Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 77

With a partner, read this excerpt, underline the subjects, and circle all the verbs
in the passage. Then, using the lines on the next page, change all the verbs to
simple present tense being mindful of subject-verb agreement. The first sentence
is completed for you.
(1) Her name@adConnie. (2) She was fifteen and she had a quick nervous gig-
gling habit of craning her neck to glance into mirrors, or checking other people's
faces to make sure her own was all right. (3) Her mother, who noticed everything
and knew everything and who hadn't much reason any longer to look at her own
face, always scolded Connie about it. “Stop Gawking at yourself. Who are you?
You think you're so pretty?" she said. (4) Connie raised her eyebrows at these
familiar complaints and looked right through her mother, into a shadowy vision of
herself as she was right at that moment: she knew she was pretty and that was
everything. (5) Her mother had been pretty, if you could believe those old snap-
shots in the album, but now her looks were gone and that was why she was always
after Connie. (6) Her sister was twenty-four and still lived at home. (7) She was a
secretary in the high school Connie attended, and if that wasn't bad enough-with
her in the same building—she was so plain and chunky and steady that Connie had
to hear her praised all the time by her mother and her mother's sisters. (8) June
did this, June did that, she saved money and helped clean the house and cooked
and Connie did not do a thing, her mind was filled with trashy daydreams.
(9) Their father was away at work most of the time and when he came
home, he wanted supper, and he read the newspaper at supper and after sup-
per, he went to bed. (10) He did not bother talking much to them, but around
his bent head Connie’s mother kept picking at her until Connie wished her
mother was dead and she herself was dead and it was all over. (11) There was
one good thing: June went places with girl friends of hers, girls who were just
as plain and steady as she, and so when Connie wanted to do that her mother
had no objections. (12) The father of Connie's best friend drove the girls the
: three miles to town and left them off at a shopping plaza, so that they walked
through the stores or went to a movie, and when he came to pick them up
again at eleven he never bothered to ask what they did there.
—From Joyce Carol Oates, Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?

baa
78 CHAPTER THREE: Subject-Verb Agreement

Circle the verb that agrees with the subject in each sentence.

. In America, each person (enjoys, enjoy) the right to freedom.

. Sam, one of Tim’s friends, (plays, play) professional tennis.
. At the end of Esperanza Street (stand, stands) an old and abandoned church.
. Jonathan (talks, talk) to his mother every day.
. There (is, are) too many people on this ski lift.
. Neither the teachers nor the administration (want, wants) a strike.
. Lucy and George (believe, believes) in hard work.
. Lucy or George (believe, believes) in hard work.
Soi
OTE
GNU. The jury (announces, announce) the decision in the murder case.
COMO
<THE
COME
NOME
10. The murderers (is, are) taken to jail.
11. Here (sits, sit) my grandmother.
12. Neither of the girls (want, wants) to work tonight.
13. May, one of the medical students, (fails, fail) her biology test.
14. There (is, are) many grammar errors in my research paper.
15. Swimming and golf (is, are) my favorite sports.
16. Something (does, do) not look right in this situation.
17. At the back of the book, the pictures (contain, contains) valuable information.
18. ‘The problem of transporting products (is, are) complicated by rising gas prices.
19. Behind the shed and around the oak tree (waits, wait) the scared teenager.
20. Her father, one of the best Army majors, (has, have) an incurable disease.
21. He is a man who (protects, protect) his family.
22. Alex, as well as his relatives, (throws, throw) a summer party.
 Tricky Situations in Subject-Verb Agreement 79

23. Either Grace or her sisters (present, presents) the flowers to the bride.
24. The union (votes, vote) on the new proposal.
25. Behind the locked doors (lies, lie) a big fortune in gold.
26. Everyone (turns, turn) in today’s assignment.
27. Joe, one of the staff members, (understands, understand) the manager's
opinion.
28. A dozen (is, are) too many eggs for a little boy to eat.
29. At the other end of the phone line (cries, cry) an anxious mother.
30. The herd of cattle (is, are) killed by mad cow disease.
a
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pat a

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Lae» ote y ’ ei
O. Pid Os t 4 _ F 7
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Tt The one '

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4. lkew <= : 2 im (vee Par a

ws
UNIT TWO: Pronouns

81
CHAPTER FOUR: The Fourth Building Block
Pronouns

Should you use who or whom in addressing a letter? Do you say, “Between you
and me” or “Between you and |”? Is it “She is nicer than me” or “She is nicer than
I’? These examples demonstrate the most frequent problems people have with
pronouns. It is important to learn about pronouns—the fourth building block—
because they are useful little words that replace nouns in sentences and clarify
meaning. For instance, in recounting a story to others, rather than saying “Jim
said to Jim’s mother, ‘Jim failed Jim’s driving test,” you might say, “Jim said to his
mother, ‘J failed my driving test.” A properly used pronoun will improve the flow
of your speaking or writing and will help eliminate awkward and repetitive words.
Pronouns are words that can replace nouns. They allow you to communi-
cate complete thoughts without using exact nouns every time. For example, you
can use him instead of “Dr. James J. McFarlane,” there instead of “Washington,
D.C.,” and shat instead of “the new shampoo I bought and tossed next to the
soap in the bathroom.”
Pronouns do not just make your writing or speaking more efficient, but they
also help you add variety and appeal. Unfortunately, pronouns are misused
almost as frequently as they are used. That is why the fourth building block to
correct writing is learning to use pronouns clearly and accurately. This building
block relies on your understanding of subjects and verbs.

PRONOUN USAGE
You can use pronouns to reduce repetition of nouns or to clarify the subject(s) in
your sentences. Consider this paragraph:

Jerry came to class. Jerry listened to the teacher's lecture, and Jerry
wrote in Jerry's notebook as the teacher talked. Jerry's friend Julie
82
 Pronoun Usage 883

passed Jerry a note with a question about the lecture.

Jerry left when
class ended, and went home to study for Jerry’s upcoming
test.
Now consider this paragraph:

Jerry came to class. He listened to the teacher's lecture, and he wrote

in
his notebook as the teacher talked. His friend Julie passed him a note
with
a question about the lecture. He left when class ended, and went home
to
study for his upcoming test.

Which paragraph sounds better and easier to read? You probably agree that
the second paragraph is the better one. The use of the pronouns he, his, and
him in place of the noun Jerry helps make the second paragraph sound better.
The word Jerry is the antecedent—the word replaced by all the pronouns he,
his, and him.
Pronouns come in different forms, and it is important to know when to use
which form. The form a pronoun takes in a sentence is referred to as case. The
three kinds of cases are:

1. Subjective case where the pronoun takes the place of a subject in the
sentence.
2. Objective case where the pronoun tells to whom or for whom the sen-
tence’s action is done.
3. Possessive case where the pronoun shows ownership of something in the
sentence.

Here is a chart to show how each case changes a pronoun.

them their, theirs

Subjective Case
_ The pronouns that make up the category of subjective pronouns are:

I/we
you
he/she/it

Subjective pronouns are used in place of the subject in a sentence.

+
84 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

(&) MEMORY TIP

verb. They are called subjective pronouns because they fill the “subject” posi-
tion in a sentence by indicating who or what is doing or being something.

You will need to use the subjective case in the following situations:

1, The subjective pronoun is at the beginning of the sentence to tell who

or what is doing or being something.
| dance in the hall.
He walks down the street.
We eat our hamburgers.
They talk about the politicai situation.
2. The subjective pronoun is being used after a comparison signal word
such as than or as. In this arrangement, the pronoun is not at the begin-
ning of the sentence but appears as part of a clause.

(6) MEMORY TIP

A clause is a group of words with a subject and verb.
Subject Verb
LJ
| drink coffee.

The words am, are, and do, which complete the clause, have been omitted.
Therefore, the pronouns that come after than or as are subjects of “under-
stood” verbs or verbs that are not visible but implied or inferred.

She is taller than |.

Notice that this sentence is actually saying: She is taller than J am. The J
and am make up the clause. It may sound better to say: She is taller than
me. However, grammatically, you cannot say: She is taller than me am,
because the pronoun me cannot perform the verb am.
Incorrect: We play better than them. (‘them do”)
Correct: We play better than they. (‘they do”)
 Pronoun Usage 85

3. The subjective pronoun follows a verb to be such as am, is, are, was,
were, or will be.
Incorrect: | believe the thief is him.
Correct: | believe the thief is he.

The pronoun 4e comes after the verb is and if you reverse the sentence,
you would get: He is the thief. We cannot say him because that pronoun
cannot perform the verb.
Incorrect: Him is at the door.
Correct: It is he at the door.

Circle the correct pronoun in parentheses.

Example: Sammy is as shrewd as (her, Ghd).
1. She and (I, me) loaded the car for our camping trip.
2 . (He, Him) and Nathan always go camping in Big Bear.

3 . The murderer in this case was (him, he).

4 . My best friends and (I, me) take the same classes in college.
5 . The cheerleaders for our team will be (them, they).
6. I should be paid more than (he, him) because I work harder.

7. Jay and (I, me) were chosen for the debate team.
8. It was (she, her) at the marketing conference.

9. It is (she, her) calling you on your cell phone.

10. Marley, Tom, and (I, me) are planning a wedding shower for Stacy.
11. We were just as competitive as (they, them) in bowling.
12. It will be (they, them) who disappear from the party scene.
13. In packaging our merchandise, Mike works faster than (she, her).
~ 14. (Us, We) poor factory workers are always overworked and underappreciated.
15. I was as pleased as (she, her) about the positive results.
86 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

Objective Case
The pronouns that make up the category of objective pronouns are the following:

me/us
you
him/her/it

This form of pronoun is needed whenever a pronoun receives the action of the
verb or comes after a preposition.

MEMORY TIP
Objective case pronouns often fall after the verb or preposition because
they are to whom or for whom the verb is being performed. They are
called objective because they fill “object” positions. An object to the verb
is a word or a group of words functioning as a noun or a pronoun that fol-
lows the verb and receives the action of the verb. An object can be:
®@ Direct when it answers the question what or whom in connection with
the verb
| met Dr. Spencer. (whom did | meet?)
® Indirect when it answers the question to whom in connection with the
verb.
| sent the letter to my supervisor. (To whom did | send the letter?)

You will need to use the objective case in the following situations:

1. The objective pronoun receives the action of the verb. In this arrange-
ment, the pronoun answers the question what or whom in connection
with the verb.
| will bring it to your house. (What will | bring? It)
| saw him at the club. (Whom did | see? Him)
2. The objective pronoun comes after a preposition. Prepositions are
words that add information by showing time (before, during, afier, . . .),
location (behind, between, in front of, . . .), and source (to, for, from, by, of,
about, ...). Refer to Appendix A for a complete list of prepositions. When
the pronoun is placed after the preposition, it must take the objective form
because it answers the question to whom, for whom, by whom, with whom,
or from whom in connection with the verb.
| gave the letter to him. (To whom did he give the letter? Him)
He walked with them. (With whom did he walk? Them)
 Pronoun Usage 87

3. The objective pronoun falls after the words between and let’s. Between
is a preposition showing location, so any pronoun after it should be of the
objective case.
Between you and me, she is not nice.
Most commonly, “Between you and I” is used; however, / is a subjective pro-
noun when objective pronouns need to be used after a preposition like between.
Let’ is really a contraction of the words Let and us and means “let us.” Us is
an objective pronoun, so to clarify who the ws is, you need to use pronouns
from the objective case.
Let’s you and me take a walk in the park.
It is more commonly heard as “Let’s you and |” but that is not correct
pronoun use.

Circle the correct pronoun in parentheses.

Example: The contractor called (her) she) with the construction estimate.

. The Nobel Prize was awarded jointly to him and (her, she).

. Between you and (I, me), I think Ben stole the cash.
. The contest was judged by John and (I, me).
. The boss praised (I, me) for the successful completion of the project.
. Mrs. Jeffries offered her accounting services to (me, I).

. Yvonne trusted Marybeth and (him, he) to tell the workers about the change
in plan.

. Let’s you and (me, I) go tell the neighbors about the snake.

. It was hard for (we, us) to work on the building plans.

. The singer gave a special performance for Louise and (him, he).

. Between me and (her, she) is the big issue of deception.

. Sam gave Tracy and (her, she) a ride to the mall.
. The concert was a disappointment for my sister and (me, I).

. Dad split the money between my brother and (me, J).

. The play was boring for (I, me).

. Let’s you and (me, I) organize the closet for the office.
88 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

Possessive Case
The pronouns that make up this category are the following:
my, mine our, ours
your, yours their, theirs
his, her, hers, its
This form of pronoun is needed whenever a pronoun is used to show ownership.
You will need to use possessive case in the following situations:
1. The pronoun appears before a noun to show possession.
My report on American government is almost done.
Their suggestions have been very helpful.
2. The pronoun appears before a verb that is being used as a noun or a gerund.
Some nouns are formed from verbs. These nouns are called gerunds and are
formed by adding -ing to a verb to name an activity; for example, talking,
swimming, sewing, Or smoking.
Your [smokinglis a dangerous habit.
| did not like his [running|past me without saying hello.
3. The pronoun stands alone to indicate possession.
That car is theirs, not ours.
Is this coffee mug yours or mine?

BUILDING SKILLS 4-3: Possessive Pronouns

Underline the possessive pronouns in this passage.
Sorting out and folding the laundry are major tasks in our house. They prob-
ably are in most houses, but in ours, they are a bother! It used to be her-—my
sister's-job, but last week my mother made it mine. She dropped the laundry
basket down in my bedroom doorway and announced that | would be the Laun-
dry Girl for the next two weeks.
We are a large family. Our family consists of Mother, Dad, the triplets, Alison,
Letty, and me. Daily, my mother washes three laundry loads including one just
for socks. Mother's socks are easiest to find. Hers are all small and black. Dad's
socks are not too hard to spot as his are big and beige or navy-colored. Letty’s
and Alison's socks are easy to find because theirs are mostly red or pink knee-
highs. However, the triplets’ socks are hard! Theirs come in all sizes, colors, and
types-soccer socks, school socks, baseball socks, and socks for the Scouts.
There are so many of them; it takes a long time to sort theirs all out. These
days, | dread doing the laundry even sorting and folding what is mine.
 Other Pronouns 89

OTHER PRONOUNS
Besides the subjective, objective, and possessive cases for pronouns, there are other
troublesome kinds of pronouns. It can be difficult to determine which ones to use.

Who vs. Whom

These words are notoriously tricky, along with their companions whoever and
whomever. Who and whoever are subjective pronouns, so they are always used
before the verb as the subject in the sentence.
Who is at the door?
He chose whoever volunteered for the English project.

Whom and whomever are objective pronouns, so they are always used as the
receiver of the verb or after a preposition.
The student whom | know studies hard will pass the test.
To whom are you talking?
You can select whomever you want.

(&) MEMORY TIP

lf you are choosing between who and whom, look to the right of these
words to see the next or immediate word right after. If the next word after
who or whom in a statement is a verb, the correct pronoun is the subject
and almost always will be who.
Verb
L
The students who study well will pass the class.
lf the next important word after who or whom is a subject (noun or pro-
noun), the correct pronoun is an object and almost always will be whom.
Pronoun

| need one person whom | can rely on.

Noun

Those for whom diabetes is an issue must watch their diets.

Circle the correct pronoun in parentheses.

Example: The students (@ho,) whom) study diligently will pass the math exam.
1. (Who, Whom) does the teacher think is most talented?
2. To (who, whom) does this jacket belong?
>
90 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

. You have to ask (whoever, whomever) is on duty about the extra towels.

. You can be sure Kevin knows (who, whom) is at fault in this case.
. The operator (who, whom) Mrs. Johnson hired left early.

. To (who, whom) should these invitations be sent?

. The preacher will talk to (whomever, whoever) will listen.

. |wonder (who, whom) the love song is about.

. Everybody in camp (who, whom) got bitten by the mosquitoes was given
COU
OND
COMI
NOS
gO

treatment.

. The worker (who, whom) used to work here has been fired.
. Ask (whoever, whomever) you invited to the club to bring drinks.
. The sailor (who, whom) I was talking to told me about the storm.
. He mailed the letter to (whoever, whomever) contacted him about the job.

. Tell (whoever, whomever) is at the front desk that we need the paramedics.

. Many for (who, whom) diabetes is an issue must watch their carbohydrate intake.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to specific people, places, or things.
The demonstrative pronouns are:

The pronouns ¢his and that are directed at singular nouns whereas these and those
are directed at plural nouns. Use this before singular nouns and these before plural
nouns to refer to things that are physically close to the speaker in time and place.
This is for a singular noun near the speaker.

This piece of paper in my hand is important to my future.

These is for plural nouns near the speaker.

These books | am holding are historical.
 Other Pronouns 91

MEMORY TIP
When this is used to begin a sentence, the antecedent is often unclear to
the reader.
This is unacceptable.
What Is this referring to? The noun this could be referring to is not identi-
fied, so this sentence is unclear.
This lack of respect is unacceptable.
This refers to a specific subject: lack of respect, so this sentence is clear.

Use that before singular nouns and these before plural nouns to refer to things
that are physically distant from the speaker in time and place.
That is for singular nouns far from the speaker.
That piece of paper on my desk over there is trash.

Those is for plural nouns far from the speaker.

Those books we saw yesterday at the museum are priceless.

Circle the correct pronoun in parentheses.

Example: (this) That) house in front of me is the one I want.

1 . (This, That) has been a difficult year for the economy.

Ds. Would you please deliver (this, that) letter on the table over there?

3. (These, Those) shoes I have on are the best shoes I have ever worn!
4, Are we going the right way? Is (this, that) where we parked the car?

5 . Bethany donated (those, these) ugly sofas she has at her apartment to the
homeless shelter.
6. Chris can work with (those, these) data numbers on customer satisfaction
that we have in front of us.

7. Alan finds (this, that) new family situation he is now facing a problem.
8. The answer to (this, that) math problem in our book is not correct.
9. (These, Those) plans we drafted yesterday will work.
!
10. (These, Those) strawberries from last night’s dessert were delicious
92 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns connect a description of the subject to the subject itself. The
pronouns that make up this category are that, which, who, whom, and whose.
That and which refer to things.

He found the phone that he had lost.

(The pronoun that = the lost phone)
Linda’ math textbook, which costs eighty dollars, is lost.
(The pronoun which = textbook)

(&] MEMORY TIP

@ Use which to introduce parenthetical material, interrupters, or
scoopables—material that can be removed from a sentence without
changing the essential meaning of the sentence. A which clause is
often set off with a comma or a pair of commas.
m Use that for material deemed indispensable for the meaning of a
sentence. A that clause is not set off with commas.

Who and whom refer to people.

Her mother, who is wearing the red suit, is the head of the company.
(The pronoun who = mother)
Paul, whom we all admire, rides well.
(The pronoun whom = Paul)

Whose shows that something belongs to or is connected to something or some-

one. Do not confuse whose with whos, which means “who is.”

The man whose wife was murdered looked stricken.

(The pronoun whose = the man’s)

Circle the correct relative pronoun in parentheses.

Example: The detective, (@hose; which) work is noted here, is retired now.

1. People (who, whom) are concerned about the economy are spending less
money.
2. The Hugo brothers, (whose, which) restaurant burned down, are moving to
California.
 Other Pronouns 98

. The banking industry, (which, that) suffered great financial losses recently,
Oo

is floundering.
. My neighbors buy food (whose, that) is labeled “organic.”
. Henry is one of the lawyers (that, who) works long hours.
. The award, (which, that) is given to the best actor, went to a movie legend.
N.
Ww
WDB
& Some scientists, (whose, which) research has been published, uncover con-
troversial conclusions about different phenomena.

8. The taxes (that, which) Americans pay yearly fund many important trans-
portation projects.

9. Marketers, for (whom, who) trends are important, predict customer buying
habits.

10. Leilani, (that, who) is a student at Harvard, is studying neurobiology.

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to begin a question. The pronouns that make up
this category are what, which, who, whom, and whose.
What is the name of this new fashion trend?
Which one of the artists died prematurely?
Who is the prime suspect in this murder investigation?
Whom do | need to address in this letter of reference?
Whose car is in our neighbor's driveway?

Fill in the blanks with the correct interrogative pronoun.

Example: To whom do I give this prize?
L. do you think will preside over the meeting?
2. He asked I preferred juice or coffee?
3. Of child are you complaining?
4, To did the grandmother leave the money?

5% of the two remaining applicants do you want to interview?

6. , if anything, did you learn from this experience?

94 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

7.__________ money have you taken? You should surrender it now!

8. wrote the Phantom of the Opera?
9. Of all the cities you've visited one did you like best?

10. jacket was left in the Lost and Found bin?

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns end in -se/fand selves and “reflect back” or refer to an anteced-
ent (a noun or pronoun) earlier in the sentence. They act as intensifiers, following
a noun or pronoun,

| myself wrote that research paper.

| wrote that memo myself.

They are also used after verbs or prepositions when the receiver of the action is
the same as the subject of the verb in the clause.
He gave himself a reward.
Before the meeting, she allowed herself time to focus her thoughts.
At the end of our two-mile hike, we decided to give ourselves a treat.

In each of these sentences, the reflexive pronouns reflect back to the subject of the
sentence and is the receiver of an action verb or a preposition.

Ti
Writers make two types of errors when using the reflexive pronoun
form. The most common error is the inappropriate use of a “self”
pronoun where a simple pronoun is sufficient. Sometimes, you may use
a “self” pronoun for more “elegant” writing, but it actually is wordy and
unnecessary.
 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 95

Incorrect: The boss invited my wife and myself to an expensive dinner.

Correct: The boss invited my wife and me to an expensive dinner.

The other all-too-common error is the use of misspelled forms of the reflexive
pronoun, such as:

Misspelled
hisself
theirself theirselves themselves

If you tend to use any of these forms, consider removing them from your vocabu-
lary as they are unacceptable.

BUILDING SKILLS 4-8: Reflexive Pronouns

- Fill in the blanks with the correct reflexive pronoun
Example: He talked himself into agreeing to the other party’s offer.
1. Many times I wish that our car would wash
. On Saturdays, I often wash the car by
. Sometimes my children clean the car windows by
NW
OO. When my children clean the car windows, Isay, “Congratulate
mer
on doing a wonderful cleaning job.”
5. We enjoy the team effort involved in washing the car

PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
Just as a verb must agree with its subject, so a pronoun must agree with the noun
“it replaces. That noun—called the antecedent, can be anything, but it will have
a recognizable point of view, number, and gender. The pronoun reference has to
agree with the person, number, or gender of the antecedent. Pronoun-antecedent
agreement happens in three ways:
96 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

w Person: the noun’s point of view (they, he/she, you, or it)

# Number: singular or plural
@ Gender: masculine or feminine

Pronoun Agreement with Person

Here the pronoun agrees with the point of view (which person or what thing) of
the antecedent.

MEMORY TIP
The antecedent is the word that the pronoun refers to or replaces.
Michael sold his restaurant to an investment company.

Antecedent Pronoun referring back to Michael

tL
Pronoun Pronoun

If the antecedent is a person, then agreement can be achieved by using the pro-
nouns Ae or she. If the antecedent is about the second person (you), then agree-
ment can be achieved by using the pronoun you. If the antecedent is a thing, then
agreement can be achieved by using the pronoun it.

If a person wants to succeed in this game, he or she must know the rules.
If you want to succeed in this game, you must know the rules.
For this game to be successful, it needs to have specific rules.

(&) MEMORY TIP

Use the same person throughout a sentence. Maintain the point of view
that begins the sentence or the text.
Inconsistent: You must be careful when you hike because the conse-
quences could be deadly for him or her.
Consistent: You must be careful when you hike because the conse-
quences could be deadly for you.
Inconsistent: One must always persevere especially in times of hardship
because | have to surpass the obstacles to achieve our dream.
Consistent: One must always persevere especially in times of hard-
ship because one or he/she has to surpass the obstacles to
achieve one's or his/her dream.
 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 97

Rewrite each sentence to correct the errors with pronouns. Be sure to maintain
the pronoun point of view for each sentence.
Example: He should know that one must shop around before you buy a car,
He should know that he must shop around before he buys a car.

1. I could feel the sun warming your arms.

2. I enjoy mountain climbing because you use your physical strength.

3. I finally realized that one has to think before you say something.

4. In summer, people want to be outdoors but do not want to do what is needed

to protect himself from the harsh sun.

5. The street sweeper starts its route at two o'clock every morning.

6. The ride operator left his customers waiting while they got lunch.

7. She opened a health spa after one finished her career as a medical doctor.

8. People would rather have one’s food be tasty than nutritious.

9. He is a well-known personality although some people find mea controversial

figure.
10. Fast-food chains use artificial flavors for its sauces and dressings.

Pronoun Agreement with Number

The pronoun must agree with the antecedent’s number. Number refers to the
antecedent’s singular or plural state.
98 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

If the antecedent is singular, the pronouns 4e or she or it must be used.

If one person wants to succeed in this game, he or she must know the rules.

If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun they must be used.

If people want to succeed in this game, they must know the rules.

MEMORY TIP
Number in English is determined by using the following subject pronouns
to replace the subject:
If the subject can be replaced with he, she, or it > its number is singular.
If the subject can be replaced with we or they— its number Is plural.

TRICKY SITUATIONS WITH PRONOUNS AND NUMBERS

The number agreement is most confusing when a sentence includes a singular
indefinite pronoun or a collective noun because writers assume these words are
plural when they are, in fact, singular.

Situation One: Singular indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not indicate a
definite person or thing. Here is a list of some common singular indefinite pronouns:

everyone everything each

anybody anyone anything either
somebody someone something neither
nobody no one nothing

Whenever these pronouns are used in a sentence, a singular pronoun (he or she
or his or her) is required to refer back to them.
Incorrect: Someone left their folder behind.
Correct: Someone left his or her folder behind.

Incorrect: Everyone must turn in their work.

Correct: Everyone must turn in his or her work.

Incorrect: Each of the boys brought their book.

Correct: Each of the boys brought his book.

Presently, some writers and speakers have a tendency to use the plural their
as the reference pronoun to indefinite pronouns. This seems like an easy way
 Tricky Situations with Pronouns and Numbers 99

to avoid the historically sexist practice of always using /is when referring to a
general person. However, since these indefinite pronouns emphasize a “single”
body, one, or thing, the singular pronouns he, she, his, her, or it should be used.
The best course is to use both pronouns such as he or she or his or her, as in the
previous.

MEMORY TIP
Plural indefinite pronouns, such as several, few, and both, may require the
use of the pronoun their as the reference pronoun.

Circle the pronoun that agrees with the indefinite pronoun in bold.
Example: Everyone must turn in (Gisorhes)their) group report.

1. Everyone was required to write a letter to (his or her, their) mayor.

2 . One of the doctors at this hospital is liked by (his or her, their) patients.

3 . Each of the boys is getting (his, their) new car today.

4 . Few like to have debt that (he or she, they) cannot pay.
5. Someone walking by the construction site must watch (his or her, their) steps.
6. Everybody living in this house speaks highly of (his or her, their) cook.
7. Anyone who wants to bid on the cabin needs to raise (his or her, their) hand.

8 . Many who conform to society's rules stand to lose (his or her, their) own
individuality.
9. Neither the boys nor their sister was given (their, his, her) weekly allowance.
10. To each (his or her, their) own.

11. Someone forgot to turn off (his or her, their) irrigation system.

12. Several of the girls gave (her, their) names.

* 13. Either John or Bill will present (his, their) findings on the criminal case.

14. Many students should do (his or her, their) best when it comes to taking
tests.

15. Neither of the girls brought (her, their) completed job application.
100 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

Situation Two: Collective nouns always require a singular pronoun reference.

Collective nouns, such as army, team, or committee, sound plural but in reality
are singular entities composed of many elements. For example, a team is a single
entity made up of many players. Because it is still a “single” entity, it requires the
singular pronoun it for reference.
The army deployed its recruits.
The team played its final game.

(6) MEMORY TIP

Although collective nouns usually function as a singular entity, they can
also act individually.
The committee discusses the research findings it received.
The committee acting as one singular entity replaced with the pronoun it.
The committee members discuss the research findings they received.
The committee acting as individuals replaced with the pronoun they.

Insert the right pronoun on the line. The pronoun must agree with the collective
noun it replaces,
Example: The jury announced its unanimous decision.
1 . The group turned in long report.
2 . The board members met about new agenda.
3 . The committee had first meeting today.
4, The band mates practiced new musical lineup.
5 . The members of the committee shared findings with the city
officials.
. The airplane crew reviewed maintenance procedures.
. The girls’ soccer team had first win.
. For two hours, the teammates worked hard on game strategy.
 Tricky Situations with Pronouns and Numbers 101

9. The board of directors finally gave recommendation regarding

the company.
10. The gang members plotted attack on the rival gang.

(&| MEMORY TIP

To keep your pronouns in agreement with their numbers, remember:
When a pronoun refers to a plural noun, use their.
The cats ate their treats.
When a pronoun refers to an indefinite pronoun, use his or her.
Everyone shares his or her story.
When a pronoun refers to a collective noun, use it or its.

The group talks about its research progress.

Pronoun Agreement with Gender

A pronoun has to agree with the masculine or feminine state of the antecedent.
When a pronoun refers to a singular female noun, the pronoun must be gender-
specific (she, her).

The girl turned in her assignment.

When a pronoun refers to a singular male noun, the pronoun must be gender-
specific (he, his).

The man walked his dog.

Rewrite the following sentences to correct the errors in pronoun use.

1. He could taste the cake crumble in his mouth, and they did not want the
feeling to end.

2. The little girl lost his doll.

102 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

3. The man quickly decided that they would attend the party.

4. Her plants need to be watered; they have been on vacation, and no one from
the office has watered them.

5. The congressional representative gave their support to the loyal mayor

candidate.

With a partner, refer to a popular YouTube video and practice writing sentences
about it using the different types of pronouns. On the lines next to each type
of pronoun, write two sentences about the video being sure to use each listed
pronoun.

Subjective

Objective

Possessive
 Tricky Situations with Pronouns and Numbers 103

Who and Whom

Demonstrative Pronouns

Relative

Interrogative

Reflexive

Pronoun Agreement with Person

104 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

Pronoun Agreement with Number

Pronoun Agreement with Gender

Working with a partner or in a small group, read this passage and correct all pro-
noun errors. Write the correct answer over the error.
(1) Gods and great heroes have long been important to Hindus. (2) The
stories of gods have been told to children to help him and her learn about
our religion and about the values he should live by. (3) One of these stories
is of Princess Savitri, the only daughter of King Asvapathi. (4) Her was a
charming, clever, and noble young woman whom had fallen in love with a fine-
looking young man named Satyaban. (5) Satyaban was the son of a hermit
or a person whom lives by themselves away from others. (6) Hermits are
honored among Hindus for there great wisdom. (7) Everyone in the kingdom
wanted to agree to the match, but they worried about a princess's ability
to live the tough life of a hermit. (8) To help their King stop Savitri from
marrying Satayaban, Narada, Satyaban’s father, told them that the enemy
has put a curse on his son: within a year of your marriage Satyaban would
die. (9) Savitri learned of the terrible curse but her insisted on marrying
Satyaban. (10) The King granted your wish.
(11) The couple lived in harmony until Satyaban suddenly died on the day that
marked a year from our wedding. (12) The king of the dead, Yama, came to claim
Satyaban, but Savitri held on to himself and would not let go. (13) Yama was sur-
prised by the young wife's devotion to his husband and told them he would grant
 Tricky Situations with Pronouns and Numbers 105

them any wish but that for the life of her husband. (14) Savitri asked for 100 sons
with Satyaban. For Yama to make this possible, they had to bring back Satyaban
from the dead since Satyaban could not have children unless it was alive. (15) He
restored the young man’s life and from that day on Savitri became a model to
all young women. (16) Herself showed the power and goodness of love and the
importance of having a clever side.

Working with a partner or in a small group, read this passage and correct all pro-
noun errors. Write the correct answer over the error.
(1) Right there right there in the middle of the field him says himself wants
to put that thing together. (2) Him and his buggy ideas and so me says “how
you gonna get it down to the water?” but him just focuses me out with him
eyes rolling like they do when himself gets into some new lunatic notion and
him says not to worry none about that. (3) Just would | help him and because
himself don’t know how you can get it done in time otherwise. (4) Though you'd
have to be loonier than him to say yes me says me will of course help. (5) | al-
ways would. (6) Crazy as my brother is | have done little else since me was born
and mine wife she says “I can’t figure it out | can’t see why you always have be
babying that old fool him isn't never done nothing for you. Yourself got enough
to do. Fields here need plowing it’s a bad enough year and now that red-eyed
brother of yours winging around like a cloud and not knowing what in the world
him is doing building a boat in the country. What next?”
(7) It is not a fishing boat him wants to put up; it is the biggest thing | ever
heard of and for weeks us did nothing but cut down pine trees and haul them out
to his field which is pretty high up a hill. (8) Mine wife she sighs and says crazy
am me and her four months with a child and trying to do mine work and hers too
and still when | come home from hauling timbres all day, she rub me shoulders
and back.

(9) The days pass and mine brother says us have to work harder and from
time to time he gets neighbors to come give a hand but them do not stay around
a>
106 CHAPTER FOUR: Pronouns

more than a day or two and them go away shaking their heads disgusted they
got weaseled into the thing in the first place.

(10) We get the thing done all finished, and | come home on that last day
and | say to mine wife “I'll be home all the time now.” (11) One day | get an idea,
so | go over to my brother's place for some wood left over from building the
boat and | see them are all living on that boat in the middle of nowhere him
and his boys and wife.

(12) The next day, it's raining and we stay inside and do things around
the place and us are happy because the rain has come just in time. (13) The
rain never stopped and after a week of rain, the crops are ruined and water
it stands around in big pools with the house getting full of water. (14) So | set
out to my brother's houseboat and nobody comes out to let | in. (15) | turn
around and head back for home but the rain is thundering and | can't make
it no further so | head to a hill and collapse at the top of it. (16) | look out and
see my brother's boat is floating and | wave at it but don’t see nobody wave
back and | look at me own place and all | see is the top of it. (17) Tearing for
the house swimming most all the way was me but the rain still coming down.
(18) | can't see my brother's boat no more. | can't see my house no more.
(19) | left me wife inside where | found she. (20) | could not hardly stand to
look at she the way her was. (21) How did he know?
—From "The Brother" in PRICKSONGS & DESCANTS by Robert Coover. Copyright © 1969, 2000 by
Robert Coover. Reprinted by permission of Georges Borchardt, Inc., for the author.

Circle the correct answer.

1. My brother and (I, me) share a small bedroom.
2. The child baked a cake for (you and me, you and I).
3. May I speak with Tony? Yes, this is (he, him).
4, The party at fault in this accident is (he, him).
5. Even the jury was shocked by (its, their) decision.
6. My sister buys food (whose, that) is labeled “gluten-free.”
7. The computer belongs to Tom and (she, her).
 Tricky Situations with Pronouns and Numbers 107

8. The father is shorter than (they, them),

9. Martha finds (this, that) the current family situation she is now facing is
problematic.
10. The banking industry, (which, that) suffered great financial losses recently,
is floundering.
11. It was (he, him) who left her crying at the party.
12. The boss gave raises to my friends and (I, me).
13. The committee just published (its, their) condemning report.
14. Either the girls or the boy will speak to (their, his) mother.
15. Mrs. Brent is the counselor (who, whom) you can talk to if you have a
problem.
16. The ones who are sorry are (they, them).
17. (This, That) book is the national best seller.
18. Let’s keep this a secret between you and (me, I).
19. (He and she, Him and her) are going to get married.
20. Everyone knows that (he/she, they) must turn in (his/her, their) test on
time.

21. He is as short-tempered as (her, she).

22. Is this the person (who, whom) I should speak to?
23. We overwhelmed (themselves, ourselves) with stress before our residential
move.
24. The one who has sacrificed the most is (she, her).
25. The team has won most of (its, their) games.
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UNIT THREE: Clauses and
Kinds of Sentences

109
CHAPTER FIVE: The Fifth Building Block
Clauses

What can you do with building blocks? You can stack and balance blocks of various
shapes and sizes to construct towers, bridges, buildings—even whole towns. You
have already learned that a subject and verb are the required building blocks for
a complete sentence, and that those two elements must agree with each other in
person, number, and gender. In the next few chapters, you will explore correct
ways to build complicated and more elaborate sentences using clauses or groups
of words that contain subjects and verbs. Clauses are essential tools to achieve
variety in sentence structure and to engage the reader in your writing.

CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. A clause may express
a complete thought when the group of words is an independent clause, or it may
express an incomplete thought when the group of words is a dependent clause.
It is important to understand the difference between a sentence and a clause.
Both are grammatical labels for a group of words that must contain a subject
and a verb. A sentence may contain more than one subject/verb groups; in other
words, a sentence may consist of one, two, or more clauses. Regardless of the
number of clauses a sentence has, it always expresses a complete thought.

MEMORY TIP
A clause = Subject + Verb + may or may not express a complete thought.
Sentence = Subject + Verb — expresses a complete thought and may
contain several clauses.

110
 Clauses 111

To find how many clauses a sentence has, consider breaking it down into sepa-
rate clauses by underlining the subject (noun or pronoun) and verb (action or
state of being) in each group of words or clause.

| own a beautiful cat. Number of clauses: 1

Number of sentences: 1

| own a beautiful cat; her fur is glossy black, and Number of clauses: 5
after | brush it, her eyes glow with pleasure, and she Number of sentences: 1
snuggles in my arms with loud purrs of contentment.

In underlining the subject (noun or pronoun) and verb (action or state of

being) in each clause, you can see the number of clauses each sentence has.

Lown a beautiful cat

brushit
eyes glow with pleasure
she snuggles in my arms with loud purrs complete thought
of contentment

Read each sentence and underline the subject (noun or pronoun) and circle the
verb (action or state of being) in each clause. On the line next to each sentence,
write the number of clauses you have identified.
Example: 2 He (is) our new neighbor, but he (is) very eccentric.
1. His cyber life is much more exciting than his real life.

2. Conducting research teaches students how to formulate questions

and how to find answers.

3. She was not interested in staying in school; she moved to Columbus,

Ohio.

4. She is known to most people as Madonna, and her real name is

Madonna Louise Veronica Ciccone.

5. Thirteen people set out to get help; five survived, and two
returned and helped rescue the trapped relatives.
112 CHAPTER FIVE: Clauses

6. Some people are fearful of purchasing items with food preserva-

tives because they feel these chemicals may cause cancer.

7. My bowling ball is special; it is red and purple, and it is decorated

with little bumblebees for good luck.

8. The violent serial killer was captured by the police and imprisoned
for life.

9. Although it is not the most powerful memorization strategy by

itself, repeating information out loud helps.

10. Many of us have a love-hate relationship with technology; we

love the convenience but hate the dependence.

Types of Clauses
There are two types of clauses:

Independent
= Dependent
Learning to recognize the difference between independent and dependent
clauses will help you create and punctuate complex sentences without confus-
ing your reader. Just as you need to learn how to balance and place blocks of
differing size, shape, and weight, so, as the writer, you must learn how to ar-
range and connect clauses of differing completeness and purpose.

Independent Clause: A Clause That Makes Sense on Its Own

An independent clause (IC) contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought. As its name suggests, an independent clause is a complete
sentence that can stand by itself and does not need more information to give it
meaning.

Dan laughed.

Dan is the subject and /aughed is the verb. Do you need to know more? Not
really. You might want to know what made Dan laugh, where he is and who he is
with, or whether his laugh was happy or bitter—but these pieces of information
are not essential for understanding what the sentence means. Answers to these
questions might shed more light on Dan and his laughter, but grammatically, all
that matters is that the sentence has a subject and a verb and that it makes sense
on its own. Dan laughed, therefore, is an independent clause.
 Clauses 113

(&) MEMORY TIP

Independent Clause = Subject + Verb + Complete Thought

Dependent Clause: A Clause That Requires More Information

to Make Complete Sense
A dependent clause (DC) has a subject and a verb but does not express a com-
plete thought. As its name suggests, a dependent clause is dependent on more
information to give it meaning. It cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence.

When Dan aughs.

Although Dan is the subject and laughs is the verb, you need to know more to make
a complete statement. What happens when Dan laughs? Does someone smile or get
mad at him? Do other people join him? You need more information to complete the
meaning of this clause. Adding another clause will provide the needed information:
When laughs, the walls shake, and the baby wakes up from his nap.

When Dan laughs, therefore, is a dependent clause.

MEMORY TIP
Dependent Clause = Subject + Verb > Not a Complete Thought

Notice that the dependent clause in the example above was created by the
addition of an opening word (when) which told the reader to wait for addi-
tional information. When is one of a group of words called subordinating
conjunctions. Learning this group thoroughly will help you to see if a clause is
independent or dependent, complete or incomplete.

(6) MEMORY TIP

Use the acronym WASBIT to help you memorize the most common subor-
dinating conjunctions:
Ww When, Where, Wherever, Whenever, Whereas, Whether, While
A As, As if, As long as, As though, Although
Ss Since, So that
B Before, Because
If
Though
114 CHAPTER FIVE: Clauses

Whenever you see a word from the list above at the beginning of a sentence,
expect to find at least two clauses in the sentence. Create long, interesting sen-
tences in your own writing by adding a word from this list to the beginning of
an independent clause, then write a second clause—or more!—to continue and
to complete the thought.
To sum up, both independent and dependent clauses are important for good
writing. An independent clause anchors every sentence with sturdy complete-
ness. A dependent clause offers variety and suspense, often preparing the reader
for an important action (the baby wakes) or surprising them with unexpected de-
tails (the walls shake). Chapter Six, Kinds of Sentences, will help you learn more
about combining clauses.

Read each sentence and determine if the clause is independent or dependent. On

the line, write JC for independent clause or DC for dependent clause.
Example: Because | failed my math test. DG
1. When you have finished reading that history book.
2. Car dealers are offering new ways to buy cars.
3. Until the long fall semester is over.
4 . The cold blizzard struck the small village unexpectedly.
5 . When I was a Red Cross volunteer in 2003.
6. Pelican birds gracefully glide and soar over the ocean’s water.
7. She received a letter of warning from the federal court.
8. If we reach our intended destination by nightfall.
9. He completed his elaborate artwork for the museum.
10. Although November 13th was a sunny warm day.
11. I believe in freedom for all humankind.
12. If this weak economy ever gets better.
13. The jackpot winners were congratulated by the casino manager.
14, The mysterious psychic predicted the big earthquake in California.
 Clauses 115

15. Swimming is an excellent way to burn calories.

16. As the graceful deer scrambled for safety.
17. We arrived just in time for the alternative rock concert.
18. Because we were stuck in snarly traffic.
19. ‘The president's speech made us hopeful of what is to come.
20. Because eggs are a good source of protein.

Change the following dependent clauses to independent clauses.

Example: When the race was cancelled.
The race was cancelled.
1. After Timothy ate the well-prepared dinner.

2. When the sun came up.

3. Before the stage curtain opens.

4, As | danced to the exhilarating music.

5. Before she left for her trip to Europe.

6. When he missed the biology test.

116 CHAPTER FIVE: Clauses

h, While they plotted for the practical joke on Alicia.

. Although we wanted to go fly-fishing.

2), While you were away from home.

10: Until the newly decorated basket was filled with candy.

First, change the following sentences to dependent clauses, then add an indepen-
dent clause to explain or complete the dependent clause.
Example: The soup tasted delicious.
Although the soup tasted delicious, it was too hot to eat quickly.

ie James rode his new bike to work.

Hee He left to go to Lake Superior.

13, The weather was cold in December.

14. Emily walked home alone.

(ly Cynthia is going to town to pick up some fruit for the afternoon picnic.

TGs The college administration has decided to raise faculty salaries.

 Clauses 117

17. Board games are fun for the entire family.

18. The economic recession increased the unemployment rate.

19. The waterfall was the best feature at the Raging Waters park.

20. The professional soccer team gathered on the field.

Describe the room you are in at this moment. Write at least five sentences that
contain dependent clauses and that answer many of the following questions:
1. Where are you located at this moment? What room are you in?
2. What do you see around you or in front of you?
3. What colors surround you? What do you think of the colors?
4, What do you hear? Why?
5. What does the sound remind you of or make you feel?
6. What do you smell? Why?
7. What do you touch? How does it feel? What does it make you think off
8. Do you taste anything? Do you like what you taste? Why?
9. Overall, how do you feel about the room you are in at this moment?
10. Would you recommend that others visit this room?
118 CHAPTER FIVE: Clauses

Once you have completed writing your sentences, underline the independent
clauses you have used and circle the dependent clauses.

Read this excerpt from Louise Erdrich’s The Red Convertible. Working with a
partner, underline the independent clauses, and circle the dependent clauses.

(1) | was the first one to drive a convertible on my reservation. (2) It was
red, a red Olds. (3) | owned that car along with my brother Henry Junior.
(4) We owned it together until his boots filled with water on a windy night and
he bought out my share. (5) Now Henry owns the whole car, and his youngest
brother Lyman (that's myself), walks everywhere he goes.
(6) How did | earn enough money to buy my share in the first place? (7) My
own talent was | could always make money. (8) | had a talent for it, unusual
in a Chippewa. (9) From the first | was different that way. (10) Everyone rec-
ognized it. (11) | was the only kid they let in the American Legion Hall to shine
shoes, for example, and one Christmas | sold spiritual bouquets for the mis-
sion door to door. (12) The nuns let me keep a percentage. (13) Once | started,
it seemed the more money | made the easier the money came. (14) Everyone
encouraged it. (15) When | was fifteen | got a job washing dishes at the Joliet
Café, and that was where my first break happened.
(16) It was not long before | was promoted to bussing tables, and then the
short-order cook quit and | was hired to take place. (17) No sooner than you
know it | was managing the Joliet. (18) The rest is history. (19) | went on man-
aging. (20) | soon became part owner, and of course there was no stopping
me then. (21) It was not long before the whole thing was mine.
 Clauses 119

(22) After | had owned the Joliet for one year, it blew over in the worst
tornado ever seen around here. (23) The whole operation was smashed to
bits. (24) A total loss. (25) The fryalator was up in a tree, the grill torn in half
like it was paper. (26) | was only sixteen. (27) | had it all in my mother's name
and | lost it quick, but before | lost it, | had every one of my relatives, and
their relatives, to dinner, and | also bought that red Olds | mentioned along
with Henry.
—From Louise Erdrich, The Red Convertible

In each sentence of the following paragraph, underline the independent clause

and circle the dependent clause.
1. When the bell rang, the boys dashed out of class.
2. When they got home, they packed their camping gear.
3. They wanted to get to Lake Arrowhead before the sun set.
4, After they got to the lake, they set up their tent.
5. Jim started the campfire while Ben prepared the dinner.

6. The boys were hungry because they had not eaten since school let out:
7. After they ate, they shared ghost stories.

8. As they lay in their sleeping bags that night, they could hear the rain come down.
9. They were frightened by the wind howling through the trees.
10. They knew it would be a while before they fell asleep.
CHAPTER SIX: The Sixth Building Block
Kinds of Sentences

Human beings love repetition, rhythm, and pattern—and humans equally love
variety and surprise. This double love is always at work in almost everything we
build, including parks, bridges, towns, or landmarks. Learning the rules for com-
bining clauses will strengthen your ability to build language that creates rhythm
and variety in everything you write.
In writing, you produce different sentences based on combining independent
and dependent clauses into various arrangements. Combining clauses can give
your writing flexibility, clarity, and strength.

(6) MEMORY TIP

m When aclause makes full and complete sense by itself, it is called an
independent clause.

m When the clause requires more information to make full and complete
sense, it is called a dependent clause.

If not combined logically and punctuated clearly, however, clauses will cre-
ate ineffective sentences that will bring confusion to your reader. This chapter
introduces four different kinds of sentences—simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex—and explains how to connect and punctuate each one.

SIMPLE SENTENCES
A sentence that has one independent clause and no dependent clause is called
a simple sentence.
| ate cake.
120
 Simple Sentences 121

(6) MEMORY TIP

Simple Sentence = One Independent Clause (IC)

A simple sentence never has more than one clause, but that clause may contain
compound subjects and verbs.
T.J. and Richy ate all the cake.
Mona and the kids finished off the punch and cookies.
Everybody cleared the dishes, turned off the lights, and locked the door.

Write five simple sentences using the subjects listed below.

Example: My car is an old grey sedan with a broken trunk latch.
1. My friend
2. Last night,I
3. The lake water
4, My desk
5. This class

Many writers rely heavily on using simple sentences because these sentences are eas-
ier to manage grammatically or because they do not know how to create new combi-
nations. However, overreliance on simple sentences can result in paragraphs like this:
My mother never got a chance to go to college. She struggled all her
life to make a good living. She worked two jobs in order to make ends meet.
She dreamed of her children going to college. My mother saved money for
her children's education. She has two children in college now. She is very
proud of us. My mother worked hard to see her children become educated.

What do you notice is happening in this paragraph? Even though the subject,
_my mother, is replaced occasionally by the pronoun she, every sentence in this
paragraph has

1. a single clause of one type (independent),

2. asingle arrangement of the major parts of speech (subject then verb), and
3. a single length (subject + verb + one descriptive phrase).
122 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

Taken all together, the lack of variety in this group of sentences makes the writ-
ing boring, choppy, and unnaturally stiff. It does not convey the passion of a son
or daughter celebrating a mother’s accomplishments. Now consider this version:

My mother never got a chance to go to college because she struggled

all her life to make a living. Nevertheless, she dreamed of her children get-
ting the chance she never had, so for years she worked two jobs to save
money for their education. My mother has two children in college now. She
is extremely proud of them, but we are prouder of her, for it is her hard
work that has allowed us to become educated.

How does this version sound? Do you think it is smoother and more passion-
ate? Although the first paragraph is made up of simple sentences, the second
paragraph features different kinds of sentences with multiple clauses for a more
flowing, vivid style. The number of sentences has been reduced from eight to
four, but the complexity of those four sentences conveys more information
and emotion than all eight did in the earlier version. Notice that the second
paragraph still contains a simple sentence: “My mother has two children in
college now.” Placed in the midst of more complex sentence structures, this
straightforward statement carries emotional weight. It is important to practice
writing all types of sentences, for each can play a powerful role in your own
compositions.

MEMORY TIP
In writing paragraphs, essays, research papers, business reports, or even

teresting writing that will keep the reader engaged with your ideas, join.
clauses and vary your sentence patterns.

SENTENCE VARIETY
To vary sentence patterns and create exciting sentences, we combine clauses.
When independent clauses are combined, a compound sentence is produced.
When one independent and one dependent clause are combined, a complex
sentence is produced. When multiple independent and dependent clauses are
combined, a compound-complex sentence is produced.
‘To combine clauses, use conjunctions and punctuation (primarily semicolons
and commas). Conjunctions are words that join or link together clauses. They
also indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in the clauses.
 Sentence Variety 123

(@}] MEMORY TIP

In the English language, four basic sentence types are based on clause
combinations.

mg Simple sentences ——+¥* One independent clause

m Compound sentences ———» Two independent clauses

m Complex sentences ——-» One independent clause and one depen-
dent clause
m= Compound-complex ——» Two or more independent clauses and
sentences one or more dependent clauses

Joining Independent Clauses: Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses. Each clause,
when viewed alone, can stand on its own as a sentence without changes or addi-
tions. In the English language, the term compound refers to a combination of two
elements. When you combine two independent clauses together, you produce a
compound sentence like so:

‘| ate cake and my girlfriend ate cookies.

|
Ae clause Independent clause

There are three ways to join two independent clauses and to create a compound
sentence:
1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Adverbial conjunctions
3. A stand-alone semicolon (;)

In a compound sentence, the conjunctions or semicolons are placed in the mid-

dle between the two independent clauses like so:

IC conjunction or semicolon IC

_ Coordinating Conjunctions
One way to join two independent clauses is by using coordinating conjunctions.
A coordinating conjunction joins clauses that are grammatically equal to show
they are similar in importance and structure. It also shows how the clauses are
124 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

related to each other. The coordinating conjunction comes in the middle between
two independent clauses and requires a comma right before the conjunction.
IC, Coordinating Conjunction IC.
| ate cereal, and | drank milk.

Make sure that you do not put the comma after the coordinating conjunction;
the sentence is only correct when a coordinating conjunction follows a comma.
Incorrect: | ate cereal and, | drank milk.
Correct: | ate cereal, and | drank milk.

The meaning of the connection changes depending on which conjunction is used.

| ate cake, and my girlfriend ate cookies.

| ate cake, but my girlfriend ate cookies.

(&) MEMORY TIP

You can remember the seven coordinating conjunctions by using the
acronym FANBOYS, which is based on the first letter of each coordinating
conjunction.
F for (meaning “because” or “since’’)
and (meaning “in addition”)
nor (meaning “and neither”)
but (meaning “on the contrary” or “however’’)
or (meaning “alternatively”)
yet (meaning “even,” “however,” or “but")
so (meaning “therefore”)

It is only when joining two independent clauses that a coordinating conjunction

requires a comma in front of it. Remember that these seven conjunctions can also
join two nouns, two verbs, or two prepositional phrases. Do not put commas
before these connector words if they are not used as conjunctions or not used to
join independent clauses.

| like tea or coffee. (two nouns)

He was angry and tired. (two verbs)
The cat is in the room and on the bed. (two prepositional phrases)
 sentence Variety 125

Read the following sentences and circle the coordinating conjunction (or
FANBOYS) being used. Some sentences may not have a conjunction.
Example: She is a dedicated athlete¢s0)she practices for four hours every day.
1. They watched the parade, and they watched the fireworks.
. They watched the parade and the fireworks.
. They watched the Fourth of July parade in the blazing sun.
. They did not watch the parade, nor did they watch the fireworks.
. The party was a hit, but everyone was tired from dancing.
. The bus ride was quiet, for everyone was thinking about the trip.
. She called him twice on his cell phone, yet he never answered.
. The bus stop is not far from here, so let us keep walking.
ND. They went to the zoo to see the new panda bear exhibit.
Om
eS
ONO
CODE
NO

10. They went to the zoo, and they packed a picnic basket.

Combine the following sentences using coordinating conjunctions (or FANBOYS).

Example: Matthew wants to relocate to Canada. He wants to be closer to his
family.
Matthew wants to relocate to Canada, so he can be closer to his family.
1. Kia threw herself into her studies. Her home life was very difficult.

2. I hate having lunch alone. I try to find someone to eat with me.

3. Jamieismajoring in physics. He hopes to work for NASA.

4, The student council election is this week. I have no idea who is running.

‘eng
126 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

5. On-campus parking can be extremely difficult. The situation will be worse

soon.

6. I worked as a bank teller. I was bored with that job by the second week.

7. I do not want to derail the lecture. The instructor does not like interruptions
Or questions.

8. I know my weaknesses as a test-taker. | am working to improve them.

9. Relaxation training is a good strategy to overcome test anxiety. It may involve

learning how to breathe.

10. I feel miserable. My allergies are acting up. I am coming down with a cold.

Adverbial Conjunctions
Another way to produce the compound sentence is by using adverbial conjunc-
tions. Adverbial conjunctions join two independent clauses and, like coordi-
nating conjunctions, give information about the relationship between the two
clauses. An adverbial conjunction makes the connection between ideas of clauses
clearer and more precise.

| ate cake, and my girlfriend ate cookies.

Whereas coordinating conjunctions require an initial comma when joining

independent clauses, adverbial conjunctions require a semicolon in front and a
comma behind.

| ate cake; similarly, my girlfriend ate banana bread.

Like coordinating conjunctions (or FANBOYS), adverbial conjunctions come

in the middle between two independent clauses, but adverbial conjunctions
require the use of a semicolon before and a comma after them.

IC; adverbial conjunction, IC.

| ate cake; however, my girlfriend ate cookies.

Each adverbial conjunction stresses a particular relationship between the two

ICs; therefore, consider your choice of conjunction carefully.
 Sentence Variety 127

; However, | ate cereal; however, | did not drink milk. (notice

the word order)
; Otherwise, | ate cereal; otherwise, | would have had to drink
milk. (notice word order)
; Therefore, | ate cereal; therefore, | drank milk.
; Simil arly, | ate cereal; similarly, | drank milk.
; Hence, | ate cereal; hence, | drank milk.
; On the other hand, | did not eat cereal; on the other hand, | drank milk.
; Thus, | ate cereal; thus, | drank milk.
; Meanwhile, | ate cereal; meanwhile, Tom drank milk.
; Additionally, | ate cereal; additionally, | drank milk.
; Moreover, | ate cereal; moreover, | drank milk.
: Also, | ate cereal; also, | drank milk.
: Cons equently, | ate cereal; consequently, | drank milk.
: AS a matter of fact, | ate cereal; as a matter of fact, | drank milk, too.
; Then, | ate cereal; then, | drank milk.

In addition, there are more adverbial conjunctions like: nonetheless, nevertheless, fur-
thermore, as a result, besides, instead, indeed, in fact, subsequently, for instance, likewise,
accordingly, and for example. Consult the Memory Tip on page 141 for a varied list of
adverbial conjunctions.

MEMORY TIP
You can remember the adverbial conjunctions by using the acronym HOT ~
SHOT MAMA CAT, which is based on the first letter of each adverbial
conjunction. Consider this list of frequently used adverbial conjunctions:
H +: However, (meaning “but”)
Oo ; Otherwise, (meaning “if not’ “or else”)
T + Therefore, (meaning “for that reason”)
Ss ; Similarly, (meaning “likewise"’)
H ; Hence, (meaning “for that reason”)
0 ; On the other hand, (meaning “in contrast’)
T ; Thus, (meaning “so” or “in this way”)
M ; Meanwhile, (meaning “while”)
A ; Additionally, (meaning “also”)
M ; Moreover, (meaning “in addition”)
A + Also, (meaning “in addition”)
Cc + Consequently, (meaning “so")
A : As a matter of fact, (meaning “in fact”)
r (meaning “next” or so’)
* Then,
For ease of reference, you can use this shortened acronym, HOT MAMA.
128 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

Underline the adverbial conjunction (or HOT SHOT MAMA CAT) used in
each sentence and insert the correct punctuation.
Example: He had to retire from law enforcement; however, he was an honor-
able police officer.
. The rainy season has ended therefore the weather is perfect.
. The monster appeared on the screen hence the girl fainted.
. The teacher told us to be quiet however we continued to chat.
. I will finish my work then we will go to the beach.
. Grammar is difficult to learn on the other hand communicating correctly is
tO)
Os)
ENS
Oe

important.
. Finish your work tonight consequently you will not worry about it tomorrow.
. Boxing is a demanding sport as a matter of fact it requires great athletic skill
lO

and self-discipline.
8. Alan checked around the house for the cat meanwhile Sam searched the
neighborhood.
9. Henry supported me in bad times moreover he gave me money.
10. We will go to the supermarket then we will meet our sister at the mall.

Combine the following sentences using adverbial conjunctions (or a HOT

SHOT MAMA CAT).
Example: Marcy enrolled in the nursing program. She is interested in finding a
job in health care.
Marcy enrolled in the nursing program; moreover, she is interested in
finding a job in health care.
1, The Melbournes took a trip to Europe. The trip was very expensive.
 Sentence Variety 129

2. It was a very hot summer. Mario bought a new air conditioner.

3. We move in tomorrow. The construction on the house is not complete.

4. Most of the wedding cake was eaten. I managed to find a small crumb.

5. The mall closed for the day. Marcy did not find a birthday gift for her friend.

6. The iPod was on sale. I still could not afford to buy it.

7. We canceled our reservation. We had to pay the penalty fee.

8. The student studied diligently. He did well on the final exam.

9. I needed a new computer. I had to a second part-time job.

10. Mickey's has the best chili. I eat there every Monday.

Semicolons
A third way to join two independent clauses or write a compound sentence is by
using a semicolon between the two independent clauses (ICs). A semicolon sug-
"gests that there is a relationship between the sentences; however, the relationship
is not explicitly stated. Semicolons allow for flexibility in writing when the writer
does not want to show the specific connection between the two clauses.
130 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

| ate cereal. | drank milk.

| ate cereal; | drank milk.
It might seem easiest to use a semicolon to join clauses rather than having to
memorize all the other conjunctions, but if you rely heavily on using semicolons
in your sentences, your writing will fall into the “choppy” syndrome. To be a good
writer, use varied sentences, avoiding the overuse of any one connecting strategy.

BUILDING SKILLS 6-6: Semicolons

Join these sentences using a semicolon.
Example: He suddenly woke up from a deep sleep. The sun was dazzling his
half-open eyes.
He suddenly woke up from a deep sleep; the sun was dazzling his half-
open eyes.

1. Candace wanted a chocolate milkshake. They did not have any.

2. I called you several times. You never answered.

3. It is dangerous to be outside in this storm. The air temperature is below the

freezing point.

4, Martin was anxious to go to the rock concert. He called his three friends.

5. Tom did not make the team. He trained so hard.

6. I baked a cake for the church gathering. I took it with me.

7. They do not like salsa dancing. They do not like ballroom dancing.
 Sentence Variety 131

8. Dad wanted pancakes. My brother Milo wanted waffles.

9. I will not clean the litter box. I will feed the cat.

10. School started late today. It had snowed during the night.

In small groups, revise the following passage by creating compound sentences to

achieve sentence variety. Use the skills you have learned about the three kinds of
compound sentences.
(1) Friends can be a basic source of happiness. (2) We have different friends
throughout life. (3) The friendships of adolescence and young adulthood are the

closest we ever form. (4) They ease the normal break from parents. (5) They tran-
sition us from childhood to independence. (6) Many people believed that men and
women couldn't become close friends. (7) They believed that men and women
couldn't go without getting romantically involved. (8) Over the years, both genders
have worked together. (9) They have come to share more interests. (10) The belief
that there cannot be male-female friendships has changed. (11) Men and women
who become friends benefit from such a relationship. (12) For men, such a friend-
ship offers support and nurturing. (13) Reports show that men like talking and re-
lating to women. (14) They don't get to do that with their male buddies. (15) Women
view their friendships with men as casual and lighthearted with less fear of hurt feel-
ings. (16) They especially like getting insight into what men really think of women.
—From Dianne Hales, An Invitation to Health

Revised Version:
182 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

¢ BUILDING SKILLS TOGETHER 6-2: Compound

b Sentences in Writing
In small groups, revise the following passage by creating compound sentences to
achieve sentence variety. Use the skills you have learned about the three kinds of
compound sentences.
(1) My friend Gloria was a first-semester student at a large college campus.
(2) She found college life a bit overwhelming. (3) She was excited about her
major of forensic chemistry. (4) The crime shows on television were her favorites.
(5) She watched them all each week. (6) She pictured herself as an investiga-
tor solving headline cases. (7) Gloria envisioned herself hunched over labora-
tory equipment, testing for fibers or DNA, and actually breaking criminal cases.
(8) Her academic advisor in college recommended she take an “Introduction to
Criminology” course. (9) He explained to Gloria how this class would help her un-
derstand the field of criminology. (10) It would teach her to understand the crimi-
nal mind. (11) Gloria registered for this course. (12) She hoped she would get a good
professor. (13) She wanted to connect with someone who had worked in the field.

Revised Version: ei A res

 Sentence Variety 133

Joining an Independent Clause with a Dependent Clause: Complex

Sentences
A third kind of sentence is the complex sentence. This sentence consists of join-
ing independent clauses (IC) and dependent clauses (DC). Remember that a de-
pendent clause has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought;
it cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence. Dependent clauses need to be
joined to independent clauses.

(6) MEMORY TIP

The complex sentence is aptly called complex because the order of the
dependent and independent clauses determines how the sentence iS
punctuated.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Because a dependent clause by its very nature is subordinate or inferior to an in-
dependent clause, the only option for connecting clauses in a complex sentence
is what is called a subordinating conjunction. While coordinating and adverbial
conjunctions are effective to use in joining two things of equal importance, sub-
ordinating conjunctions can show that one idea is more important than another.
Therefore, the idea in the independent clause is more important while the idea in
the subordinate or dependent clause (made subordinate or dependent by the sub-
ordinating conjunction) is less important. In fact, the dependent or subordinate
clause supplies a time, reason, condition, etc. for the independent clause.
~ Dependent clause explains why we went home

After the train left, we went home. < Independent clause

clause
Subordinating conjunctions are a group of words that connect a dependent
nt
with an independent clause. They always come at the beginning of a depende
134 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

clause. The dependent clause can come either before or after the independent
clause.
No comma Dependent clause

| ate cereal when | drank milk.

Here, the subordinating conjunction is sandwiched between two clauses; it does

not require any punctuation.
Comma Independent clause

When | ate cereal, | drank milk.

Here, the dependent clause comes first and cannot stand on its own, so it needs
a comma to prepare the reader for the forthcoming independent clause, which
will complete its meaning.

MEMORY TIP
For complex sentences, remember that:
m lf the subordinating conjunction is between two clauses, no punctua-
tion is required.
@ |f the subordinating conjunction is at the beginning of the first clause,
put a comma to separate the first clause from the second clause.

As with all other conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions indicate subtle shifts

in meaning depending on which conjunction is used.

Since my girlfriend ate the cake, | will drink the milk.

Jenny ate the cake before she drank the milk.
Because you don't like cake, we didn't go to the party.

Each subordinating conjunction stresses a particular relationship; therefore, con-

sider your choice of conjunction carefully.
As because or when
As she is my friend, | will help her.
We watched as the train left the station.

As if in a similar way
She talks as if she knows everything.

After later in time

After the concert ended, we went home.
 Sentence Variety 135

As long as ifor while

As long as we cooperate, we can be released for ransom.
They have lived there as long as | have known them.

As soon as immediately when

Call me as soon as you can.

As though in a similar way

It looks as though there will be a hurricane.

Although or though in spite of the fact that

Although it was midnight, we did not feel sleepy.

Before earlier than

| arrived before the restaurant opened.

Because for the reason that

We had to wait because we arrived too early.

If on condition that
If the actor is here, we will see him.

Even if in spite of a possibility

| am going out even if it rains.

Providing or provided —_ on condition that

All will be well providing you stay alert.

Since as, because

Since you are here, you can help me.

Unless except when, ifnot

Unless Mr. Tom helps us, we cannot succeed.

Until or till up to the time when

| will wait until | hear from the interviewers.

Whereas because or on the other hand

Whereas this is a public exhibit, it is open to everyone.
He is charismatic, whereas you are glamorous.

Whether if
| do not know whether they were invited to the party.

While at the time when on the otherhand although

While it was snowing, we watched movies.
He is rich while his parents are poor.
While | am not an expert, | will do my best to help you.
136 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

| (6) MEMory TIP

You may want to remember the subordinating conjunctions by using the
acronym WASBIT, which stands for the following conjunctions:
When, Where, Wherever, Whenever, Whereas, Whether, While
As, As if, As long as, As though, Although
Since, So that
Before, Because
if
Though
There are many more subordinating conjunctions, but these are the most
frequently used ones.

In the following sentences, circle the subordinating conjunction (or WASBIT)

and write comma needed or no comma needed on the line. If a comma is needed,
add where necessary.
Example: Since he graduated last summerghe has not found a job. comma needed
. We liked the movie after we read the reviews.
. Whenever Mrs. Stark asked a question she looked at the ceiling.
. The party was a success because the guests knew each other well.
. When she eats seafood she has an allergic reaction.
. After I took a nap I felt so much better.
. Even if it rains on Sunday the trip will proceed as planned.
. Llike to go on road trips since I love to drive.
. As they rounded the bend a large bear appeared.
. While the rabbits are cute they are destroying our backyard.
ON
Inn
COM
Oe
OD
ES

. Betty goes to the beach whenever she can get away from work.
. They bought a house after they won the lottery.
. My car will not start as long as the battery is dead.
SSOW
NO
©— . If he fails his biology class he will lose his scholarship.
 Sentence Variety 137

14. The police are trying to determine whether he is the right

murder suspect.
15. Marcus will become a doctor whereas his sister will
become a teacher,

Combine the following sentences using a subordinating conjunction (or

WASBIT). Be sure to use the appropriate punctuation.
Example: Snakes are carnivorous animals. They eat nothing but other animals.
Since snakes are carnivorous animals, they eat nothing but other animals.

1. Sally’s mother is a mean woman. She visits her regularly.

2. My toddler son found the saltshaker. He sprinkled salt all over the kitchen floor.

3. Tim is sleeping on his brother’s couch. He was kicked out from his home.

4. You should go see the new action movie. It is a remarkable story.

5. John’s parents just moved to Texas. They had retired earlier this year.

6. Many people came to see the new paintings. The exhibit was controversial.

7. The transcontinental railroad was built. Its construction was considered one
of the greatest American technological feats of the nineteenth century.

axe
1388 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

8. Some popular toys are discovered by accident. People discover something

else in the invention process.

9. The Mayans built complex structures. They knew mathematics well.

10. People expect floods in low areas. The rainy season begins. They take
precautions.

In small groups, revise the following passage by creating complex sentences to

achieve sentence variety. Use the skills you have learned about subordinating
conjunctions (or WASBIT).

(1) A hotel concierge’s job is not an easy one. (2) She or he may act as tour
guide, travel agent, weather reporter, restaurant reviewer, secretary, and more.
(3) The most common guest requests a concierge responds to are making din-
ner reservations, confirming and reissuing airline tickets, or providing maps and
directions to local attractions. (4) Many of the requests a concierge responds to
are last minute. (5) Being able to handle pressure is an important quality.

(6) Details of how the job of concierge came into being are sketchy. (7) Many
believe the profession dates back to the Middle Ages. (8) The doorkeeper of the
castle was also keeper of the keys for locking the royal family and guests safely in
for the night. (9) In the mid-1970s, several San Francisco hotels brought the con-
cierge concept to America. (10) The concierge would leave messages on guests’
pillows informing them of various services. (11) Today, computers facilitate many
of the requests. (12) Personal service is the hallmark of the profession.

(13) Most major hotels today have at least one concierge on staff.
(14) Every guest request is different or has the potential to be unique.
(15) Training as a concierge is not clear-cut. (16) The professional trade
orga-
nization, The Golden Keys, does set standards. (17) The standards include
a
 Sentence Variety 189

five-year minimum experience in the hotel industry and letters of recommen-

dation from hotel management staff.
—From Chon/Maier, Welcome to Hospitality: An Introduction
Revised Version:

Joining Multiple Independent and Dependent Clauses: Compound-

Complex Sentences
A fourth and final kind of sentence is the compound-complex sentence, which
consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
My father encouraged me to pick up a hobby, so | started collecting

stamps; | became rich when | started a company that acquires and sells
rare stamps; consequently, my hobby is now my livelihood.
This sentence is really five clauses combined together through the use of conjunc-
tions and a semicolon. Here is what the simple sentences look like:
My father encouraged me to pick up a hobby.
| started collecting stamps.
140 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

| became rich.
| started a company trading rare stamps.
My hobby is now my livelihood.
Notice how all four connecting strategies are used: a coordinating conjunction, a
subordinating conjunction, a semicolon, and an adverbial conjunction. You are
at liberty to use all these tools in adding variety to your sentence structure.

Using a variety of conjunctions and/or semicolons, combine the following simple

sentences into compound-complex sentences.
Example: The blue whale can produce sounds up to 188 decibels.
This is the loudest sound produced by a living animal.
This sound can be detected as far away as 500 miles.
Because the blue whale can produce sounds up to 188 decibels, it is the
loudest sound produced by a living animal; in fact, this sound can be
detected as far away as 500 miles.

1. The monster appeared on screen.

The child fainted.
The audience gasped.

2. He plays the drums.

He turns the volume up.
The neighbors complain.

3. Amos went to the rap concert.

He did not enjoy himself.
His seat was in the back lower deck.

4. I will do the dishes.

You will vacuum the house.
We can go to the mall.
 Sentence Variety 141

(6} MEMORY TIP

Kinds of Sentences
1. Simple Sentence = 1 Independent Clause
| drink milk.
| eat cereal.
2, Compound Sentence = 2 Independent Clauses
* Coordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

| drink milk, and | eat cereal.
| drink milk,so | eat cereal.
* Adverbial Conjunctions: HOT SHOT MAMA CAT
| drink milk; therefore, | eat cereal.
| drink milk; then, | eat cereal.

+ also, ; therefore, ; otherwise, ; consequently,

; besides, ; nonetheless, ; furthermore, ; nevertheless,
‘instead, ; however, ; for instance, ; accordingly,
; indeed, ; moreover, : likewise, ; for example,
; infact, ;as aresult, + in addition, ; meanwhile,
; thus, ; then, ; similarly, ‘hence,
; infact, ;subsequently, ;o0n the other hand,

* Semicolon: ;
| drink milk; | eat cereal.

3. Complex Sentence = 1 Independent Clause and 1 Dependent Clause

Subordinating Conjunctions: WASBIT
* IC + WASBIT + IC = no comma needed
| drink milk when | eat cereal.

* WASBIT+ DC, IC = Comma needed in the middle

When | drink milk, |eat cereal.

When, where, wherever, whenever, whereas, whether, while,

as, as if, as long as, as though, although, after, so that, since,
before, because, behind, if, in order, though, until, unless,
rather than, provided that

. Compound-Complex Sentence = 2 or more Independent Clauses

with 2 or more Dependent Clauses
Use a mix of FANBOYS, HOT SHOT MAMA CAT, WASBIT, and semicolon
to join.
142 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

Working with a partner, complete the following sentences based on the topic
provided. The sentences have been started for you.
Topic: Sara and her dream house
Simple Sentences:
i . The neighborhood

. The house

Compound Sentence: Using coordinating conjunctions (or FAN BOYS)

Oo. It was the house of her dreams

aS . She contacted her real estate agent

Compound Sentence: Using adverbial conjunctions (or HOT SHOT

MAMA CAT)

Nn . The price for the house was expensive

oN. She was ready to negotiate

Complex Sentence: Using subordinating conjunctions (or WASBIT)

N . Although she made a good offer

oo . The sellers were not easy to work with

Compound-Complex Sentence: using 2 or more conjunctions

\9. She bought the house

10 After she moved into the house

 Sentence Variety 143

In small groups, create a paragraph of 5 to 7 sentences using the answers to the

corresponding questions below. Rotate turns, so each member in the group has
a chance to create a sentence. Once you have completed your answers, rewrite
the sentences into a correctly punctuated paragraph and share your text with the
class. Your paragraph may have a tragic or funny tone and should be imagined,
not drawn from real-life events.
Sentence one: Simple sentence
Question one: Our trip to was memorable.

Sentence two: Compound sentence using a coordinating conjunc-

tion (or FANBOYS)
Question two: When did you go on the trip and who was with you?

Sentence three: Complex sentence using a subordinating conjunction

(or WASBIT)
Question three: How far did you have to travel to get to your
destination?

Sentence four: Compound sentence using an adverbial conjunction

(ora HOT SHOT MAMA CAT)
Question four: Why did you go on that trip?

Sentence five: Compound sentence using a coordinating conjunc-

tion (or FANBOYS)

Question five: What were some things you did on the trip?

Sentence six: Complex sentence using a subordinating conjunction

(or WASBIT)
Question six: Did you like what you did on the trip? Why or why not?

ep
144 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

Sentence seven: Simple sentence

Question seven: Would you recommend that trip to others?

@
i with Varied Kinds of Sentences
In small groups, revise the following essay to achieve sentence variety. Use the
skills you have learned about conjunctions and about compound, complex, and
compound-complex sentence structures.
(1) A major problem in health care today is determining what drug and what
dosage should be used for a patient. (2) Individuals react to medications in
different ways. (3) Some individuals need large amounts of pain medication.
(4) Others need smaller quantities. (5) A blood pressure medication works well
for one individual. (6) It is not effective for another patient. (7) An antibiotic
cures an infection in one person. (8) It causes an allergic reaction that kills
another person. (9) Pharmacogenetics is the science of prescribing medicine
based on a person’s unique genetic makeup. (10) It is the start of a revolution
in personalizing treatment for a particular individual.

(11) Researchers are using genetic information about individuals to try to

determine their reactions to different medications. (12) Scientists have proved
that there is a gene in a person's body that controls how a drug is absorbed,
used, and eliminated. (13) This gene may be different from person to person.
(14) By learning an individual's genetic makeup, a physician could prescribe
the exact medication and dosage that would be most beneficial to a patient.
(15) Imagine a future where people will have a computer chip that contains
all of their genetic information. (16) This information will be scanned before
medication is given to a patient. (17) A computer will analyze the information
and determine the patient's compatibility with the medication. (18) The exact
dosage needed by the patient will be revealed.
(19) This process raises concerns about patient confidentiality, privacy, and
legal regulations. (20) It has the potential to save lives. (21) A medicine given to
 Sentence Variety 145

a patient should be based on the person's specific needs. (22) Diseases will be
treated correctly and eventually cured.

—From Louise Simmers, Jntroduction to Health Science Technology

Revised Version; a tt he Se i ee Ee er

Determine what type of sentence is being used. Write simple (S), compound
(CP), complex (CX), or compound-complex (CPCX) on the line.

1. She admired the ocean view as she sat there lost in thought.
2. We must stay here because she has left with our only means of
transportation.
146 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

3. The weather was bad; they could not visit their ailing
grandmother.
4, Summer was coming to an end, so they had to go home; however,
they promised their friends they would visit again next summer.
5. Although Ben would like to do more acting, Mason is more inter-
ested in football.
6. Mitch and Sara have planned a graduation party for Maddy.
7. Sam called twice today, but he could not reach Tim.
8. The wind was cold; however, I did not have a coat.
9. Mr. Goodman is very knowledgeable about anthropology, but he is
strict in class.
10. If you walk quickly, you can catch the last morning bus.
11. If you finish your work tonight, you will not have to worry about
it tomorrow.
12. Wrestling is a demanding sport; in fact, it requires strong self-
discipline and great physical fitness.
13. It is difficult to learn all the grammar rules, but grammar skills
are essential for success in college writing.
14. While the summer is pleasant, I prefer the fall season.
15. The rescue helicopter landed on top of the mountain.
16. I saw that awful movie when I was in high school.
17. The winding road up the hill was closed; we had to turn around.
18. School started late today since it snowed last night.
19. When she eats seafood, she has an allergic reaction; therefore, she
avoids going to seafood restaurants.
20. Although the rabbits are cute, they are destroying our vegetable
garden.

Combine the following pairs of sentences using any of the three kinds of con-
junctions—coordinating, adverbial, or subordinating (FANBOYS, HOT SHOT
MAMA CAT, or WASBIT)—or the semicolon. Please write out the whole
sentence,
 Sentence Variety 147

. The suspected criminal ran into the street.

The police officers chased him.

SS SS a
oS
. Students need to enjoy their college years.
It is important to study well.

ee eee eee ee
. We will move in tomorrow.
The construction on the house is not complete.
Se
EE eee

. I bought a new smartphone.

It is too complicated for me.

. Larry likes to work with numbers.

He is studying finance.

. My brother is a single parent.

He needs a job with a flexible schedule.

. I studied my chemistry notes for an hour.

I fell asleep on the sofa.
148 CHAPTER SIX: Kinds of Sentences

8. Ben has a terrible cold.

He insists on coming to work.

. My mother opened the letter from the lawyers.

She screamed with joy.

10. Jeans with brand names are expensive.

I buy my jeans from a thrift store.

ii: The wind howled ferociously.

My candle flickered and blew out.
The door and windows rattled loudly.
I saw the ghost.

12; Alex likes Annabel.

Annabel loves Jason.

133 Helen wants to vacation in Spain.

She lost all her money on a bad business investment.
Spain will remain her dream destination.
 Sentence Variety 149

14. I want to download music for my iPod.

I cannot find the songs I like on iTunes.
SS — —— a ae ee
Se
ee
a
15. Many Americans cannot afford to have health insurance.
They see doctors only in emergencies.
CHAPTER SEVEN: The Seventh Building Block
Avoiding Common Sentence
Errors

In previous chapters, you learned about subjects and verbs and how they can be
combined with conjunctions to create different kinds of sentences. Writers who
understand the value of adding variety and interest to their sentences will make
some errors as they experiment; these errors often fall into three familiar patterns
that have been given specific names: fragments, run-ons, and comma splices.
This chapter explains these common sentence errors and provides simple solu-
tions for fixing them.

FRAGMENTS
You know that a complete sentence must contain both a subject and verb.
A fragment is an incomplete sentence that does not make sense and cannot stand
on its own. A fragment has one of the following five problems:

1. Sentence is missing a subject.

Cannot be my friend. (fragment)

Who cannot be my friend? This sentence does not have a subject. To fix
the fragment, add a subject, so it becomes a complete sentence.
Tom cannot be my friend. (complete)

Remember that a subject can be a person, place, thing, or idea.

Does not have to lead bitter fights. (fragment)

Expressinga political opinion does not have to lead to bitter fights.
(complete)
150
 Fragments 151

A subject can also be a pronoun.

This does not have to lead to bitter fights. (complete)

. Sentence is missing a verb.

The girl in the red hood. (fragment)
What is the girl in the red hood doing? We don’t know; there is no verb.
To fix the fragment, add a verb, so it becomes a complete sentence.
The girl with the red hood walked toward me. (complete)

Remember that a verb can be a state of being as well as an action.

Unselfish love toward another human being. (fragment)

Unselfish love toward another human being is rare. (complete)

. Sentence is missing both a subject and a verb.

At the end of the day.

Prepositional phrases like this may seem like complete thoughts, but they
are not.
On the soccer field. (fragment)
After a long silence. (fragment)
To play the piano. (fragment)

To fix the fragment, add an independent clause (which by definition con-

tains both a subject and a verb) to the phrase.
At the end of the day, Gina watches the sun set. (complete)
The players cheered on the soccer field. (complete)
| am longing to play the piano. (complete)

. Sentence is missing a helping verb. The sentence has an —ing verb with
no helping verb such as is, are, was, were, has, have, and had.
Barry running to the door. (fragment)

To fix the fragment, add a helping verb.

Barry was running to the door. (complete)

. Sentence is a dependent clause that cannot stand alone. Even though it

contains both a subject and a verb, a dependent clause does not express
a complete thought and should not be capitalized and punctuated as if it
were a sentence.
152 CHAPTER SEVEN: Avoiding Common Sentence Errors

When the band started to play. (fragment)

While she talked on the phone. (fragment)
That Jerry described. (fragment)

To fix the fragment, add an independent clause.

When the band started to play, people got up to dance. (complete)
Jerry interrupted her while she talked on the phone. (complete)
She couldn't understand the directions that Jerry described.
(complete)

MEMORY TIP
A fragment is not a sentence because it:
@ Does not make sense on its own.
@ Needs information added to it to make it complete.

Determine if each phrase is correct or fragmented. Write S for sentence and F

for fragment.
Example: F Walking down the long path to the house.
1. Bill’s sick mother.
2 . Mr. Smith teaches history at a community college in California.
3 . Behind the television and under the shelf.
4 . Lauren and Ryan’s ninth wedding anniversary.
5. Most of the animals starved during the severe drought.
6. Nicole wishing she had a good role in the Shakespeare play.
7. Swims across the pool in a hurry.
8. While I make the fruit salad for the party.
9. At ninety-six, Grandma is old.
10. I need a cup of coffee to wake up.
11. The boy in the orange bathing suit.
12. The plane flashing its take off lights.
13. Thelma my best friend from school.
14. Like the one at Matt’s house.
 Fragments 153

15. He looks very happy today.

16. Running through the sprinklers during the hottest part of
the day.
17. After you wash the dirty dishes.
18. Especially the clothes I wear.
19. When the rain ended this morning.
20. The noisy students talking in class.
21. The brown dog with the fleas on his back.
22. Suddenly stopping in traffic.
23. Which is a difficult situation.
24. The old pickup truck refusing to start.
25. Harry and Larry at the company luncheon.
26. Since the heater broke.
27. On the right of the table with the flower vase on it.
28. The book on the floor in the bedroom.
29. Have been through so much.
30. It is a beautiful warm day.

Read each sentence and identify what is missing in each fragment. Rewrite the frag-
ments into complete sentences. More than one answer is possible for some sentences.
Missing: Subject
Verb
Subject and verb
Helping verb
Independent clause
Example: Graduating in 2014. Missing: subject and verb
‘Tom will graduate in 2014.
_ 1. The hungry wolves attacking the helpless deer. Missing:

2. While the graduation party continued. Missing:

154 CHAPTER SEVEN: Avoiding Common Sentence Errors

3. The dinner from the Mexican restaurant. Missing:

4, Barry's tweed coat. Missing:

5. The eccentric woman painting her orange house. Missing:

6. Pouring hot chocolate fudge on the cake. Missing:

7. After the summer ends. Missing:

8. On the granite kitchen counter by the cooktop. Missing:

9. And spent the afternoon working on the marketing project. Missing:

10. Because I took the advice of a dear friend. Missing:

2
: Fragments in Writing
Work in small groups to determine if there are fragments in this passage. Write F
for fragment or S for sentence next to the corresponding numbers and then revise
the paragraph to correct the faulty sentences.

(1) Summer is supposed to be a pleasant time. (2) Going to the mountains

or beach. (3) Surfing, camping, and other fun activities. (4) Even just stroll-
ing in the early evening hours. (5) Unfortunately, not everyone can enjoy the
season. (6) For some people, summer being pure agony.

(7) For instance, my grandmother who has heart disease. (8) Suffers ter-
ribly in the heat. (9) Because her heart cannot pump fast enough to circulate
 Fragments 155

her blood and to disperse her body's heat. (10) Her blood pressure spikes.
(11) Feeling ill. (12) The solution is for her to stay in her air-conditioned house
for the whole summer. (13) Gets rather dull.

(14) Infants and toddlers playing all the time in the heat. (15) Because their
bodies have not yet developed the ability to dispel heat. (16) The hot tem-
peratures bothering them. (17) Parents are frustrated because they cannot
entertain their young ones indoors or force them to slow down.

(18) People who reside in apartments cannot enjoy the summer either.
(19) Many apartments not having cross-ventilation. (20) So the hot air settling
in the small, stuffy rooms. (21) Also, apartment residents having no back-
yards. (22) Having no outdoor place to enjoy a mild summer day.

ile |
ia
15:
14.
15.
16.
LZ.
18.
19:
CP
WN
WR
ONDA 20.
NO a 2M9
pe 22.

RUN-ONS
Run-ons (RO), also called run-together sentences, are sentence errors made up
of two side-by-side independent clauses (ICs) that have no punctuation between
them. The lack of punctuation makes it difficult for a reader to follow the move-
ment from one complete thought to the other.

We did not hear about the party until Friday we had to change our plans.

Even if a conjunction is added between two independent clauses, punctuation

must be added to create a big enough pause for the reader's brain to understand
the sentence correctly.
our plans.
We did not hear about the party until Friday, so we had to change
156 CHAPTER SEVEN: Avoiding Common Sentence Errors

(6) MEMORY TIP

Run-ons are sentence errors that look do not include the correct punctua-
tion and look like this:
Independent Clause Independent Clause

To fix run-ons, use one of the following solutions:

1. Add a period between the two independent clauses.

We did not hear about the party until Friday. We had to change
our plans.

2. Add a semicolon between the two independent clauses.

We had to change our plans; we did not hear about the party until
Friday.

3. Add a conjunction and punctuate correctly:

a., + coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).

We did not hear about the party until Friday, so we had to change
our plans.

b. ; + adverbial conjunction + , (HOT SHOT MAMA CAT).

We did not hear of the party until Friday; therefore, we changed

our plans.

c. subordinating conjunction (WASBIT) with or without comma.

When we heard about the party, we changed our plans.

We changed our plans when we heard about the party.

Read each sentence and if it is a run-on sentence write RO, and if it is correct,
write S for sentence.
Example: RO The longest living cells in the body are brain cells they can live an
entire lifetime.
1. The mother listened to her son she knew something bad had
happened.
2. My job has been boring; not many customers come in to buy.
3. The gourmet ice cream store is closed for it lost a lot of money.
 Run-Ons 157

4. The back roads are covered with snow it is dangerous to drive.

5. Annas new boss is nice since he gave her the day off.
6. Jess cooked the steak dinner Tina washed the dishes.
7. We covered all the furniture before we started painting inside.
8. I cannot trust Manny and Marie they gossip about others all
the time.
9. Our neighbors just moved from Florida and they seem friendly.
10. The concert lasted for four hours the musicians were exhausted.
11. The thunderstorm ended quickly; the damage was astounding.
12. Candace missed her flight so she had to take a later one.
13. The microwave is on sale I still cannot afford to buy it.
14. The waffles smell delicious, and I will have some.
15. The baby finally drifted to sleep she had been crying for hours.
16. Randy left his sweatshirt in the sun so it faded.
17. Mom wanted to make spaghetti, but she did not have the
ingredients.
18. Lasagna is my favorite food however I eat it only once a month.
19. One mouse ran into the pantry the other mouse ran under the
kitchen table.
20. We could go to the beach, or we could stay home.

COMMA SPLICES
Comma splice errors, like run-ons, occur when two independent clauses are
placed side by side. If a comma is chosen as the punctuation mark between
the two sentences, an error occurs: the comma “splices” or attempts to join
the ideas, but, in fact, a stronger pause is needed between two independent
clauses. This error can be compared to a driver who puts his foot on the
brake at a stop sign, but does not come to a complete stop. That is illegal in
traffic, and it is incorrect in grammar. A full “stop” must be created in one
.of three ways:
1. Take out the comma and add a period between the two ICs.
| ate cereal. | drank milk.
2. Change the comma to a semicolon between the two ICs.
| ate cereal; | drank milk.
158 CHAPTER SEVEN: Avoiding Common Sentence Errors

3. Add a conjunction and punctuate it correctly:

a. , + coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)
| ate cereal, and | drank milk.
b. ; + adverbial conjunction (HOT SHOT MAMA CAT)
| ate cereal; consequently, | drank milk.
c. subordinating conjunction with or without a comma (WASBIT)
| ate cereal when | drank milk.
OR
When | ate cereal, | drank milk.

(@) MEMORY TIP

A comma Splice is an error that looks like this:
Independent Clause, Independent Clause

Read each sentence and if the sentence is a comma splice, write CS. If it is correct,
write S for sentence.
Example: CS The Great Wall of China is more than 2,000 years old, it remains
one of the great wonders of the world.
1. lama poor man, I am happy.
2. If Iwere a poor man, | think I would be happy.
3. Coffee may be harmful, it tastes good especially in the morning.
4. The sun was shining; the birds were singing.
5. When a room is cold, it is impossible to work.
6. We have changed our project topic, we have to start all over.
7. 1 would like to go to the picnic, but I have to work today.
8. I will scream if you open your mouth to talk.
9. A few clouds rolled in and, we felt depressed.
10. I collect autographs consequently, I go to a lot of movie premieres.
11. The fire alarm rang, we grabbed our things and ran out the door.
12. The managers flew to the convention, but the employees drove
to it.
13. You have been told to refrain from talking in class, this time you
have to bear the consequences of your actions.
 Comma Splices 159

14. Final exams should be eliminated, they just pull down a stu-
dent’s grade.
15. The teams took to the field, but the referees had forgotten to
bring a ball.
16. I prefer fancy restaurants but, I like fast-food places too.
17. I have always liked reading about current events, I like to know
where the world is heading.
18. Strawberry milk is nutritious however, unflavored milk has
fewer calories.
19. It is important to use correct grammar, for that enables your
reader to understand your message.
20. His love of animals is great, he plans on becoming a veterinarian.

Identify the following sentence errors and write RO or CS on the line. Then
rewrite the sentences to correct them.
_ Example: RO The name Japan means land of the rising sun and the red circle
on the Japanese flag is a rising sun.
The name /apan means land of the rising sun, and the red circle on the
Japanese flag is a rising sun. :

1. He completed the new task his boss gave him a raise.

2. We canceled the beach trip, the weather was bad.

3. Greg is an expert skier he won two trophies.

4. The editor approved the book proposal, the writer could begin
writing.

5. The fire burned for ten minutes yet it caused a lot of damage.
160 CHAPTER SEVEN: Avoiding Common Sentence Errors

8 BUILDING SKILLS TOGETHER

7-2: Correcting
1 Run-ons and Comma Splices in Writing
Work in small groups to determine if there are runs-ons and comma splices in
this essay. Write RO, CS, or S next to the corresponding numbers and then revise
the paragraph to correct the faulty sentences.
(1) Many people are depressed on their birthdays. (2) Birthdays are
terrible days, | think they should be eliminated. (3) If you are one who
enjoys birthdays you probably haven't even considered the problem.
(4) There are several reasons for disliking birthdays.

(5) The classic reason is that a birthday reminds us that we are get-
ting older. (6) While that is true it is better than the alternative. (7) The
first one is departing this world although most people are not eager to do
so. (8) The second alternative is eternal youth like what Peter Pan and his
gang of boys preferred, we all know what happened to them in the end.
(9) | for one would not want to spend eighty years as a two-year-old.

(10) Another reason for birthday depression is that we are afraid no

one will remember, that the day will pass as just a regular day. (11) That
would be depressing, it is disheartening. (12) It proves that nobody cares
it shows us that we are not important to anybody. (13) We feel the world
is completely oblivious to our existence it does not even know that we
are alive. (14) All our friends who admit to liking us are simply frauds.
(15) They not only neglect to wish us “Happy Birthday" but they also fail to
give us the time of day.

(16) There is a cure for birthday depression let us get rid of birthdays!

SF
10.
Lie
12.
13.
14.
LD.
oe
Oe
ea
Oe 16.
 Comma Splices 161

(6) MEMORY TIP

Avoid the common sentence errors of fragments, run-ons, and comma
splices by writing these kinds of sentences: simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex.
Remember to use the appropriate punctuation for each type of
sentence. Refer to Chapter Six or Appendix A for complete details on the
four types of sentences.

Work in small groups. For each sentence, write F, CS, RO, or S for the sentence
next to the corresponding number. Then, rewrite the paragraph to correct the
problems you have recognized.
(1) Marissa is an energetic talker, her listening skills are underdeveloped.
(2) She calls herself an attentive friend the truth is that she never really listens
to anyone. (3) Marissa is always thinking about what to say next, she only pre-
tends to be listening. (4) Knowing she does not listen to them. (5) Her friends
_ do not discuss important things with her. (6) Tom learned the hard way he told
Marissa that his mother had a deadly disease. (7) Marissa was unconcerned
and inattentive, she said, “I'm happy to know that.” (8) Talking about the dance
non-stop. (9) Tom was surprised by Marissa’s reaction and he was hurt that she
had not been listening to him at all. (10) Tom realized that Marissa thinks she is

a loyal friend, she does not realize the truth. (11) She is not a real friend at all
her only friend is herself.
162 CHAPTER SEVEN: Avoiding Common Sentence Errors

¢ BUILDING SKILLS TOGETHER 7-4: Combinin:

HlSentences to Correct Faulty Sentences
With a partner, rewrite this excerpt to correct for faulty sentences.
(1) Nora's turn came, | heard the sound of something slamming then her
voice as if butter wouldn't melt in her mouth and another slam and she came
out. (2) Her eyes were lowered her head was bowed her hands were joined very
low down on her stomach and she walked up the aisle to the side altar looking
like a saint. (3) You never saw such an exhibition of devotion, | remembered the
devilish malice with which she had tormented me all the way from our door and
| wondered were all religious people like that. (4) It was my turn now. (5) With
the fear of damnation in my soul. (6) | went in, the confessional door closed of
itself behind me.

(7) It was pitch dark, | couldn't see the priest or anything else. (8) Then,
beginning to be frightened. (9) In the darkness. (10) It was a matter between
God and me and He had all the odds. (11) He knew what my intentions were
before | even started | had no chance. (12) All | had ever been told about con-
fession got mixed up in my mind and | knelt to one wall and said: “Bless me,
father, for | have sinned; this is my first confession.” (13) | waited for a few
minutes but nothing happened | tried it on the other wall. (14) Nothing there
either he had me spotted all right.
—From Frank O’Connor, “First Confession”

Read the following sentences and determine if they are a:

Fragment: F
Run-on: RO
Comma Splice: CS
Sentence: S

1. Talking on the phone for three hours.

2. It snowed all night the highways were closed.

 Comma Splices 163

3. Henry’s car key left behind on the counter.

4, Mike is an excellent student, he studies every day.
ay Jerry running to catch the ball.
6. Over the dead body in the dirt.
7. Janie is taking night classes and I am taking morning classes.
8 . Seasons change.
BE We made plans for the weekend yet, we did not know that Mario
would have to work.
10. Because my car needed an oil change, | took it to the mechanic
shop.
a Actors waited in line.
Wee My aunt needs to lose weight she is exercising every day.
13: Tom’s interview went well; he thinks he will get the job.
14. Dr. Rickets postponed the test, everyone in the class was relieved.
15. I noticed everyone at the party; however I forgot everyone’s name.
16. Moving g into my Mf own house was an important event in my life, I
gained my freedom.
We Cathy is working the day shift and Marco is working the night
shift.
18. Jason works in the garden and his children help him.
19. Tara partied all weekend, she failed her math test on Monday.
20. Television is entertaining nevertheless, it is very distracting.
UNIT FOUR: Descriptors, Modifiers,
and Parallelism

165
CHAPTER EIGHT: The Eighth Building Block
Adjectives and Adverbs as
Modifiers

Up to this point, you have been learning about how the basic parts of a sentence
can be composed and arranged to ensure your writing is not confusing or boring.
Now that you have begun to master the tools of sentence clarity and sentence
variety, it is time to look at sentence specificity and vitality.
If you want to tell your friend about a new singer you have become a fan of,
you will want to say more than just, “She sings jazz and pop, and she has cut three
records.” That sentence will not communicate to your friend what makes this
singer so special. You may say, however, something like, “She hits an astonishing
range of notes on her latest jazz album, and her angrily soulful lyrics send shivers
down my spine.” Adding descriptive details like these to your sentences requires
the use of your seventh building block: adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives and
adverbs are words that modify (identify or describe) other elements in sentences
and help you write lively and engaging sentences.

DESCRIPTIVE MODIFIERS
Adjectives add specific details to modify or describe the noun or subject in the
sentence, whereas adverbs add descriptive details to the verb, adjective, and ad-
verb in the sentence. When these details are added to a sentence, the fundamental
building blocks of subjects and verbs stay the same; however, description is used
to add specificity to the meaning of the sentence.

The man walked.

You understand what this sentence is about generally; however, you do not
know exactly which man or how or where he walked. When you add specific

166
 Descriptive Modifiers 167

details to this sentence, you get a better description and a more interesting sen-
tence like this:
The tired old man walked slowly and steadily up the street.

The adjectives and adverbs in the above sentence added specificity to the elements
and modified the sentence, so you know now which man walked and how he walked.

Adjectives
An adjective is a word or words that modify or describe nouns (people, places,
things) or pronouns (words that replace nouns). Often, adjectives fall before the
noun, and they add information that explains how many, which one, what kind
of noun, or whose noun.

MEMORY TIP
To spot adjectives in a sentence, you must identify the noun first.
Then, ask the following questions about the noun:
What kind?
Which one?
How many?
Whose?

Consider these examples:

What kind?

The tall girl has a green coat on.

She has short red hair.
She is an English teacher.

Which one?

This month is short.

Next week is a busy one.
The football team is devastated.
The beautiful girl walks home.

How many?

Three boys walked to the bus station.

Several days have passed since the interview.
Five eggs hatched today.
One objective is in mind for the festival.
168 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers

Whose?

Here is John's suitcase.

He handed me the Smiths’ tickets.

(6) MEMORY TIP

lf you have two or more adjectives that modify the same word, put a
comma between them only if the word and inserted between the words
sounds natural.
He was a bashful dopey person.
Can you add an and to the sentence?
He was a bashful and dopey person.
Correct: He was a bashful, dopey person.

To locate adjectives, first identify the nouns.

Sue drives an old, small, blue car.
The nouns in this sentence are Swe and car. No descriptive words are before
Sue, but a few words are in front of the noun car. When you ask the questions:
Which one or what kind of car does Sue drive? The answers—old, small, blue—
would be the adjectives that describe the noun car.

(%) MEMORY TIP

The words this, that, these, and those are adjectives if they come right
before a noun.
Pick up these books,
What kind of books? These books.

When two or more adjectives are present before a noun, commas are often used
to separate them, making it easier for the reader to understand each adjective.

Add adjectives to the following nouns.

Example: An aggressive detective interrogated the suspect.
ane baby cried all night.
2. An woman walked into the boardroom.
 Descriptive Modifiers 169

oeane inspector questioned the suspect.

4, The house has been abandoned for a while.
eile building rose majestically into the sky.
6. The classroom felt stuffy.
Teh. swimmer practices for hours.
8.elhe book lay on the coffee table.
9. This table has seen better days.
PO ihe idea captivated the audience.

Underline the adjectives in each sentence.

Example: The old house is a fine example of Victorian architecture.
. The scratchy loud noise got on my tense nerves.
. Every day Mary buys fresh green vegetables from the small grocery store.
. Ron, the handsome and smart man, solved the long math problem.
. The favorite American team won the last football game.
. Gray stormy clouds poured cold rain on the sleepy city.
. Leo bought a big, brown, aggressive dog.
. Sheila is an unhappy woman because of her three failed marriages.
. People from all over adored his striking face and engaging personality.
. The squeaky green door opened for the old man.
Ooen
VEEN
ON
ON)
Et)
NOMCOm
iE
I

10. The tall magnolia trees at the end of the yard have yellow leaves.

Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Unlike adjectives,
which often fall right before a noun, adverbs fall anywhere in the sentence, even
before a verb.
They usually walk in the evenings.
He often has cold pizza.
170 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers

MEMORY TIP
To spot adverbs, identify the verb(s) in the sentence and then answer the
following questions:
How?
Where?
When?
To what extent—how often or how much?

In identifying adverbs, the questions can be used as in the following examples:

He is talking slowly. (How is he talking?)
The girls went to school. (Where did the girls go?)
The family departed yesterday. (When did the family depart?)
She cooks daily. (How often does she cook?)
| am totally confused. (How much am | confused?)
It is too cold! (How is it?)
Many adverbs are formed by adding an —/y to a word, like this:
slow = slowly
rare = rarely

When a word ends with a -y, change the y to ¢ and add —/y like this:

happy = happily
noisy = noisily

Also, some adverbs cannot end with —ly such as:

again
never
sometimes
very
ever
now
already
quite
 Descriptive Modifiers 171

Add adverbs to the following sentences.

Example: The oldest neighbor on my street talks quietly and shyly.
if The accused criminal spoke
. In the church, the chorus sang
. Marcus answered the call.
. Joe, the driver, drove
. The lone bird flew
Write and effectively.
. Out of the hole, the snake slithered
. Minnie is leaving

UN Paul
Os
RF
UV
ON)
Foo
WO understood the complicated game.
10. At the ball, Robbie danced

Underline the adverbs in each sentence.

Example: She works confidently and meticulously on her science project.
1. Drew slowly and carefully turned his foot.
. At the football game, the players played aggressively and defensively.
. As everyone can see, Dave is extremely clumsy.
. Jenny sleepily answered the phone.
. Because he ran for two hours, the dog is very tired.
The room for the nursery is surprisingly sunny.
. On Monday, the bad news came unexpectedly.
. Jon was greatly concerned about the flood.
. Maggie carefully unwrapped the mailed package.
. The morning sunrise was startlingly bright.
172 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifers

Add adjectives and adverbs to the following sentences.

Example: The minister addressed his congregation.
The wise, solemn minister eloquently addressed his loyal congregation.
1. A truck careened.

2. Johnny, the singer, sang a song.

3. A dog chased a cat.

4, The child ran home.

5. My boss gave me a raise.

COMMON MISTAKES WITH ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Some writers use adjectives when they need an adverb.
Answer me honest.

To be correct, the sentence should be:

Answer me honestly.

The word honestly describes how the answer should be given; therefore, it is an
adverb. The word /onest in the first sentence is really an adjective and if it must
be used, then it should be placed so that it modifies the noun in the sentence:
Give me an honest answer.

Honest now comes before a noun—answer—and describes it.

In each sentence, change the bolded adjective in to an adverb.

Example: The bright light shines.
The light shines brightly.
 Comparative and Superlative Forms 173

1. The officer gave a polite reply.

2. The mechanic gave my car a complete check.

3. Mike has a beautiful voice when he sings.

4. The politician has an aggressive way of debating.

5. Anna wore a simple dress.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS

Adjectives and adverbs come in three different forms and are used to show degrees
of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
The positive form talks about one person or thing and maintains the initial
form of the word.
Brandon's puppy grew fast.
Government spending is wasteful.

The comparative form presents two elements and makes a judgment between
the two.
Brandon's puppy grew faster than Jarod’s puppy.
Government spending is more wasteful this year than in previous years.

The superlative form presents or implies three or more elements, and makes a
judgment that puts one on top.
Of all the puppies we saw that day, Brandon's was the fastest.
Government spending was the least wasteful in the area of highway
safety and maintenance.

Showing degrees of comparison with adjectives and adverbs requires learning

a few rules and concepts. You need to know that adjectives and adverbs can be
either regular or irregular.

‘Regular Adjectives and Adverbs

When forming regular modifiers, follow these two rules:
a= Use —er ot more to form the comparative degree and —est or most to form
the superlative degree of most one- and two-syllable modifiers.
«= Use more and most to form the comparative and superlative degrees of all
modifiers with three or more syllables.
174 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifers

i
Positive (1)
tal
thin thinner than

i
lovely lovelier than

Note: If a word ends with —y, you replace the —y with an i and you add an —er
or an —est like:
pretty > prettier — prettiest

If an —er cannot be added to the comparative form, the word must take a
more, and you cannot have both an —er ending a more added to the word. It is an
“either/or” situation.
If the word takes an —er ending in comparative form, it will take an —est ending
in superlative. On the other hand, if the word takes a more in comparative form
then it would take a most in superlative form.

MEMORY TIP
The comparative form of adjectives and adverbs requires adding either -er
to the ending of the word OR more added to the positive form of the word.
Elsa is happier than her sister Erin, but Erin is more beautiful
than Elsa.
The superlative form requires adding either an -est to the ending of the
word OR a most added to the positive form of the word. It also frequently
takes “the” at the beginning.
Among my ten cousins, Elsa is the happiest, but Erin is the most
beautiful.
 Comparative and Superlative Forms 175

Write the comparative and superlative form of each adjective or adverb.

Example: comparative superlative
short shorter shortest
1 . famous
2. lazy
3. decent
4. bright
5. wonderful
6 esad
7 . ugly
8 . fun
9 . lonely
10. nice
11. terrible
12. skillful
13. rich
14. big
15. successful

Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs

Some adjectives are irregular in the way they change to show comparison. They
are unique in that they form entirely new words in the comparative and superla-
tive forms.

-| far

*Note: When Jittle refers to quantity (a little hungry/less hungry/least hun-

gry), it is irregular, but when /itz/e refers to physical size (a little puppy/a littler
puppy/the littlest puppy), it is regular.
176 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers

(6) MEMORY TIP

Commonly confused words:
m Farther shows physical distance.
My home is farther down the road.
@ Further means “in addition" or “additional.”
| need further data for this survey.

Underline the appropriate comparative or superlative form of the adjective/adverb:

Example: Their mountain log cabin is (older, oldest) than ours.
. That pine tree is the (tallest, taller) one in the grove.
. His blonde curly hair is (longer, more long) than mine.
. This is the (mildest, most mild) chili sauce I have found.
. Everyone knows that Josh is (funner, more fun) than Matty.
> That
ND
FO)
GES
WA blue cashmere sweater is the (most beautiful, beautifullest) I have
ever seen.
. This small lamp is (brighter, more bright) than the other one.
. Ron needs to obtain (further, farther) information from the agitated suspect.
. The (less/least) coffee I consume, the (better, best) I feel.
. Of all his five siblings, Jon is the (taller, tallest) one.
. Bob is the (most daring, daringest) of the three boys.

FOUR MORE TRICKY ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Perhaps the most irregular and often misused adjectives and adverbs are good,
bad, well, and badly. They are among the most frequently confused adjectives
and adverbs.
The words good and bad are always adjectives and often land before a noun.
They answer the questions of which one and what kind of noun.
lam a good student.
 Four More Tricky Adjectives and Adverbs 177

The words well and badly are always adverbs and describe the verb or action in
the sentence. They answer the question of how the verb is done.
| study well.

Well describes the act of studying —how do I study? Wéll is often used with the
verb feel when it means healthy as in J feel well today.
Wrong: | did good on my test.
Right: | did well on my test.
Wrong: | ama well piano player.
Right: | am a good piano player.
Wrong: | feel good today after being sick with the flu.
Right: | feel well today after being sick with the flu.

In comparative and superlative forms, these irregular words change drastically:

a en ee
ee i woe ve

Underline the appropriate word in the following sentences.

Example: The music teacher at our school, Mrs. Jensen, is a (good, well) pianist.
1. To avoid salmonella poisoning, I always cook eggs (well/good).
2. At the end of every Monday, I always seem to have a (bad/badly) headache.
3. Drew’s mom said that he is behaving (well/good) in his English class.
+ . The coach commented that since they have been practicing more frequently,
the baseball team has performed (good/well).
5. Amazingly, Scott did (well/good) on his science test.
6. Even though the question was hard, you answered it (good/well).
Gaeine Angels have a (good/well) pitching staff this year.
8. You will do (well/good) on the exam if you do not stress out.
9, Barry, the kindergarten teacher, sings (good/well) songs for little kids.
10. My delicate stomach is upset today, so I do not feel (good/well).
178 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers

Underline the correct comparative or superlative form for these irregular

adjectives/adverbs.
Example: Over the weekend, Bessie’s sickness got (worse, worst), and she needed
to go the hospital.
. This is the (worse, worst) concert I have ever been to.
. Jane did (good/better, best) on this math test than on the last one.
. Between the two of them, Mike is the (better, best) pitcher.
. My headache is (bad, worse, worst) today than yesterday.
. This is the (good, best, better) pie I have ever tasted.
. Among all three contestants, she is the (worse, worst) speaker.
Of all my days, last Monday was the (worse, worst) day.
. After drinking four beers, the man felt (worse, worst).
> . Of the thirteen dancers, Katie is the (better, best) one.
1S
RY
Un
Gy.
clei
XO)
10. I feel (better, best) about my decision.

Work in small groups to cross out the mistake(s) in each sentence and write in
the correction(s) above the text.
1. I remember the well experience of buying my dog at the pet store.
2. It left me feeling most grateful than I thought I could ever feel.
3. Of the three dogs I saw that day, the one I bought was the bestest.
4 . This dog, whom I called Beny, was the big, the most happy and the ener-
geticest dog I’ve ever seen.
5. As soon as Beny was brought out into the petting room, he excited ran up
to me and gentle laid at my feet.
6. He looked up at me with warmly golden brown eyes and soft licked my hand.
7. As I scratched his longly ears, I felt his most rich and most soft texture of
his coat.
oo. But underneath all this softness, he had the most leaner and stronger muscles.
9. I quick fell in love with Beny and wanted to take him home with me.
 rour More Tricky Adjectives and Adverbs 179

10. As I petted him, the pet store owner told me that Beny was bad mistreated
by his previous owner.
11. I wanted to hold him tight and chase away all his badly memories.
12. As I looked into his beautifullest eyes, I knew that Beny and I were going
to get along good.
13. Since I wanted a fur friend so bad and since Beny and I hit it off good, I
decided to adopt him.
14. Ever since, Beny and I have been inseparably, and I look forward to com-
ing home to him every day.
15. I am gratefuller to know Beny’s love for me.

Work in small groups on underlining the adjectives and circling the adverbs in
this passage.
(1) The old lady settled herself comfortably, removing her white cotton
gloves and putting them up with her purse on the shelf in front of the back
window. (2) The children’s mother still had on slacks and still had her head
tied up in a green kerchief, but the grandmother had on a navy blue straw
sailor hat with a bunch of white violets on the brim and a navy blue dress with
a small white dot in the print. (3) Her collars and cuffs were white organdy
trimmed with lace and at her neckline she had pinned a purple spray of cloth
violets containing a sachet. (4) In case of an accident, anyone seeing her dead
on the highway would know at once that she was a lady.

(5) She said she thought it was going to be a good day for driving, neither
too hot nor too cold, and she cautioned Bailey that the speed limit was fifty-
five miles an hour and that the patrolmen hid themselves behind billboards and
small clumps of trees and sped out after you before you had a chance to slow
~ down. (6) She pointed out interesting details of the scenery: Stone Mountain;
the blue granite that in some places came up to both sides of the highway; the
brilliant red clay banks slightly streaked with purple; and the various crops
that made rows of green lace-work on the ground. (7) The trees were full of
kez
180 CHAPTER EIGHT: Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers

silver-white sunlight and the meanest of them sparkled. (8) The children were
reading comic magazines and their mother had gone back to sleep.
—From Flannery O’Connor, ‘A Good Man is Hard to Find”

A. Underline the adjectives and circle the adverbs in each sentence.

1. The old abandoned house stood proudly at the end of the long street.
2. That attractive, happy couple is obviously newly married.
3. The sleek cat perched gracefully onto the window seat.
B. Insert the appropriate adverb for each sentence.
4, The boisterous children played (loud)
5. The charismatic politician was greeted (warm)
6. The excited fans cheered (wild)
C. Spot the adjective or adverb in the sentences below and write the form
used: positive, comparative, or superlative.
7. That apartment building is the tallest in the area.
8. The lasagna is tasty.
9, Today’s weather is warmer than yesterday.
10. My office is cleaner than yours.
11. The food is hot.

D. Write the comparative or superlative form of the adjective/adverb in each

sentence.
12. Tim is reading the (thick) book on the shelf.
13. This dress is (pretty) than I expected.
14. Let us finish the job (quickly) than Bill.
15. The new president gave a (short) speech this
time.
16. That movie is the (funny) one of the season.
E. Underline the appropriate form of the adjective/adverb in the sentences.
17. Sonny skated (well, better, best) than Jenny.
18. This is the (worse, worst, bad) storm of the season.
 Four More Tricky Adjectives and Adverbs 181

19. This year’s Christmas program is (good, better, best) than last year.
20. This test is (bad, worse, worst) than the one we had last week.
21. The dog’s bark is (worse, worst) than his bite.
22. The fans behaved (bad, badly).
23. That (bad, badly) girl will not stop screaming!
24. He (bad, badly) wanted to go to the beach.
25. Jon had a (bad, badly) hiking experience.
CHAPTER NINE: The Ninth Building Block
Using Modifiers Correctly

You learned that adding descriptive details to your writing gives the reader a
richer and more colorful idea of what you are discussing. The world of words
would be a very boring place without adjectives and adverbs! However, a truth
you may have discovered in other subjects, and in general life, is also true
in grammar: The more ingredients or elements we add, the more opportuni-
ties we create for confusion and misunderstanding. Adjectives and adverbs—
along with other modifiers like prepositional phrases—have such descriptive
power that shifting where they are placed in a sentence can alter their meaning
significantly.

The doctor from Ohio uploaded a video lecture on teenage criminals.

The doctor uploaded a video lecture on teenage criminals from Ohio.
The doctor uploaded a video lecture from Ohio on teenage criminals.

Notice how, as you read each sentence, your picture of the event changes. It is
essential to understand how modifier placement—our ninth building block—
affects the grammar of the sentence. Learning to control the effect of these pow-
erful descriptors is a step forward for any writer. The first step is recognizing how
the placement of a modifier creates confusion or wrong meaning. Modifiers are
words, phrases, or clauses that provide description in sentences. Misplaced and
dangling modifiers are the names grammar gives to modifier placement errors
in sentences.

MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Adjectives and adverbs can never stand alone. Pale blue. Hurriedly. Ever af-
ter. Large. These modifiers require a subject and a verb if they are to become
182
 Misplaced Modifiers 183

a grammatically functioning sentence. In addition, adjectives and adverbs

must stay close to the noun or verb they are describing, or, like little children
straying too far from their parents, these parts of speech will bring chaos and
confusion.

John saw the Grand Canyon flying over Arizona.

What is happening in this sentence? At first glance, you might think the sentence
is saying that the Grand Canyon was flying—but that cannot be right! Reading
the sentence again, you might decide that John is in an airplane, flying over
Arizona, looking down at the Grand Canyon. However, the sentence must be
rewritten if you want to be completely certain. The modifier flying over Arizona
is too far away from its subject; it is, therefore, a misplaced modifier. To fix this
error, the modifier must be moved closer to the subject, John.

John, flying over Arizona, saw the Grand Canyon.

Another way to fix this is to add a conjunction and a pronoun, and change the
sentence to one of the four correct kinds of sentences: simple, compound, com-
plex, or compound-complex. There are several correct ways to add a conjunction
and a pronoun to the original sentence. Notice that in each of the rewritten sen-
tence, the modifier has been placed much closer to the subject.

When John was flying over Arizona, he saw the Grand Canyon.
John was flying over Arizona, and he saw the Grand Canyon.
John was flying over Arizona; therefore he saw the Grand Canyon.

MEMORY TIP
To correct misplaced modifiers:
= Move the modifier closer to the subject it is modifying in the sentence.
The waiter served a piece of bread to the woman that was
well-buttered.
As it is written, this sentence implies that the woman is well-buttered when
it should be the piece of bread.
m™ Add aconjunction and/or a pronoun to restructure the sentence as
one of the four kinds of sentences: simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex.
Correct: The waiter served the woman a piece of well-buttered bread.
Correct: When the piece of bread was well-buttered, the waiter served it
to the woman.
184 CHAPTER NINE: Using Modifiers Correctly

Determine if these sentences are correct or if they contain misplaced modifiers.

Circle the appropriate answer.
us I admired the sweater Samantha was wearing with happy flowers.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. I like the sweater I bought at the store with puffed shoulders.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. A swim in the pool feels good on a hot summer day.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. Joanne gave all the books to her sister that she did not want anymore.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. The colorful fish were appealing to the children in the twenty-gallon tank.
Nn

a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. The fans clapping loudly cheered for their team.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. | hope you realize that smoking causes cancer.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. We stopped the truck hearing the police siren.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. The jogger crossed the finish line wheezing to catch his breath.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
. My teacher failing the algebra test recommended a tutor to me.
a. Correct
b. Misplaced Modifier
 Misplaced Modifiers 185

Some of the following sentences contain misplaced modifiers. Identify the cor-
rect sentences by writing S and for the sentences with misplaced modifiers write
MM. Rewrite the sentences that have misplaced modifiers.
Example: MM The dealer sold the new car to the buyer with leather seats.
The dealer sold the new car with leather seats to the buyer.
1. We saw the plane had crashed on the living room television.

2. The truck was taken to the mechanic shop with a big flat tire.

3. Mrs. Smyth with a metal bottom sat in a chair.

4. The thief mugged the old lady with a masked and hooded face.

5. Jason changed his answers on the test.

6. I saw the keys walking down the alley.

7. The rider was thrown by the horse wearing red boots.

8. The man in the rocking chair sat by the big dog smoking his
favorite pipe.

9. If you had listened to me, your term paper would be done

by now.

10. The doctor asked me if I could move my legs falling from

the tree.
186 CHAPTER NINE: Using Modifiers Correctly

DANGLING MODIFIERS
As writers seek to add interest and complexity to their writing, they need to make
sure every action and descriptor they add is accurately tied to a logical subject.
Without close attention, misplaced modifiers can crop up, along with another
common error, the dangling modifier. Like a child who has let go of his parent's
hand and is wandering around aimlessly, a dangling modifier occurs when a logi-
cal subject cannot be found to connect to a modifier in the sentence.
Running to catch the bus, my wallet fell out of my coat.

Was the wallet running to catch the bus? Is that possible? We do not know who is
running to catch the bus, and the nouns—wallet and coat—in the rest of the sen-
tence cannot be the ones doing the running. To correct this dangling modifier:

1. Add a subject to the first part of the sentence, so the modifier words—
running to catch the bus—belong to a specific and logical subject.
2. Sometimes you need to add more than a subject to the dangling modifier.
You might need to add a verb and/or a conjunction, so the sentence is cor-
rectly structured.
Clear: As was running to catch the bus, my wallet fell out of my
coat.
Clear: was running to catch the bus, but my wallet fell out of my
coat.
Clear: Iran to catch the bus; |
felt my wallet fly out of my coat.

MEMORY TIP
To correct dangling modifiers:
m Adda subject and, if necessary, a conjunction and a verb, to the
sentence, making sure these additions are placed close to the
problematic modifier.
Incorrect: When sixteen years old, Tom enrolled in medical school.
Correct: When Tom was sixteen years old, he enrolled in medical school.

Determine if these sentences are correct or if they contain dangling modifiers.

Circle the appropriate answer.
1. Peeking into the bag, the cookies were crushed.
a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier
 Dangling Modifiers 187

- To obtain a loan from the bank, good credit is required.

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

. The driver turned the car on after the battery finished charging.
a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

. While talking on the cell phone, the chef prepared my lunch.

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

WN - Stomping the ground, Timothy ran from the angry bull.

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

. We wished to purchase a travel package to Mexico.

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

Barking loudly, the owner greeted the excited dog.

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

co . Falling in love with Brad Pitt, Angelina Jolie was the envy of many people.
a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

. Watching the show, the puppy sat on grandma’s lap.

\9

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

. While I waited for my date to show up, I talked to two of my friends.

a. Correct
b. Dangling Modifier

Some of the following sentences contain dangling modifiers. For the correct sen-
tences, write S and for the ones with dangling modifiers write DM. Rewrite the
sentences that have dangling modifiers.
Example: DM Having been fixed the night before, Pam could use her bicycle.
After her bicycle was fixed, Pam used it to go to school.
| ap
188 CHAPTER NINE: Using Modifiers Correctly

1. To earn an A, many hours of study are needed.

2. At the age of four, my sister Marie was born.

3. Being a good parent, endless patience is needed.

4, You must complete all the requirements if you want to grad-

uate by June.

5. Waiting for the bus, the snow started falling.

6. Baked in butter, Len served the lobster.

7. To run in the marathon, many hours of practice are needed.

8. Sailing in stormy waters, seasickness took over the passengers.

9. Falling off the table, Tom reached for the jar of pickles.

10. Driving a small car, parking spaces can be a problem.

Misplaced and dangling modifiers often make very funny word pictures:
Incorrect: | glimpsed a rat sorting the recyclable materials.
Correct: | glimpsed a rat as | was sorting the recyclable materials.

Incorrect: We saw a great blue heron on vacation in Canada.

Correct: While we were on vacation in Canada, we saw a great blue
heron.
As you complete the exercises, enjoy the humor, and use it to help you recognize
placement errors.
 Dangling Modifiers 189

@ BUILDING SKILLS TOGETHER 9-1: Modifiers

Working with a partner, read the following paragraph and identify the modifier
problems. Correct the errors by rewriting the sentences.
(1) | worry about my 8-year-old sister Lori because she only talks to one
person, her imaginary friend, Mary. (2) At age four, their friendship developed.
(3) Talking to Mary constantly, Lori darts around everyone full of energy.
(4) Lori can't seem to get close besides Mary to anyone. (5) Shutting Mom,
Dad, and me out, Lori has no other friends. (6) Lori needs to establish some
connection with real people around her. (7) While learning to trust others, more
normalcy and security can be found for Lori. (8) | am committed to helping my
sister with real people have healthy relationships.

Working with a small group, read the following essay and identify the modifier
problems. Identify each sentence as MM, DM, or Correct and then rewrite the
incorrect sentences.
A Day in the Life of a Casino Manager
(1) Being a casino manager, none of my days are average. (2) Every day is

different. (3) One day, for example, | am handling for Rod Stewart dinner res-
ervations. (4) The next day, explaining to a member of a Hollywood entourage,
the water fountain is not for swimming. (5) The next day, | am paying a life-
changing jackpot to a customer over $1 million. (6) And on Friday, explaining to
one of my best VIP customers, his dogs cannot stay in the hotel rooms even if
they are considered to be like children. (7) Thinking I've seen it all, something
always happens to remind me that anything is possible. (8) | learned early on
-never to say “Now I've seen it all.”

(9) Working the day shift, | show up forty-five minutes before my shift be-
gins to get debriefed on what occurred during the night shift. (10) I'm told the
poker tournament had been an enormous success sponsored by a local radio
ea
190 CHAPTER NINE: Using Modifiers Correctly

show. (11) Security out of the 600 tournament guests had only dealt with a
couple of intoxicated guests. (12) I'm also told about the two players who had
tried to cheat the casino by switching cards in table games. (13) Completing
the paperwork to exclude these players, | work with the compliance manager.

(14) Just starting to check my e-mail, a large jackpot hit on the main
casino floor. (15) The winners were a local poor couple. (16) | spend a few min-
utes celebrating with the fortunate customers.

(17) Two hours into it, catching up with employees on the floor, | head to
a meeting with the marketing team. (18) The meeting from across the prop-
erty involved managers focusing on promotions and events that will drive
increased customers. (19) Later, having lunch with VIP customers, they are
unhappy about being bumped out of a suite. (20) | knew the reality of the best
suites gotten by the biggest players. (21) Taking care of lunch for my VIPs, |

wished them good luck and left.

(22) By late afternoon early evening, I've signed paperwork for a large
funds transfer and checked in on the table games to see how business was
going.

(23) Complimenting the pit boss on managing the table limits, play was
strong to match our business levels. (24) Security called with our nightclub on
a domestic dispute. (25) Having arrived on the scene, our officers had every-
thing under control. (26) It seemed a husband's choice of dancing partners
was unhappy with his wife. (27) Not escalating into a physical confrontation, |
let the security officers finish defusing the situation.

(28) | spend the last half hour of my shift debriefing the events of the day
to my night shift counterpart. (29) | left for home knowing my leadership,
management, and customer skills will challenge tomorrow's set of surprises.
—From Chon/Maier, Welcome to Hospitality:An Introduction
 Dangling Modifiers 191

Identify the error and write MM, DM, or Sentence on the line next to each sen-
tence. Then, rewrite the modified sentences.

1. Walking through the farm, the dog was excited.

2. | saw a scary monster watching a television show.
3. To avoid the traffic jam, a detour was encouraged.
4. I carefully unwrapped from my sister the colorful package.
5. The contestants kissed their loved ones covered with sweat.
6. Wearing a pink skirt, Ali was entertained by his date.
7. The pet owner went to the veterinarian with a sick hamster.
8. To be avoided at all cost, walking in the muddy water of the river.
9. When we left the campsite, we looked scruffy and sweaty.
10. Just returned from fabulous travel destinations, I felt like a fa-
mous explorer.
11. Scrambling through the front door, Bert reaches his car before his
dad honks the horn.
12. The first rays of sun penetrate through the clouds and onto our
front porch.
13. Reaching the point of no return, the soldiers aggressively fought
the enemy.
14. The class worked hard to finish the group project on time.
15. Soaked to the bone, the men’s boots came off at the door.
CHAPTER TEN: The Tenth Building Block
Parallelism

You read in a menu at a local restaurant, “In his cooking, our famous chef uses
fresh ingredients, is preparing Italian dishes, and created culinary masterpieces”
and think that it just does not sound quite right. You may be wondering why?
There is a reason it sounds a bit off, and that is the writer has broken the parallelism
rule. The correct way to write the above sentence is: “In his cooking, our famous
chef uses the freshest ingredients, prepares Italian dishes, and creates culinary mas-
terpieces.” Chapter Ten introduces this important grammar rule: Whenever you
repeatedly use a part of speech in a sentence, each use must consistently present the
part of speech in the same form. This consistency is called parallel construction,
or parallelism. Parallelism is all about equality and creating a nice rhythm in your
sentences. It is the tenth building block in our study of grammar.

PARALLELISM
Parallelism in writing means that similar elements or ideas in a sentence are
repeated or presented in the same form grammatically, so the reader can quickly
and smoothly grasp the comparison or connection being made between them.
Knowing the parts of speech is important for learning parallelism; you may wish
to review Appendix A in conjunction with this chapter.
Incorrect: In my spare time, | like to read books, to watch documentaries,
and attending seminars.

This sentence is not parallel because the items in the list are not all grammatically
similar, Although infinitive verbs are listed, they are not all treated the same way.
Correct: In my spare time, | like to read books, to watch documentaries,
and to attend seminars.
192
 Parallelism 193

(%) MEMORY TIP

The need for parallel construction arises when your sentence contains any
of the following conditions:
@ Pairs (two items)
| Lists (three or more items)
@ Comparisons using than or as
a Paired expressions

Parallelism with Pairs

Pairs and lists require the use of parallel structure. You can spot pairs (two items)
in sentences by looking for the following words: and, or.

| bought coffee and tea.

i bought coffee or tea.

When you use these two words, everything that comes before the and /or must
present the same grammatical form as everything that comes after the and /or.
Incorrect: We can go to the beach or we are going to the park.

In this sentence, you can see that the verbs on either side of or are not the same
grammatically. You need to change one of the sides to make the sentence parallel.
Correct: We can go to the beach or we can go to the park.
Correct: We are going to the beach or we are going to the park.
Correct: We can go to the beach or to the park.

As you can see, multiple options exist for creating parallelism in any sentence.
Incorrect: He dances skillfully and with gracefulness.

Here, the adverb skillfully comes before the and while the noun gracefulness comes
after the and. The sentence will not achieve parallelism until one of these modi-
fiers is changed.
Correct: He dances skillfully and gracefully. [adverb / adverb]
Correct: He dances with skill and grace. [noun / noun]

Parallelism with Lists

Parallelism must be achieved whenever lists occur in a sentence, no matter what
parts of speech are involved. A list includes more than three items. All items in a
list must be constructed in the same grammatical manner.
194 CHAPTER TEN: Parallelism

Put commas between items in a list. When giving a short and simple list of
things in a sentence, the last comma (right before and or or) is optional, but it is
never wrong. If the items in the list are longer and more complicated, you should
always place a final comma before and/or.

A good student listens attentively to his teachers, reads frequently, and

writes properly.

Here are some rules to keep in mind for keeping lists parallel.
1. Pairs and lists of verbs must be parallel in tense.

On my birthday, we sang, danced, and were eating.

The list in this example starts with a past tense of the verb sang; all the
verbs listed after sang, therefore, should also be in the past tense. Were eat-
ing is in the progressive past; hence, this sentence is not parallel. To correct
the sentence, either change were eating to ate or change all the other verbs
to past progressive:

Correct: On my birthday, we sang, danced, and ate.

Correct: On my birthday, we were singing, dancing, and eating.

Note: In any list of items, be sure to use commas between each item.

2. Pairs and lists of nouns must be parallel in number, person, and kind.

| bought coffee, some tea, and two pounds of sugar.

The list in this example starts with a noun that has no designated measure-
ment while the last two nouns have designated measurements. Hence, this
list is not parallel. To correct the sentence, either add measurements to all
the nouns or remove the measurements from all the nouns.

Correct: | bought coffee, tea, and sugar.

Correct: | bought one pound of coffee, two pounds of tea, and
two pounds of sugar.

3. Pairs and lists of adjectives must be parallel in form.

The race was dangerous, creative, and had much excitement.

The list in this example has an inappropriate adjective (had much excite-
ment) which does not parallel the treatment of the other two adjectives
in the sentence. Hence, this list is not parallel. To correct this sentence,
reduce the last adjective to one word.

Correct: The race was a dangerous, creative, and exciting.

 Parallelism 195

Determine if the following sentences are parallel. Next to

each sentence, write P
for parallel or VP for nonparallel.
Example: NP The secretary was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
in a thorough manner.
1 . My brother likes building tree houses and to collect unique rocks.
2 . I spend my weekends cleaning my apartment or to do laundry.
3 - Our dog likes to swim, fetching, and to walk.
4 . Baseball and playing tennis are good ways to have fun.
om I ran errands, cleaned, and had to cook today.
6 . | know someone who does not eat meat and avoids wheat.
Us. The perfect cake is moist and tastes good.
8 . She has a pretty face and is very charming.
9 . A headache can be an inconvenience or a serious problem.
10. I had fun dancing, singing, and games.
I like to listen to my iPod, watching old movies, and run in the
park.
- Bonnie spent two hours planning the picnic and bought groceries.
. The college catalog showed a different room, time, and teacher
for my course.
14. He needs to choose to go to California or staying at home.
15. The cat was playing with the string and ran around the bedroom.

Rewrite the following nonparallel sentences.

Example: On the weekends, Mona likes hiking, to swim, and riding a bicycle.
- On the weekends, Mona likes hiking, swimming, and bike riding.

1. My mother did the cleaning, ironing, and cooked when I was a child.

ep
196 CHAPTER TEN: Parallelism

2. 1am thankful for my health, my family, and for having a job.

3. Many think that running is boring and that it is tiring.

4. Rachel is sweet, smart, and she has good manners.

5. Hiking, fishing, and to camp require a love of the outdoors.

Parallelism in Comparisons (Than or As)

To make comparisons, you must use the words than or as. When you edit for
parallelism, make sure that the items being compared on either side of those
words are parallel.

Driving to school is better than to take the bus.

The verbs on either side of than are not presented in the same tense. You must
change one or the other to make the sentence parallel.
Correct: Driving to school is better than taking the bus.
Correct: To drive to school is better than to take the bus.

Determine if the following sentences are parallel. Next to each sentence, write P
for parallel or VP for nonparallel.
Example: NP My father always cautioned that it is better to admit a mistake
than denying it.
1. They would rather go to the beach than to go to school.
2. The earth revolves around the sun as well as it is spinning on
its axis.
 Parallelism 197

—__________ 3. Gerri enjoys dancing at clubs more than to attend the opera.
. Studying chemistry is as frustrating as to study algebra.
Nn. Ed is known more for his persistence in studying than his
at-
tention in class.
6 . She likes reading stories as much as to watch television.
7 . To love someone is better than to have never loved anyone.
8. Cooking is as much fun as to clean the house.
9. Admitting to a mistake is better than to deny it.
0 . The engaged couple prefer going to the movie theaters than to
watch television.

Rewrite the following nonparallel sentences so that they are parallel.

Example: It will be slower to go this way than going that way.
It will be slower to go this way than to go that way.

ile Listening to the morning lecture on plants was more interesting than to
listen to the boring afternoon lecture.

2. Running for thirty minutes every day is as good an exercise as to bicycle.

3. The farmers planted more trees this year than they were planting last year.

4, Living on your own is harder than to live with family.

5. The invention of the computer is as important as inventing the telephone.

198 CHAPTER TEN: Parallelism

Parallelism with Paired Expressions

Paired expressions—also called correlative conjunctions—require parallel struc-
ture. These five sets of conjunctions are always paired:

Both. . . and
Either. . . or
Neither . . .nor
Not only. . . but also or but too
Rather. . . than

MEMORY TIP
When using parallelism with paired expressions, the words after the first
word are treated the same as the words after the second word.
L S
both and
either or
not only but also
rather than

Achieve parallel construction when using paired expressions by presenting the

words that follow the first conjunction in the same format as the words that
follow the second conjunction.

Example: | want both to be wealthy and health.

Correct: | want both to be wealthy and to be healthy.
Correct: | want both wealth and health.

Example: Either we go to the park or we are going to the mountains.

Correct: Either we go to the park or we go to the mountains.
Correct: Either we are going to the park or we are going to the mountains.

Example: He can neither tell his boss the truth nor to quit his job is possible.
Correct: He can neither tell his boss the truth nor quit his job.

Example: Sugar is used not only in cakes but to make paste.

Correct: Sugar is used not only in cakes but also in paste.
Correct: Sugar is used not only to make cakes but to make paste too.

Example: They would rather eat out than to be eating their father’s cooking.
Correct: They would rather eat out than eat their father’s cooking.
 Parallelism 199

Determine if the following sentences are parallel, and next to each sentence,
write
P for parallel or VP for nonparallel.
Example: NP At the party, not only was he rude, but also ate all the meatballs.
— - Not only does Thomas ask many questions, but he is always repeat-
ing what everyone says.
i) - Regis will either have to study agriculture or he will be studying
accounting.
Qo. Alex will succeed at his goal because of both his commitment and
he has persistence.
4. Denis knew neither what to put on his application nor what to say
in his resume.
Nn . We not only went camping, but we were wanting to raft down the
raging river.
6. The mechanic changed both the broken gearbox and the oil needed
changing.
7. Aunt Sammy was both surprised by and angered by my request for
money.
(ee) . Either order the computer parts on the Internet or by calling the
toll-free number.
9. Tess would rather travel to Florida than to stay with her family.
10. James not only entertained the guest with jokes, but he also sang
songs.

Rewrite the following nonparallel sentences to correct them.

. Example: | neither have finished the book nor wrote the report.
[have neither finished the book nor written the report.

1. I want both freedom and to be rich.

200 CHAPTER TEN: Parallelism

2. My fiancé is not only ambitious, but also looks good.

3. Tim would rather do the gardening than cleaning the house.

4. Either we buy the pecan pie or we are buying the pumpkin pie.

5. This movie is neither educational nor was I entertained by it.

Complete the following sentences with parallel words, phrases, or clauses.

1. At the bowling alley, we can : , and

2.1 use my laptop for both and

3. A student needs four qualities to succeed in college: :

‘ , and
4, They would rather than

5. Iam not only good at but also at

6. He will either or

7. They not only but too.

8. When I lay down for an afternoon nap, I am §
, and

9. My dream vacation would be to go to or

10. Her prom dress was
 Parallelism 201

@
OT AS SERS A 2 RE RP SQL
Sin Sg
| and Writing ITT
Work with a partner or a small group and review these passages for parallel struc-
tures. Next to each number, write P for parallel or VP for nonparallel and then
revise the VP sentences.
A Bravery Gene?
(1) Anxiety and being fearful have been felt by every human being.
(2) However, some individuals are so filled with anxiety or fearful they are not
able to function within society. (3) For example, individuals with agoraphobia
have an abnormal fear of being helpless in a situation from which they can-

not escape, so they are staying in an environment in which they feel secure.
(4) Many agoraphobic people never leave their homes and are avoiding all
public or open places.

(5) Recently, scientists working with mice found that by removing a sin-
gle gene, they could turn normally cautious animals into brave animals that
are more willing to explore an unknown territory or not being intimidated
by dangers. (6) By analyzing brain tissue, scientists located a gene in a tiny
prune-shaped region of the brain called amygdala, an area of the brain that is
extremely active when animals or humans are being afraid or anxiety. (7) This
gene produces a protein called stathmin. (8) Tests in the breed of mice that
had that gene removed was twice as willing to explore unknown territories
as the mice with the gene still in them. (9) In addition, when the mice were
trained to expect a small electrical shock after being presented with a stimu-
lus such as a sound or sight, this group of mice did not seem as being afraid
when the sight or sound was given.

(10) Researchers are theorizing that stathmin helps form fear-

ful memories in the amygdala of the brain, the area where fears seem
to be stored. (11) If the production of stathmin can be halted or inhibiting

- it by medication, it is possible that fears would not be stored as uncon-

scious memories. (12) This would greatly decrease an individual’s anxieties.
(13) Think of all the people whose lives are affected by anxiety and fearfulness.
‘a
202 CHAPTER TEN: Parallelism

(14) With this medication, not only will these anxieties and fears be decreased
or eliminated, but these people are leading normal healthy lives.
—From Louise Simmers, Introduction to Health Science Technology

13.

14.

For each sentence, circle the sentence that is parallel.

1. a) Good students need to attend class, be taking notes, and study hard.
b) Good students need to attend class, to take notes, and to study hard.
a) My chores include picking up the laundry and to wash the dishes
after dinner.
b) My chores include picking up the laundry and washing the dishes
after dinner.
a) I prefer cooking vegetarian dishes than cooking meat dishes.
b) I prefer cooking vegetarian dishes than to cook meat dishes.
a) Our new car has both comfortable seats and a spacious interior.
b) Our new car has both comfortable seats and it has lots of inside
space.
Advertisers use either scary commercials to sell products or are using
humor to sell products.
Advertisers either use scary tactics or humor in commercials.
Not only did Farmer Bob feed the pigs but he was milking the cows.
Not only did Farmer Bob feed the pigs, but he also milked the cows.
 Parallelism 203

At summer camp, we spend our time hiking, swimming, and bowling.

At summer camp, we spend our times hiking, to swim, and we go
bowling.

The party begins at seven and eleven is when it is ending.

The party begins at seven and ends at eleven.
Women are judged by their beauty or intelligence.
Women are judged by their beauty or being intelligent is also good.
10. I realized that the story is both educational and it had humor in it.
I realized that the story is both educational and humorous.

ile An effective teacher must be demanding, understanding, and

encouraging.
An effective teacher must be demanding, understand the students,
and give encouragement.

P2. Many dieters use either the low-carbohydrate diet or they use the
one with low protein intake.
Many dieters use either the low-carbohydrate diet or the low protein
diet.

13. At the gym, we take aerobic classes, we lift weights, and we do

pilates.
At the gym, we take aerobic classes, we're lifting weights, and we did
pilates.
14. Either Manny prepares the meal himself or he sends out for
take-out.
Either Manny prepares the meal himself or he has to send for
take-out.

I can neither condone nor will I accept the unfair proposal.

I can neither condone nor accept the unfair proposal.
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UNIT FIVE: Punctuation
CHAPTER ELEVEN: The Eleventh Building Block
Comma Use

In Chapters One through Ten, you learned grammar’s rules for how eight parts
of speech can be combined in an endless number of creative yet orderly arrange-
ments called sentences. The tiny curved mark called a comma plays an impor-
tant role in helping the reader clearly follow the meaning in a sentence. Chapter
Eleven shows you how to use commas to present strong sentences.
Commas are punctuation marks that signal readers to pause briefly when read-
ing sentences. That pause helps readers understand the flow of thought or action.
Beginning writers may use either too few or too many commas, so their sentences
are unclear or difficult to read.
Six specific conditions require the use of commas. These conditions are divided
into two categories: commas used to separate and commas used to enclose. Each
category has three rules.

COMMAS USED TO SEPARATE

Commas create a necessary pause between two independent clauses, allowing
readers time to separate and compare them in their minds. They are also used
to create a small but necessary amount of separation between items in a list and
phrases that introduce or lead up to an independent clause. There are three rules
for commas that separate:

Rule # 1-Commas and Conjunctions

There are three types of conjunctions, and with each type, you must use commas
in different locations to separate the clauses. (Refer to Memory Tip on conjunc-
tion use in Chapter Six on page 141.)

206
 Commas Used to Separate 207

# Coordinating conjunctions (or FANBOYS) join two independent clauses

and require a comma before the conjunction.
John finished his essay, but Brian is still working on his.

m Adverbial conjunctions (or HOT SHOT MAMA CAT), join two or more
independent clauses and require a semicolon before the conjunction and a
comma after the conjunction.

Kim went to the party; however, she did not stay long.

m Subordinating conjunctions (or WASBIT) join an independent clause with

a dependent clause and require a comma only if the subordinating con-
junction is at the beginning of the sentence.

When | got home, | saw the mess the robbers had left behind.
[Comma needed]

| saw the mess the robbers had left behind when | got home.
[Comma not needed]

MEMORY TIP
Remember the acronyms for the types of conjunctions and how commas
work with them:
Coordinating conjunctions , FANBOYS
Adverbial conjunctions * HOT SHOT MAMA CAT,
Subordinating conjunctions WASBIT +DC, IC

Read each sentence carefully and insert commas where needed after you identify
the type of conjunction in each sentence using the following:
= Coordinating Conjunction (or FANBOYS)
w Adverbial Conjunction (or HOT SHOT MAMA CAT)
w Subordinating Conjunction (or WASBIT)

Example: We knew the tornado had passedg for the house stopped trembling.
for Coordinating Conjunction

1. I like roast beef but I have grown tired of it.

2. Sean joined the basketball team; however he often missed practice.

ap
208 CHAPTER ELEVEN: Comma Use

Go . Trey and Luis sang in the choir while Sam played in the band.

4, When the storm hit we hid in the basement.

Nn . We had not finished our group project; nevertheless we went to the movie
theater.

6. Would you rather fail the class or would you rather drop it altogether?

. That car is quite handsome; nonetheless it is too expensive.

SS

. My favorite season is fall but my kids like summer best of all.

co

9. The lawn needs mowing; on the other hand the weeds need pulling.

10. Although some people become famous they often have humble beginnings.

Q
and Commas
With a partner, read each sentence carefully and insert commas where needed
after you identify the type of conjunction in each sentence using the following:
= Coordinating Conjunction (or FANBOYS)
w Adverbial Conjunction (or HOT SHOT MAMA CAT)
a Subordinating Conjunction (or WASBIT)

1, Commas are punctuation marks and they signal the reader to pause when
reading sentences.

2. The pause created by the comma permits the reader to take a deep breath so
that it allows oxygen to the brain and helps with comprehension.
 Commas Used to Separate 209

3. Writers either avoid using commas or overuse commas so their sentences are
unclear or difficult to read.

4. Since there are specific rules for comma use the writer must adhere to them
in order to communicate effectively.

5. Commas could be used to separate words or clauses on the other hand they
could be used to enclose words or phrases.

6. The meaning of a sentence is often clarified by a comma in the right place.

7. A comma joins independent clauses however it comes before a coordinating

conjunction in the middle of the sentence.

8. If an adverbial conjunction is used to bring clauses together the comma goes

after the conjunction before the second clause.

9. If a subordinating conjunction is used at the beginning of the sentence a

comma must be used at the end of the dependent clause.

10. A comma is not needed if the subordinating conjunction is between the two
clauses.

Rule # 2-—Commas and Items in a List

Use commas to separate items in a list (three or more items). This includes the last
item in the series which usually has either the word and or the word or before it.
Series of nouns: | bought coffee, tea, flour, and sugar.
Series of verbs: At the meeting, | ate, drank, and mingled with my supervisors.

(6) MEMORY TIP

Here is how commas look in a list:
|tem, item, item, and item.
210 CHAPTER ELEVEN: Comma Use

Add commas where needed.

Example: My camping experience was exciting challenging, and adventurous.
1. We have many storms in November December and January.
2. Sammy, Joanne, and Matilda fight all the time.
3. I have to take chemistry physics and geometry to graduate next year.
4 . I stopped at the cleaners went to the grocery store and picked up the kids
from school.
. They packed their bags loaded the van and set out for the campsite.
Nn

6. The weather was awful; I did not know whether to take a windbreaker
a sweater or a heavy coat.
7. In my bedroom, there is a television a computer and an iPod stereo.
8. The students from fourth sixth and seventh grade participated in the science fair.
9. I bought pants and a jacket the other day.
10. The teacher searched in his briefcase through the desk and around his office
for his missing book.

Rule # 3-—Commas and Introductory Expressions

An introductory expression is a phrase composed of one word (finally, oh, how-
ever) or a group of words (by the end of the day or as we all know). It comes at the
beginning of a sentence, and it never contains the subject and verb that create the
basic meaning of the sentence. In other words, if you were to take the introduc-
tory expression out of the sentence, the remaining part of the sentence would
make sense on its own. Use a comma after an introductory expression to let your
readers know which part of the sentence is the main one or the one that makes
sense on its own.

Nonetheless, | must take this in to the inspector.

By the way, | spoke to Tim today.
According to Mr. Smith, the case is about to be closed.

MEMORY TIP
Here is what commas look like with introductory expressions:
Introductory expression, main sentence or clause,
 Commas to Enclose 211

Add commas where needed.

Example: Undoubtedlyg interviewing for a new job is a stressful experience.
1. First find the magnifying glass.
. Suddenly the thunder clapped and the lightning struck.
. Because of the pain he wanted to go to the emergency room.
. After two hours of waiting the mayor finally gave his speech.
. Before leaving class the student checked his bag for his books.
. In total darkness the thief went through the safe and stole the jewelry.
. Finally you have arrived just when we needed you.
. By the way I did not know your connection to the police.
OS. As a matter of fact he was put in jail for 40 years.
COM
NO
Oise
|

10. Before a job interview you should practice with someone.

MEMORY TIP
There are three rules for commas that separate:
1. with conjunctions
2. with lists
3. with introductory expressions

COMMAS TO ENCLOSE
Words or phrases that are not essential to the basic understanding of a sentence
must be enclosed, or surrounded, by commas.

Rule # 4-—Commas and Interrupters

An interrupter is a word or a group of words that appears in the middle of the
- sentence but which, like an introductory expression, does not contain the subject
~ or verb necessary to the basic meaning of the sentence. Interrupters may separate
the subject and the verb and may break the sentence’s flow sometimes for dra-
matic effect, but they can be removed or “scooped out,” and the sentence would
retain its meaning. In short, interrupters do not add to or subtract from the basic
grammatical meaning of a sentence.
212 CHAPTER ELEVEN: Comma Use

Beth, a senior in high school, will finish her project on time.

If you strike out the interrupter that separates the subject from the verb, the
sentence still makes sense.

Beth,a-seniorin-high-seheot, will finish her project on time.

The basic meaning of the sentence is Beth will finish her project on time.

(6) MEMORY TIP

Remember that interrupters are nonessential words to grasping the main
information of the sentence. They can be removed or scooped out, and if
they are, the sentence retains its complete meaning. Since they can be re-
moved or “scooped out,” it may be easier to think of them as “scoopables.”
Here is what scoopables look like with commas:
Subject, Scoopable, Verb

Use commas before and after an interrupter or “scoopable” to enclose or set off
from the “unscoopable” subject and verb of the sentence.
| must take this, nonetheless, and show it to the inspector.
| spoke to Tim, by the way, and he agreed to come.
The criminal case, according to Mr. Smith, is about to be closed.

Add commas where needed.

Example: My bossg for exampleg has never taken a day of vacation.
1 . The guests it seems are enjoying the food.
. Dr. Westermore however came to California from Idaho.
. You I believe are a menace to society!
. Your proposal by the way was rejected.
. My sister-in-law Tammy moved into our house last week.
. Maria an English teacher works at a community college.
. The lawyer Garth Benedict won the controversial murder case.
. The concert I attended unfortunately was a huge disappointment.
. The hurricane sadly caused two hundred deaths.
iS)
ee
PSS
Way
on
SS
@ey
Ney

10. The president a young female gave a moving speech.

 Commasto Enclose 213

Rule # 5-Commas and Direct Address

When the speaker in a sentence talks to another person and names that person,
the process is called direct address because the speaker is directly addressing his or
her audience. Put commas around the name or title that appears in the sentence.

John, may | stop by your office today?

| think, Sir, you are mistaken about the situation.
Your grades are excellent, Manny!

(6) MEMORY TIP

lf the name is the subject in the sentence, do not separate the subject from
the verb with a comma unless there is an interrupter.

Incorrect: John, is my friend.

Correct: John is my friend.
Here, the sentence is talking about John, not to John, so the name is the
subject in the sentence, and the subject cannot be separated from the
verb with a comma.

BUILDING SKILLS 11-5: Commas with Direct Address

Add commas where needed.
Example: Momg is the cake ready for me to decorate?
1. Scott do you have time for a chat?
2. Icannot believe Yvonne that you failed that class.
3 . It is a pleasure to give you this promotion Ella.
4 . Allen your travel request has been denied.
5. Thank you dear for the wonderful coffee.
6. How often should my child take this medicine Doctor?
7. Do you think Iris that the Yankees will win this year?
8. I called you Mr. Ronson to tell you about the dire situation at the company.
9 . Paul will you please stop that noise.
10. I must say Rebecca this case is puzzling.
214 CHAPTER ELEVEN: Comma Use

Rule # 6-Commas with Dates and Addresses

Use a comma to separate the month and day from the year.

| was born on November 15, 2001.

November 15 is one day out of 365 days of the calendar year 2001. That is, it is
one day inside of that year, so a comma is needed to separate the day from the
year and to indicate that the specific day falls inside that specific year.
Also, if you include the name of a day in your date, separate it from the other
elements with a comma.
| was elected on Tuesday, November 4, 2008.

If you write a sentence that includes the month, day, and year at the beginning,
you must include a comma after the year:
On May 12, 2001, | found out about my father’s cancer.

MEMORY TIP
Do not use a comma if:
1. Just the month and year are given.
| was elected in November 2008.
2. The date precedes the month
| was born on 10 January 1996.
Here the month keeps the numbers separated, so no comma is needed.

Use a comma to separate the city from the state for an address in a sentence.
| lived in Dallas, Texas.
If the sentence continues after the state name, place a comma after the state.
| lived in Dallas, Texas, but | moved two years ago.

If the sentence includes the street address, city, and state as part of the sentence,
each item of the address must be separated with commas.
He lives at 100 W. Pine Street, Covina, California 10012.

Notice the house number and street are not separated by a comma, nor are the
state and zip code. If the sentence continues, you must separate the last item in
the address from the rest of the sentence with another comma:
He lives at 100 W. Pine Street, Covina, California 10012, but he is thinking
of moving soon.
 CommastoEnclose 215

Commas also separate countries from the city/state/province:

| have visited Edinburgh, Scotland, and Paris, France.

Add commas where needed.

Example: On May 10g 20009 she quit her job.
1. Claudia was born on June 3 1983.
. On September 15 2003 the destructive hurricane struck.
. I last visited my grandmother on September 13 1988.
. James and Betty were married on October 23 1975.
. | bought this house in May 2000.
. During July 1999 I was working at The Home Depot as a cashier.
. Connor won the Madden championship on August 2 2002.
. I still remember the day I met the love of my life; it was on January 25 1996.
mie
oe
EON
TON
a]
GOO
NO
h . March 2004 was a bad month for my family.
10. My sister graduated with her doctorate degree on July 3 1987.

Add commas where needed.

Example: They have moved from Los Angeles Californiag to Jopling Missouri.
1. I lived in Nashville Tennessee.

2. Send this letter to 32 S. Center Drive Scottsdale Arizona 91254.

3. Before I moved to Los Angeles California, I lived in Utah.

4 . His address has been The Hilton Hotel 421 W. 13th Street Las Vegas Nevada
89501.

NN. The Rowlands were married in Montgomery Alabama.

6. Bob traveled from Austin Texas to New York to attend a conference.

7. The computer show was held at the Plaza Hotel 12 Lowe Street Ontario
California 85201.
8. Nathan will move to Tupelo Mississippi in January.
>
216 CHAPTER ELEVEN: Comma Use

9. The Department of Motor Vehicles is located at 132 N. Cadillac Avenue

Cypress Pennsylvania 59711.
10. My dream is to own the house on 1528 Kingsdale Drive Arlington Virginia
e202;

(6) MEMORY TIP

There are three rules for commas that enclose:
1. with interrupters or scoopables
2. with direct address
3. with dates and addresses

@ BUILDING SKILLS TOGETHER 11-2: Commas

With a partner, read the following paragraph and add commas where needed. Do
not add any other punctuation; just add commas.
(1) After | have accomplished a goal | find a way to celebrate. (2) In fact re-
warding myself motivates me to accomplish more goals. (3) | reward myself
by making chocolate chip cookies from scratch. (4) Two weeks ago | passed
a difficult math test that had stressed me out for four days and kept me up
studying for four nights. (5) | prepared well for that test by joining a study
group working with a tutor and going over my notes every day. (6) Even after
| completed the test | was still unsure about my performance. (7) On Tuesday
the professor handed back the tests and | finally saw my excellent score.
(8) Incredulous | asked the professor “Are you sure this is my test Professor?”
(9) He replied “Yes Mike and good work!" (10) Impatiently | waited until class
ended while thinking of my treat. (11) Finally |rushed out and bought all the ingre-
dients for a batch of cookies. (12) My happiest moments in the kitchen were when
| mixed the sticky batter licked the bowl and watched the cookies bake. (13) The
cookies squares of chocolate ecstasy were a perfect gift after much misery over
cramming and stressing about my math test. (14) As | enjoyed the last of my
cookies | was already looking forward to accomplishing one more goal soon.
 Commas to Enclose 217

EErce
ivitiryeua) Brie BllmUte Aa/) Vieanaey qolsen: »
With a partner or small group, read the following essay and add commas where
needed. Do not add any other punctuation; just add commas.
(1) As Derek Johnson walked out of his World History class on Wednesday
evening March 3 2010 he felt panicked. (2) The professor has just assigned a

twelve-page paper due one month from today. (3) How could she? (4) Doesn't
she realize how busy Derek is? (5) The syllabus has mentioned a paper but
twelve pages seemed downright excessive. (6) On his way to his next class he
sent a tweet from his phone complaining about it.

(7) When Derek had decided to go to college after working for a year after
high school he had not realized what a juggling act it would require. (8) There was
his family which included his Mom stepdad five-year-old sister and three step-
brothers. (9) Then there was his full-time job an administrative assistant which
was quite demanding. (10) He hoped that a degree in business would help him
move into the management ranks and the higher salaries. (11) Added to all this are
his other activities such as singing in his church choir coaching the youth soccer
league competing in cycling races and working out every morning at the gym.

(12) His head began to swim as he thought about all his upcoming obli-
gations like his mother's birthday next week the dog’s vet appointment his
stepbrother's visit and the training class he was required to attend for work.
(13) Something had to go but he could not think of anything he was willing
to sacrifice to make time for a twelve-page paper. (14) Still the paper was to

count as 25 percent of his final grade in the course. (15) He decided he would
try to think of a topic for the paper on his way home but then he remembered
his mom asking him “Derek please stop at the store on your way home and
pick up milk and bread.” (16) Somewhere on aisle 12 between the frozen pizza
and the frozen yogurt Derek's thoughts about his research paper vanished.

(17) The following week the professor asked how the papers were coming
along. (18) Many of the students gave long accounts of their research prog-
ress but Derek had done nothing. (19) At the end of class three weeks later
Derek saw many of the students lined up to show the professor the first drafts

. of their papers. (20) Derek thought to himself Derek you need to spend your
sat
218 CHAPTER ELEVEN: Comma Use

only free night of the week in the library working on this paper! (21) Sadly

Derek's work session was not all that productive as he found himself obsess-
ing about things that were bothering him at work. (22) When he glanced at
his watch he was shocked to see that it was already midnight! (23) The library
was closing and he had only written one page.

(24) On his way out to the car his cell rang and his Mom asked him “Derek
could you watch your sister tomorrow night? She's running a fever and won't
be going to school.” (25) She also informed him that his boss had called about
an emergency meeting at 7:00 am. (26) His twelve-page paper was due in
two days! (27) In the end Derek did not turn in his research paper. (28) He had
waited too long to start it and his poor time management skills destroyed his
chances of success in that class.
—From Constance Staley, Focus on College Success

MEMORY TIP
The six rules for commas are as follows:
Rule # Condition
#1 with conjunctions
#2 with lists commas that separate
#3 with introductory expressions

#4 with interrupters or scoopables

#5 with direct address commas that enclose
#6 with dates and addresses

CHAPTER ELEVEN SKILLS REVIEW: Commas

Add commas where needed.
1. On my way home I saw a horrific car accident.
2. Iam going to swim; then I will take a shower.
3. This criminal case however has all the elements of blackmail.
4, Nick visited Oregon Utah and Colorado.
5. The condemning decision was rendered on July 12 1989.
 CommastoEnclose 219

. [have lived in France Italy Portugal and Greece.

. You know Pat this is the best coffee cake I have ever tasted.

. I love Italian food but I am tired of pizza.

ON. This music group first appeared in Costa Mesa California.

NOpLCO

10. Cynthia was born on April 10 2005.

11. By the way who was at the dinner dance last night?
12. Mary will visit her brother in Boulder Colorado; however Larry will visit
his sister in Lebanon Philadelphia.
13. My boss the woman with the red hair is an amazing person.
14. Did you bring the safety lock Adam?
15. During the winter months we turn on the heaters all day.
16. Let us sign the deal tomorrow January 9 2009.
17. I must buy apples peaches bananas and pears for my fruit salad.
18. Detectives scientists who investigate cases study people’s behaviors.
19. While he prepared dinner his wife set the table for six people.
20. Doctor this patient needs emergency surgery.
21. On my pizza I like the following toppings: olives mushrooms pepperoni
and extra cheese.
22. Indeed he is a very confident speaker.
23. My brother Richie Luis is a famous mystery writer.
24. We arrived in Berkeley California on June 23 1986.
25. This road nevertheless should be resurfaced.
26. Mrs. Jones take some medicine for that headache before you get worse.
27. Unfortunately the concert was canceled indefinitely.
28. I chose The Grapes of Wrath for my book yet I have never read it.
29. Rocky’s Bistro the newest restaurant in town was damaged during the
earthquake.
30. This house has big windows three fireplaces and four bedrooms.
CHAPTER TWELVE: The Twelfth Building Block
Other Types of Punctuation

Some of the world’s earliest written languages did not use punctuation, nor did
they distinguish between uppercase and lowercase letters: they used only capital
letters and spaces to show separation between words and thoughts. Over time,
the English language developed a set of punctuation marks that allow readers to
grasp a vast range of meanings and expressions.
When you punctuate a sentence, you add the correct punctuation marks
to help clarify the meaning. Chapter Eleven focused on comma use in construct-
ing clear and strong sentences. Chapter Twelve introduces six additional punc-
tuation marks: apostrophe, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, and quotation
marks.

APOSTROPHE '
The apostrophe is a mark that looks exactly like a comma but is raised and
placed between letters in a word rather than between whole words. Apostrophes
allow you to write more efficiently, with fewer words, in two specific situations:
1. To show possession
An apostrophe allows you to take a wordy sentence like The jacket belongs
to Jim, and to shorten it into the phrase Jims jacket. Whenever you need to
show that something or someone owns or possesses something or someone
else, always use an apostrophe and sometimes add an -s. Grammar has
established clear rules for how to tell when you need to add the -s:
a. To show ownership with singular nouns, use the apostrophe and -s.
Jim's jacket Girl's coat Jess's hat
Everybody's turn Anyone's question
220
 Apostrophe’ 221

b. To show possession or ownership with plural nouns that do not end in

—S Or —es, use an apostrophe and add an -s.
Men's cologne People’s concern Children's clothing
c. To show possession with plural nouns ending with -s, use only an
apostrophe.
Girls’ coats Teams’ coaches Thomas’ house
d. When two nouns are involved, apostrophes must show whether the
subjects have joint or individual ownership.
My brother and sister's car (they share the same car)
My brother's and sister's cars (they each own a separate car)
e. To show possession with personal pronouns, do not use an apostrophe
at all.
Yours is my favorite painting in the gallery
Whose wallet is this?

2. To show contractions
Contractions are effective for shortening or contracting two words into
one; however, avoid using them in formal or college writing. Use an apos-
trophe to indicate the position of the missing letter or letters. The follow-
ing verbs are often used in a contracted form:

Verbs with not cannot = can’t was not = wasn't

are not = arent do not = don't
Pronouns with wil/ Twill = Vil she will = she’ll
you will = you'll they will = they'll
Pronouns and nouns itis = it's who is = who’s
with the verb to be Van = Pm Mark is = Mark’s
Pronouns with would I would = I'd we would = wed
: he would = hed they would = they'd

Note: One special contraction changes letters as well as drops them: Wil/
not becomes won't in the contracted form.
3. To form the plurals of letters and figures.
Cross your t’s. Her p's and g's all look the same.
222 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

MEMORY TIP
Apostrophes are required for forming contractions. Contractions save space
and give the appearance that you are actually “talking” to your reader.
However, in formal composition or college writing, you should avoid using
contractions because of the informal tone they produce in sentences. Using
the full version of a word is always grammatically correct.

Add apostrophes to the following sentences.

Example: Kyle()s iPod was stolen when he was swimming.
1. The fathers car is a gorgeous blue.
2. I thought he couldnt go to the game.
3. The Johnsons cat is on the loose again.
4. His 7s are always crookedly written.
5. Everyone cheered at Bobs home run.
6. Someones umbrella has been left behind.
7. The girls lockers were broken into yesterday.
8. I wont study for my boring physics test.
9. Tesss wedding ring has been missing as of last night.
10. She always omits the ms when she writes.
11. Lisas sister spent last year in Bombay.
12. Have you seen Jim and Janice new mobile home?
13. It’s a shame that Fred cant go on the tour.
14. I paid for Ronys concert ticket.
15. My bosss tie is expensive.
16. The couples car was towed away.
17. I quickly scribbled my notes on the folders back.
18. They were met by the hospitals attending surgeon.
19. The guitars strings needed tuning.
20. The team of doctors met to discuss the tumors treatment.
 Semicolon; 223

SEMICOLON ;
The semicolon is a punctuation mark that occupies a middle ground between the
comma and the period. It tells the reader to pause longer than for a comma but
to pause without the finality of a period. Semicolons are used in the following
situations:

1. To separate two independent clauses that are not already joined by a

conjunction.
| enjoy playing soccer; | practice for two hours every day.
My parents have three children; they have my twin brothers and me.
2. To punctuate an adverbial conjunction (or HOT SHOT MAMA CAT),
that follows an independent clause.
; however, ; consequently, ; in fact,
It was raining; therefore, | stayed home.
3. To separate items in a series that already contains commas.
| have lived in Rome, Italy; Paris, France; and Athens, Greece.

The underlined words make up an item in the series, but each item is
made up of two things: one that belongs in the other—Rome belongs
inside of Italy.
| need to send thank-you notes to Joe, the doorman; Mrs. Katz,
my neighbor who watches my cat; and Jenny, who catered the
birthday party for my mother.

BUILDING SKILLS 12-2: Semicolons

Add semicolons to the following sentences.
Example: It was aimed at Harvard undergraduates() millions of people have
become members of Facebook.
1. The teacher assigned a fun project nevertheless, the students did not want to
do it.
2. Riding a motorcycle is exhilarating I do it every weekend.
3. On our vacation we went to Boston, Massachusetts Hartford, Connecticut
and Detroit, Michigan.
4. The math test was hard in fact, I failed it.
5. The roads were slick from the rain many motorists lost control of their cars.
6. The Beckmans visited Amarillo, Texas Tulsa, Oklahoma Phoenix, Arizona
and Reno, Nevada.
224 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

7. The price of oil has fluctuated in the past six months consequently, the stock
markets have suffered.
8. Today is a beautiful day let us go play Frisbee.
9. I left the concert late however, I made it home safely.
10. The soldier’s tour of duty included stops in Baghdad, Iraq Amman, Jordan
and Damascus, Syria.
11. Pineapples are associated with Hawaii however, they originated in South
America.
12. This computer has not been updated in two years it needs more memory.
13. Jenny ordered a parfait a dessert made of yogurt, fruit, and syrup.
14. I need to go the grocery store it is about five miles away.
15. My brother likes to watch Start Trek, with Captain Kirk and Mr. Spock Star
Wars, with Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader and Battlestar Galactica, with
its Cylons.
16. Call me tomorrow I will give you my final answer.
17. It rained heavily however, we managed to have our birthday party.
18. They have paid what they owe they should have the privileges stated in the
contract.
19. We had three professors on our committee: Walter Wallace, Professor of
English Mathilda Seymona, Professor of Mathematics and Anna Gill,
Professor of Economics.
20. The project was complete we were glad to move on to the next one on
the list.

COLON :
The colon is a punctuation mark used primarily to point ahead to additional
information. It directs the reader to expect more and to look farther. The colon
acts as an introductory device for the following kinds of information:
1. A list that follows an independent clause
My favorite cars are the following: Porsches, Lamborghinis, and
Bentleys.
The independent clause that comes before a colon and a list often in-
cludes a phrase such as the following. A colon may only be used with an
independent clause coming before it.
 Colon: 225

Incorrect: My playlist includes: Coldplay, U2, and Moby.

Correct: My playlist includes the following: Coldplay, U2, and Moby.

2. Quotations that are formal or lengthy, or do not follow a “he said/she

said” expression
The judge made a final, formal statement: “Based on the evidence,
the jurors have one verdict that they should bring in.”
Most quotations are introduced by commas, especially when the sentence
includes the phrase “he said” or “she said.” The colon introduces quota-
tions that are clearly formal or especially lengthy.
3. Explanations, questions, or titles
She had worked toward one goal in her life: a degree in mathematics.
The question is: Should we surrender our troops?
Decongestant Drugs: Their Effects on Drivers
Notice that the letter just after the colon is capitalized. Why? Either be-
cause the words that follow it make a complete sentence or because all
major words in a title are capitalized.

BUILDING SKILLS 12-3: Colons

Add colons to these sentences.
Example: An essay has the following sections¢)an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion.

. The laundry list includes the following items sheets, towels, duvets and pillows.
. My roommate is guilty of three things procrastination, fibbing, and greed.
. That was the question To be or not to be.
. Spirituality is like trust It cannot be forced.
OA
N
© . George Orwell’s famous cynicism is illustrated by this statement “Most peo-
“aX

ple who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language
is in a bad way.”
. This book has won the highest most coveted award The Newbery Medal.
. Let me repeat one point I do not tolerate tardy students.
. | have always believed in the words of Benjamin Franklin “There never was
a good war ora bad peace.”

. For the beach trip, Samantha packed only the essentials towels, sandwiches,
and sunscreen.
lasig>
226 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

10. Ihave read The Glory ofHera Greek Mythology and the Greek Family.
AIRE I used this title for my sociology paper Deviant Behavior The Link to
Criminal Acts.
2: The important vitamins found in vegetables are the following vitamin A,
vitamin C, thiamine, and niacin.
13. The chili recipe calls for the following items beans, tomatoes, onions, garlic,
and ground beef.
14. In college, I met four friends Juan, Dakemia, Tyler, and Caroline.
15; Many people have repeated Harry Truman’s classic statement “If you cant
stand the heat, get out of the kitchen.”
16. Nelly is taking two classes Anatomy 101 and Astronomy 240.
7. Her daughter has three things to do clean her room fold her laundry and
scrub the toilets.
18. Mark Twain’s humor is evident in these words “I did not have time to write
a short letter, so I wrote a long one instead.”

19: The ice cream comes in three flavors chocolate, vanilla, and pistachio.
20. My favorite celebrities have their own blogs Taylor Swift, Ashton Kutcher,
and Jennifer Lopez.

DASH - AND PARENTHESIS ( )

The dash or parenthesis is used to signal the insertion of interrupters, or scoop-
ables, in a sentence. Try to limit use of dashes and parentheses, especially since a
pair of commas can also perform the same function for interrupters.

MEMORY TIP
Anything between two commas, dashes, or parentheses in a sentence can
be removed, or scooped out, from the sentence without disturbing the
basic meaning established by its subject and verb; mentally “scooping out”
the words between these punctuation marks as you read or write can help
you identify the subject and verb and maintain the sentence's clarity.

To use these punctuation marks effectively, you need to know their different
qualities. The dash sends a stronger, more dramatic signal; parentheses are a qui-
eter interruption to the flow of the sentence. Dashes and parentheses are used in
the following specific situations:
 Dash — and Parenthesis() 227

1. To indicate a sudden break in thought

It looks pretty—but did | tell you the news about the new girl?
He is (and I'm gossiping here) a terrible cook.

2. To insert nonessential material that adds to but does not ultimately

affect the basic meaning of the sentence
The man-a sad sight to behold-staggered down the street.
Waterskiing (my least favorite activity) is most popular in this area.

3. To add emphasis or suspense

The shadow with the raised dagger came closer—closer.
The squeaky noise (vibrating in the silence of the night) frazzled my
nerves.

MEMORY TIP
A dash is typed as two hyphens with no space before or after (—),

BUILDING SKILLS 12-4: Dashes and Parentheses

Rewrite the following sentences and insert dashes and parentheses where needed.
Example: | wish you would oh, forget it.
1. The hissing sound grew louder louder.

2. She is I am very certain not serious about her threat.

3. He said the true reason but maybe they do not care.

4. It was something said by Truman about the kitchen Was it too much heat?

5. The thumping footsteps passed the doorway and came closer closer.

6. He is I tell you an obnoxious storyteller.

7. Kevin took a few steps back, started running at full speed, kicked his leg
out missed the ball.

emp
228 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

8. Everything that went wrong from the car accident to the rude neighbor we
blamed on our move.
S
a ee OSe

_ In China, the basic needs of people food, clothing, and housing are less
costly than in a big city like New York.
oo ee 8 Se eS

OY, In the pantry, there are the main staples olive oil, rice, and beans my mother
uses in her cooking.

1b Her taste in music from country to rap indicates her eclectic personality.

12: Joshua a student in my class does not have time to join the Study Abroad
committee.

13: We read “Story of an Hour” Kate Chopin's short fiction in our English
class.

14, Alfred Henning still singing at the age of ninety performed at the Pink
Swan club.

i: Living life my way that is what I want.

16: Ideas that is opinions backed with sound reasoning are hard to develop in
an essay.

We The nutritional value if the term can be applied to licorice is minimal.

18. All four of them Harry Henry Hal and Howie did well in school.

1 Never have I met such a nice person before you.

20. Please call my hardworking agent Jennifer Polopa about hiring me for that
movie role.
 Hyphen- 229

HYPHEN -
The hyphen—which is a shorter mark than the dash—is used to bring two or
more standard English words (i.e., found in the dictionary) together into a com-
pound word.

twenty-four mother-in-law mid-July

The use of hyphens is a matter of changing style. A current dictionary should

always be consulted when you have a question about whether or not to hyphen-
ate a compound word. If the compound word is not in the dictionary, treat it as
two words.

Rewrite the following sentences and insert hyphens where needed.

Example: We got stuck on a one(-\way street.
1. I bought a water repellant snowsuit.

2. She is not a well known politician and she is in her mid forties.

Oo . One third of my income pays for medical care, and one fifth pays the rent.

4, Mr. Grasso has bought seven self help books to read in the next month.

5. Alicia hated the movie; it reminded her of her abusive father in law.

6. The under prepared workers felt overwhelmed by the amount of work.

7. The hand carved wood box attracted the attention of many customers.

ee) I hope Daniella Smythe will be re elected to Senate.

XS}. He changed that minor mistake on the spot.

10. My grandmother advocates kindness to all four legged friends.

230 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

LY. A long awaited verdict was finally reached.

fo: His second ex wife sued for alimony.

13. Bryan's easy going nature causes others to underestimate him.

14. My youngest child is a happy go lucky person.

15: Her fifteen minute tirade demonstrated her anger at the protestors.

16. They planned to get married in mid July when the weather turned warmer.

7 The kindergarten teacher had thirty six children in her class.

18. He acquired a semi permanent living arrangement at the new senior

citizens center.

19: They re emphasized the importance of horse vaccinations due to the West
Nile virus.

. It is a well known fact that he is a self made millionaire.

QUOTATION MARKS <“ ”

Quotation marks are used to identify a person’s exact speech or thoughts, as well
as to label different types of titles and words. There are specific grammar rules for
presenting quotation marks in various situations:

1. Use double quotation marks to set off direct quotations.

Direct quotations repeat the exact words (verbatim) of someone's speech
or from written documents. Double quotation marks are used to set off
direct quotations and are often presented with conversational words or
words that signal dialogue, speech, or written words, such as said, wrote,
explained, asked, maintained, insisted, etc.
Charles Dickens said, “It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.”
“Why didn't you wait for me?" Ahmet cried. “I came as quickly as | could!"
 Quotation Marks “” 231

When using quotation marks with direct quotations, there are specific
rules for punctuation:
a. Before a quotation: Place a comma or colon after the conversa-
tional word and open the quotation marks.
... Said, “He is a good person.”
b. At the end of a quotation: Periods and commas are always placed
inside the ending quotation mark.
“Talk to Michael.”
“Imagine all these waiting people,”

c. Semicolons and colons are placed outside the ending quotation

mark.
d. Question marks and exclamation points are placed outside the
ending quotation mark, except when the quotation itself is a ques-
tion or exclamation.
Did Lisa say, “Anyone for a swim"?
Lisa asked, “Anyone for a swim?”

e. When the directly quoted material is split into several parts, the
punctuation differs slightly.
“Come on Bella,” Mary said. “Let's go see if Phil won this game.”

f. Single quotation marks (‘’) are used to set off a quotation within
a direct quotation.
Timothy said, “Don’t you remember what she said? She said,
‘All the world is looking at us.’ "

2. Use double quotation marks to set off titles. Titles of shorter pieces of
writing such as magazine articles, essays, short stories or poems, chapters
in books, or pieces of writing published as part of a larger work all use
quotation marks around them.
Have you read “A Good Man is Hard To Find,” a short story by Flannery
O'Connor?
_My favorite Beatles song is “Let it Be.”

3. Use double quotation marks to set off slang, technical terms, or special
words.
In their communications, American teens use the words “Da Bomb”
to mean something is wonderful or awesome. (Slang)
232 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

“Googling” and “Facebooking" are two new verbs that have recently
entered the English language. (Technical term)
There are many rock and roll icons, but Elvis is the only true “King.”
(Special word)

(s) MEMORY TIP

Be careful about confusing direct quotations with indirect quotations. An indi-
rect quotation is a reporting of what someone said without using the exact
words. It does not have any quotation marks and is indicated by the word that.
Indirect Quotation: Mario said that he prefers the pizza to the spaghetti.
Direct Quotation: Mario said, “I prefer the pizza to the spaghetti.”

BUILDING SKILLS 12-6: Direct Quotation Marks

Punctuate and complete the following sentences, including all necessary quota-
tion marks.
Example: Mr. Dramerg who was working in the wheat aisha saidg (The alien
spaceship landed right before my own two eyes¢)
1. He asked Have you ever been. . .

2. We are having a quiz today said Mrs. Marques Be sure to. . .

3. The captain said When the ship was docked the man who came aboard told
me I never thought I would ever. . .

4, My friend’s favorite Beatles song is. . .

5. She asked What is the price of. . .

 Quotation Marks“” 233

6. Our teacher declared The homework is. . .

7. May I borrow your book asked Mary I need to. . .

8. Did you see the article titled Cyber Bullying in the. ..

9. The Center for Disease Control announced that the H1N1 Virus has been. . .

10. The word Fave is used by American teens to mean...

Determine which of these sentences are indirect quotations and write /ndirect on
the line.
Example: Indirect Mr. Dramer, who was working in the wheat field, reported
that an alien spaceship landed right before his eyes.
1. Mother said that the weather will be cold today.
. The man asked, “How do I get to E Street?”
. I said that I had watched that movie.
. Maury stated that the bridge is not safe to cross.
. May commented, “That treasure map is an interesting find.”
WNW_Mr.
WO
KR
MV
WA Davidson warned, “We must finish this document by
midnight tonight.”
7. They declared that today will be a national holiday.
8. Father said that dinner is ready.
lp
234 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

9. Professor Talley declared, “Clear your desks and get ready for
a quiz.”
10. I am not sure she said that she is visiting today.

In a small group, read the essay carefully and edit for punctuation errors. Periods
are provided for ease of reading.

Hooked on Facebook

(1) Imagine a drug that would make American teenagers think and talk
more about the timeless concerns of adolescence Whos cool whos cute and
whos going out with whom. (2) Then imagine that millions of teens were taking
this drug every day. (3) Actually you dont have to. (4) The drug already ex-
ists and its called MySpace. (5) There’s a competitor drug known as Facebook.
(6) Between one half and three quarters of American teens already have a
profile on an Internet social networking site where they spend hours per week

nobody really knows how many sharing pictures gossip and jokes. (7) We should
all be worried about this although not for the reasons you might suspect.
(8) The newspapers keep reminding us about online predators on the Net
which makes us miss the digital forest for the trees. (9) In this medium the real
danger doesnt come from depraved adults. (10) It s much subtler than that and
it comes from teenagers themselves specifically from their insatiable desire to
hang out with each other. (11) And the key word here is insatiable.
(12) Teens have always wanted to hang out with each other. (13) But the
Internet lets them do it 24/7 transforming the social world of adolescence into
an omnipresence. (14) Last years report by the MacArthur Foundation on digi-
tal youth confirmed that most teens communicate online with kids they already
know and theyre doing it more than ever. (15) The report states Young people
use new media to build friendships and romantic relationships as well as to
hang out with each other as much and as often as possible. Teenagers would
say duh and they would ask What's the problem with that (16) Nothing really
 Quotation Marks “” 235

except for what it replaces solitude. Once youre always on as the kids describe
you're never alone. (17) That means youre less likely to read a book for pleasure
to draw a picture or simply to stare out the window and imagine worlds other than
your own. (18) And as any parent with a teen could testify youre less likely to com-
municate with the real people in your immediate surroundings. (19) Who wants to
talk to family members when friends are just a click away?
(20) While many teens communicate with strangers on the Net they
are also adept at sniffing out creepy adults whose threats have been vastly
overblown by media reports. (21) Consider all the ink spilled over Lori Drew

the Missouri woman who used a phony MySpace account to trick a teenager
into believing that Drew was a male suitor. (22) When the fake suitor dumped
the teen and she committed suicide you would have thought every kid in
America was somehow in danger. (23) Theyre not at least not from strangers.
(24) According to the Pew Research Center 32 percent of American teens say
they have been contacted on the Net by someone they don t know but just
7 percent report feeling scared and uncomfortable as a result.
(25) When teens do feel hurt by something on the Internet it usually comes
from surprise other adolescents at their schools. (26) About one third of teen-
agers say they have been the target of online bullying such as threatening
messages or embarrassing pictures. (27) But two thirds of teens say bullying is
more likely to happen offline than online. (28) The Internet just makes it easier
to do and harder to escape.
(29) So what should todays adults do in the face of this new challenge?
(30) We can try to limit our teenagers computer time of course but thats prob-
ably a lost cause by now. (31) The better solution as always comes from the
kids themselves. (32) Teens around the country have started a small online

movement against social networking sites trying to make them seem uncool.

(33) My best friend's daughter just took down her Facebook page for example
insisting that the site was for losers. (34) So pass the word to every teen you
know social networking is for losers. (35) Just don't tell them | said so.
—From Jonathan Zimmerman, “Hooked on Facebook.” San Francisco Chronicle, March 30, 2009, p. Al9.
Copyright © 2009 by The San Francisco Chronicle. Reprinted by permission.
236 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

CHAPTER TWELVE SKILLS REVIEW: Punctuation

Add the necessary punctuation marks to the following sentences. You may need
to add apostrophes, semicolons, colons, dashes, hyphens, and/or quotation
marks, You may have to rewrite some of the sentences on the line provided.
— . Our club has these three members Candy, Brandy, and Lori.

2. My son always forgets to cross his ts and dot his is.

3. The question must be boldly stated Where do we go from here?

4, Icannot go with you she said I need time to heal from the heartbreak.

Wn . Their house has been standing tall for the last forty five years.

6. I completed my assignment I even turned it in early.

N. The detective found the following clues a broken lock, a stain of blood on
the carpet, and a forgotten glove.

8. The document Working Words is finally finished.

 Quotation Marks “” 237

She wont change her mind about not coming with me.
ee ee C*=E
SE a
10. He has lived in Boise, Idaho Tacoma, Washington and Portland, Oregon.
ee

ee

il— . I titled my essay Stem Cell Research Adopt It.

eee

12. My mom said that the next door neighbor is incredibly rude.

. He came to tell her that he is leaving however, she was not home.

14, The boys hats hang by the door.

>; Tucker said Don’t forget that Dad said Nice people finish last.

16. Let’s play a game of cards he suggested.

17. Two sisters Mary and Dalia called him Dad.

18. She is my crazy sister in law.

238 CHAPTER TWELVE: Other Types of Punctuation

19. You the egotistic one must stop stealing time from all the others!

20. Thomas said They will come back for us like they said We never forget our
own
 APPENDIX A: Parts of Speech

Every word you write or speak falls into one of seven categories or kinds. These
are collectively called the parts of speech. The seven parts of speech are nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

NOUNS
Nouns are words that name a person, place, things, or ideas. Often, nouns are
preceded by article adjectives such as the, a, an.

The dog
A girl
An ant

The sky is blue.

Hurricanes terrify me.
Their belief in the right of all human beings to live in peace is what
motivates the protestors.

PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words used to take the place of nouns, either to allow the writer to
* refer back to the noun without repeating it each time, or to allow the writer to
refer to something or someone that is not specifically identified.

239
G24Y ALrrONUIA SA: Falls Ol opeecti

Manny calls Manny's teacher to tell the teacher that Manny will be late.
Manny calls his teacher to tell her that he will be late.

Something is bothering me.

Why didn’t you tell anyone?

The noun that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. Pronouns that refer
to a clearly identified antecedent are called definite pronouns.

I, me, my, myself

he, him, his, himself
she, her, hers, herself
it, its, itself
they, them, their, themselves
you, your, yourselves
we, US, Our, ours, ourselves
who, whose, which, what
that, this, these, those

Pronouns that refer to a noun that is not clearly identified are called indefinite
pronouns.

anybody nobody somebody everybody

anything nothing something everything
Anyone no one someone everyone

each either neither

| talk to him.
This is my wallet.
Everyone is here.
He likes to talk to himself.

VERBS
Verbs are words that show action or show a state of being.
Action verbs: play, eat, talk, jump, and dance.
| walk home.
 SE Uk he

Being verbs: the verb #o be: is, am, are, was, were, will be.

| am a mother.
He is a monster.

Helping verbs come before the main verb to refine and clarify the exact nature
and timing of the action: is, was, were, has, have, had, will have, will be.
He is going to the mall.
We had helped every time.
It will be raining soon.

Verbs that show actions taking place in a specific time (past, present, future)
change their forms according to which time, or tense, is indicated. Verbs describ-
ing actions that are theoretical, or outside of a specific time, take a form called
infinitive. Tenses are described in detail on pages 29-44.

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that modify nouns or pronouns in a sentence, and they
often fall in front of the noun or pronoun. They answer the questions: Which
one? What kind? and How many? Adjectives include small articles like the and a.
The red car
The noisy river
Three birds

ADVERBS
Adverbs are words that modify the verb, adjectives, and other adverbs, and they
answer the questions: How? Where? When? and To what degree?
He answered quickly.
They flew south.
The ship sailed last week.
She was somewhat angry.
242 APPENDIX A: Parts of Speech

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words that help signal a place (above, inside, behind), time (before, af-
ter, within), or source (zo,from, for, of, by). Consult the list below for more prepositions:

CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that join two or more words, phrases, or clauses with
one another. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating,
and adverbial.
Coordinating conjunctions tell the reader that the independent clauses being
joined are equal or similar in importance. An acronym you may consider using
to remember the coordinating conjunctions is FANBOYS.

The day turned out to be cloudy yet warm.

I like milk, but | prefer hot chocolate with breakfast.
Do you want sugar or milk in your coffee?

Coordinating conjunctions or FANBOYS

for (meaning “because” or “since”)

and (meaning “in addition”)
nor (meaning “and neither”)
but (meaning “on the contrary” or “however”)
or (meaning “alternatively”)
ae
yet (meaning “even” “however” or “but”)
ODAso
AK
PT (meaning “therefore”)
 Conjunctions 243

Adverbial conjunctions link independent clauses. These clauses must be sepa-

rated by an adverbial conjunction and punctuated with a semicolon before the
conjunction and a comma behind it. An acronym you may consider using to
remember the adverbial conjunctions is HOT SHOT MAMA CAT.

He was finished; therefore, he went home.

Adverbial conjunctions or. HOT SHOT MAMA CAT

H _— ; however, (meaning “but”)

O © ; otherwise, (meaning “if not” “or else”)
T _ ; therefore, (meaning “for that reason”)
S ; similarly, (meaning “likewise”)
H __ ; hence, (meaning “for that reason”)
O — ;on the other hand, (meaning “in contrast”)
T ; thus, (meaning “so” or “in this way”)
M © ; meanwhile, (meaning “while”)
A _ ;additionally, (meaning “also”)
M _— ; moreover, (meaning “in addition”)
A _ 3also, (meaning “in addition”)
C 3 consequently, (meaning “so”)
A 3asa matter of fact, (meaning “in fact”)
40 ; then, (meaning “next” or “so”)

:in addition, _ ; besides, ; furthermore, _ ; for instance,

; instead, ;forexample, ; nevertheless, _; nonetheless,
; indeed, ; likewise, ; in fact,

Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. (See

pp- 000-000 for more on dependent clauses.) An acronym you may consider
using to remember the most common subordinating conjunctions is WASBIT.

| like my job though | am not satisfied with the salary.

Although she is in pain, she is not letting it show.
244 APPENDIX A: Parts of Speech

Subordinating conjunctions or WASBIT

W When, Where, Wherever, Whenever, Whereas, Whether, While

A As, As if, As long as, As though, Although
S Since, So that
B Before, Because
I If
T Though

Other Subordinating Conjunctions

even though rather than until
provided that — once unless

INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are words that show surprise or emotion.

Oh, | do not like it.

When an interjection appears alone, it is usually followed with an exclamation

mark.

Wow! Cowabunga! Finally!

In the space provided next to each sentence, identify the part of speech of each
underlined word or group of words.

N noun Adj adjective Conj conjunction

Pro pronoun Ady adverb Inter interjection
V_ verb Prep preposition

1. The cat ran under the porch.

2. It is a hairy creature with a bad smell.

3. During the storm, we hid under the bed.

4, Finally, the rain is here.

5. L like dogs, but I prefer cats.

 Interjections 245

- Many are interested in conspiracy theories.

. Everyone had to go home because of the storm.
. He speaks clearly and eloquently.
. The mayor of the town is hiding something
ox
Sal
ee)
Ney

from the people.

. When Tim returns, we will go to the movies.

. The red corvette spun its wheels.

. After a brief marriage, Jay’s wife left him.

. Respect is easily given in many relationships.

. The lion ate hungrily as the people watched him.
. The famous threesome, Larry, Moe, and Curley, were the
Three Stooges.

. Japan has a long history of protest against nuclear power.

. You cannot make a dish like spinach souffé rise quickly.
. His forced smile and jovial manner are misleading.

. He was a muddled, irrational man with a mean streak.

. Someone carefully picked up the injured bird.

. He seems to be a tyrant, and I know
he will hurt someone.

. She is a good speaker; however, I did not

like her message.

Mes Inside the house was a huge mess of debris.

24. Jim argues intelligently and confidently.
25% This woman is deprived of any sense, and she is
short on looks.
26. His mind is a howling wilderness.
AY We walked behind the officer silently.
Aes Over the ocean, a dark storm is forming.
Jeo Since you are here, you can help me with dinner.
30. Oh, the president just walked in!
APPENDIX B: Spelling

Spelling errors are easy for readers to spot. Even if you are a weak speller, you
may find yourself noticing spelling errors in e-mails, business documents, website
articles, and other written texts. Anytime your brain notices an error in the writ-
ing, your flow of thought is interrupted, and your brain must back up and start
over. In this way, misspellings and grammar errors detract from good writing and
create bad impressions.
Computer companies have tried to help writers avoid spelling errors by invent-
ing the handy “spell check” button. Spell Check will swiftly highlight any mis-
spelled words; however, it judges each word in the document in isolation rather
than in the context of a whole sentence. Words that seem to be spelled right but are
actually errors will usually be missed by Spell Check. For example, the word from
is sometimes misspelled as form; Spell Check will not pick up on the difference in
meaning and will not point it out as a mistake. Likewise, to, too, and two are all
spelled correctly but commonly misused. Your efforts to improve your own “spell
check” abilities, therefore, will pay off in stronger, smoother writing. To become a
better speller, always proofread your writing.
Proofreading is checking a piece of writing for accuracy and correctness. Its
purpose is to catch any careless mistakes that might distract or confuse readers.
Proofreading is best done after all substantial changes, improvements, and addi-
tions have been made to a piece of writing.
The key to proofreading is to see what is actually on the page rather than what
you intended to put on the page. You need to find ways to see the text with fresh
eyes. Try the following techniques:
m Print out your writing and proofread on hard copy.
m Read your paper aloud.

246
 Know Commonly Misspelled Words 247

m Ask someone else to read your paper aloud, and listen carefully as he or she
reads.
a Run your writing through a spell-check program.
# Read your text backward. Turn to the last line of your paper, hold a ruler or
pencil over the line just above, and move it up as you read from the bottom
up, checking one word at a time.

CREATE SPELLING LISTS

Create a list of words you have trouble with and update the list as you encounter
new words. Check to see whether a word that you find troublesome shares a root,
prefix, or suffix with a word you already know; the connection helps you learn the
meaning, as well as the spelling, of the new word.

LEARN THE E//IE RULE

Write i before e except after c (or when it sounds like a as in neighbor or weigh).

i before e: chief piece brief yield priest

after c: ceiling —_ receive receipt perceive deceive
sounds like a: eight freight vein their neighbor
Note: Four exceptions exist to this rule: Leisure, seizure, foreign, and height all
have ei spellings, though none of the four come after c or sound like a.

Circle the correct spelling of each word.

1. field feild
2. reciept receipt
3. deciet deceit
4, achieve acheive
5. hieght height

KNOW COMMONLY MISSPELLED WORDS

Many words are misspelled because of their unusual letter combinations or incor-
rect pronunciation.
248 APPENDIX B: Spelling

Incorrect Correct
sincerly sincerely
fourty forty
libary library
payed paid
judgement judgment
coperate cooperate
goverment government
seperate separate
necesary necessary
privaledge privilege

Underline the misspelled words in the following paragraph and write the correct
spelling on the numbered lines. There are 17 spelling errors.
(1) There is a need to protect the animals and the envirment. (2) In Africa, con-
srvachionists are concerned about the perservattion of elephants because it is
necesary to protect this magnificent animal. (3) Ever since the sale of ivory has
been banned by international lawmakers, illegal hunting of elephants has de-
clined. (4) Therfore, the number of elephants has increased as has the number
of cities and metropolitans. (5) This endengrs the elephants’ habitat and makes
them competors for space with farmers who live around thier areas. (6) As a
result, African farmers often complain to the goverments that elephants have ru-
ined their crops. (7) This creates a situation for despirate measures and technics
such as lighting fires, chili-coating fences, or gun shooting to stop elephants form
coming onto their feilds. (8) The occurances of violence are escalating causing
conservationists to develop clever strategies to protect the elephant popolation
because in the end, humans are priviledged to share the elephants’ habitat.

Ihe ne

— i=)

Ose
Oe
 Know Commonly Confused Words 249

DOH sive Ulery $ kG

T4gals: alt aire 7

15%

KNOW COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

Words that sound alike or look alike can cause frequent spelling errors. Here’s a
list of confusing pairs of words. You may want to copy out portions of this list
into your own journal. The act of physically writing out the different spellings of
each pair will help you learn to distinguish between them.
Accept: to receive (verb) | accept your decision.
Except: other than (preposition) | greeted everyone except you.

Advice: guidance (noun) | like your advice.

Advise to give guidance (verb) She advised me to drop the class.

Affect: to influence (verb) The pollution affects our lungs.

Effect: result (noun) Pollution has a strong effect on our lungs.

All ready: all (pronoun) are The passengers were all ready to board
ready (adverb) the ship.
Already: before (adverb) | did this assignment already.

Brake: to stop (verb) The train brakes at railroad signs.

Break: to come apart (verb) That vase breaks easily.

Capital: city or money (noun) He raised capital for his business venture.
Sacramento is the capital of California.
Capitol: a building (noun) Washington has a capitol building.

Clothes: apparel (noun) | wear my clothes.

Cloths: fabric (plural noun) My clothes are made from cloths.

Conscience: moral guide (noun) Lies are against my conscience.

Conscious: awake or aware (adverb) The accident victim was not conscious.

Desert: dry land (noun) The desert climate is hot.

Dessert: sweet food (noun) Apple pie is a great dessert.

Heard: past tense of to hear (verb) | heard arrumor about the war.
Herd: a group of animals (noun) The herd of cows is let out.

Its: shows possession (pronoun) The cat ate its food.

It’s: a contraction of /t and is It's a good day.
250 APPENDIX B: Spelling

Knew: past tense of to know (verb) _| knew a sweet man.

New: recent, not old (adjective) My new boots squeak.

Loose: not too tight (adjective) My pants are loose on my waist.

Lose: not to win (verb) | always lose at Scrabble.

Personal: private (adjective) This is a personal matter.

Personnel: employees (plural noun) The personnel at the company are
frustrated.
Principal: leader (noun) She is the principal of our school.
Principle: rule or concept (noun) America is based on the principle of
democracy.

Quite: entirely or very (adverb) The dress is quite lovely.

Quiet: silent (adjective) He is a quiet person.
Quit: to stop (verb) | quit my job.

Then: next in time (adverb) We danced then ate.

Than: to compare (conjunction) He is shorter than Doris.

Their: shows possession This is their house.

(pronoun)
There: indicates location There is my iPhone.
(preposition)
They’re: a contraction of They're my students.
they and are

Thought: past tense of to | thought of him always.

think (verb)
Though: form ofalthough Though he is gone, | still love him.
(conjunction)

Weather: climate (noun) The weather is cold.

Whether: either or in case We should know whether it will rain tonight.
(conjunction)

Circle the right word choice for each sentence.

1. Sanford will (accept, except) his award at the ceremony.
2. Is everyone (all ready, already) to go on the picnic?
 Know Commonly Confused Words 251

3 . We will solve this problem (then, than) watch a movie.

4 - Tam (quit, quiet, quite) happy with the new arrangement.
5 . Will you follow her (advice, advise)?
6. This restaurant offers the sweetest chocolate (dessert, desert).

7. The class will have (its, it’s) final exam today.

8. That dress is (lose, loose) on me now.
9. I (thought, though) things through, and I have made a decision.
10. The students finished (their, there, they're) projects.)
11. I (knew, new) that this was not appropriate conduct.

12. This a matter of (personal, personnel) importance.

13. Mrs. Burke is the (principal, principle) at the Saint Dorothy School.
14. He wants to (quit, quiet, quite) his job.
15. He does not know (whether, weather) to jump for joy or cry.
16. (Their, There, They're) is an error with this chemistry problem.
17. The counselor (advised, adviced) me about the best course of action.
18. Farmers must have a (heard, herd) of cattle to survive.
19. I always pump the (brake, break) when I am skidding on icy roads.
20. The (desert, dessert) is not a safe place for children.
21. We need more (capital, capitol) for our business expansion.
22. I follow the (principle, principal) of equality and fairness.
23. The (cloths, clothes) that my (cloths, clothes) are made of are expensive.

24. We have (all ready, already) packed the van for the trip.
25. The Brown family lives on a (quiet, quit, quite) street.
26. I always (lose, loose) my car keys.
27. My (conscience, conscious) will not allow me to lie to anyone.
28. Do you think (its, it’s) too late to register for classes?
29. She (heard, herd) the bad rumor about their breakup.
30. The (effect, affect) of the budget cuts is massive.
252 APPENDIX B: Spelling

KNOW WORD ENDINGS

Sometimes, the spelling error occurs in how we spell the end of a word. This
occurs most commonly when we are changing a word from the singular to the
plural form. Here are a few guidelines to keep in mind:

he For words ending in 5, ss, x, 2, sh, or ch add an —es

boxes churches mistresses fizzes dishes

. For words ending in for

fe, change the fto y and add —es
shelf shelves wife wives

. For words ending in 0 preceded by a vowel (4,¢,i,0,u) add —s. For words
ending in @ preceded by a consonant, add —es
with vowels: ZOO Zoos rodeo rodeos
with consonant: hero heroes tomato tomatoes

. For words ending in y, change the y to 7 and add —es

city cities lily lilies candy candies

. For some words, no ending is required to show the plural form

fish sheep series deer

. For some words, we change the whole word, not just the ending
child children man men tooth teeth

. For Greek and Latin nouns, there are special spellings to show plural form:
datum data thesis theses criterion
syllabus syllabi analysis analyses criteria

Write the correct plural form for each noun.

i life
. spoon
. woman
. half
. story
. studio
. miss

fox
XOn. radio
Oat
CNET
Ome
_ oO. ZELO
 Know Word Endings 253

. chief
. echo
. wolf
. baby
. mouse
. fish
. roof
- puppy
. Crisis

Correct any spelling errors in the following sentences by crossing out the incor-
rectly spelled word and writing the correct spelling above it.

Le Jim’s neice did not like studying too much.

Dis Kacey likes potatos, but she does not except them baked, only freid.
. I could not beleive that she had pasted away.
. Their are many judgements against this lose criminal.
. Mr. Martin believes a man is happiest married to many wifes.
. My father always said, “lilys only grow in the valleys.”
. My brother’s friends enjoy hunting for there deers.
. Our twin childs are about to start college.
. The analysises of the scientists revealed that extintions of dinosaurs
probally ocured from a meteor strike.

. My favourite contractor repairs and installs rooves.

. I misplaced the reciept for my grocery purchases.
. Admiting to misstakes is better than dennying them.
. I do not quit understand why it is so quite.
. Lordered iegth peices of chicken for my complementory meal.
. He should have apoligized sincerly to the womans.
APPENDIX C: English as a Second Language
Concerns

If you have a language other than English as your first language, you may need
some extra help with certain areas of grammar. You may have realized that no
two languages have the same grammar, and that the English language—more
than many other language—has a confusing set of rules with many exceptions.
This section gathers some of these exceptions in one place, so you can focus on
learning them quickly and well.

NOUNS
Nouns are words that name a place, person, or thing. Examples include: cat,
teacher, mountain, or city.

Nouns come in two categories:

1. Count nouns are nouns that can be counted.

The table is old.

The noun in this sentence is specific because it names an individual item

that can be counted, touched, or seen or handled— table.
2. Noncount nouns are nouns that cannot be counted. Most noncount
nouns suggest a group of things or an abstract idea.

The furniture is old.

The noun in this sentence is not specific because it names a general cat-
egory. Furniture is a group that can include many tables or many different
pieces to make up what we call furniture.

254
 Articles 255

In short, count nouns name specific things, places, or people, whereas

noncount
nouns name general things, places, or people.

(&) MEMORY TIP

A quick trick to determining count or noncount nouns is to
try inserting
the word much before the noun. If the word can take much before it,
itis a
noncount noun.
Fruit much fruit Fruit is noncount because you can add
much fo it.
Apple much apple Apple is count because we cannot add
much to it; it is incorrect.
Noncount: (much) money (much) food (much) education
Count: dollars pizza book

ARTICLES
Many nouns in English require a part of speech called an article to introduce
them in a sentence. There are only three articles—a, an, and the—and they
appear always and only before nouns.

Can you bring me a glass of water?

Before an exam, | always feel nervous.
The storm in the night flooded our street.

How do you decide which article to use with a given noun? Learning to ask
and answer two questions will lead you to a correct decision: First, is the noun
definite or indefinite? Second, is the sound that begins the noun a vowel or a
consonant?
1. Definite or indefinite? Nouns that are specific, designated, exact, identi-
fied, or known take the definite article the.

No, not this one; | need the book with the blue cover.

The article the tells the reader that the noun which follows it is exact,
identified, specific, and known. Not just any book, cat, country, idea—a
definite one. In contrast, the article a tells the reader that the noun which
follows it is unspecified, general, abstract, vague, or unidentified. A and an,
therefore, are indefinite articles.

Oh, a book with any cover-red, blue, black-—will be fine.

256 APPENDIX C: English as a Second Language Concerns

2. Does the noun begin with a vowel or consonant sound? This question
does not apply to the definite article the. Once you determine that the
noun will take a definite article, you have only one choice: the. Indefi-
nite articles, however, offer two choices: a and an. What's the difference?
There is no difference between them except spelling: the “n’” is simply
added when the noun begins with a vowel sound, in order to make it
easier to pronounce. Try saying “a apple,” then say “an apple.” Which
phrase is easier to produce with your tongue? Vowel sounds are 4, ¢, i,
o, and uw. Consonant sounds are any letter in the alphabet EXCEPT for
ih, @ th Oy PB

| need an envelope. That is an insult!

| need a recipe for cookies. That's a great car!

VERBS
In several languages, verbs are nonexistent, but in English, verbs tell what action
the subject in a sentence performs. Verbs also tell the time of the action.
There are twelve different tenses of verbs, and each one refers to a time when
the action happened. Refer back to Chapter Two for complete explanations,
examples, and exercises on verbs.
For non-native speakers or speakers of nonstandard English, the most confus-
ing aspects of verbs are:
1. The use of helping verbs such as: has, have, had, will have, is, am, are, was,
were, will be, have been, has been, or had been.
Incorrect: It snow all day yesterday.
Correct: It had snowed all day yesterday.
It had been snowing all day yesterday.

2. The —ing verbs: these verbs always require the verb #o be as a helping verb.
Incorrect: | going to the mall.
Correct: |am going to the mall.
| was going to the mall.
 Prepositions 257

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a part of speech which is used to indicate place, time, or source.
Here are some of the many prepositions in the English language:

Plc
among around before at by
le
ee |in/into off

“ea
7 ae ee ee
2 a
Prepositions can be tricky to identify, because they can be used as adjectives,
adverbs, or prepositions. A true preposition will always be paired with an object.

Preposition with object: Martha looked up the phone number.

Not used as preposition: Martha looked up.
Preposition with object: We scraped the paint off the table.
Not used as preposition: The computer turned off.

(6) MEMORY TIP

An easy way to help you remember prepositions is to think of a house.
| Then put as many prepositional words as you can in front of the word
house:
above the house between the house on the house
around the house of the house from the house
behind the house off the house with the house
by the house under the house to the house
near the house over the house
258 APPENDIX C: English as a Second Language Concerns

The correct preposition is often determined by common practice instead of

actual meaning. Learn this list of common expressions that use prepositions:

full of interested in call off

scared of angry about count on
tired of excited about fill in
aware of happy about go over
proud of pick up grow up
afraid of sorry for look up
confused by responsible for

APPENDIX C SKILLS REVIEW: ESL Concerns

In the following sentences, find and correct any problems with nouns, articles,
verbs, and prepositions. Rewrite each sentence.
1. Few people believing that a dogs are bad for health.
 Prepositions 259

7. 1am want to keep getting good grades in math.

Index

A Already, 249
Abstract nouns, 5 Amounts, 63-64
Accept, 249 Antecedent, 83, 95-102
Action verbs, 26-27, 28 Apostrophe
Active voice, 56-59 for contractions, 221
Activity, noun as, 3 definition of, 220
Addresses, 214-216 for plurals of letters and figures, 221
Adjectives, 241 for possession, 220-221
adding, 168-169 using, 222
changing into adverbs, 172-173 Articles, English as a second language
comparative forms of, 173-176 concerns with, 255-256
correcting, 178-179 As, 196
definition of, 167
identifying, 169 B
irregular, 175-176 Bad, 176-178
misplaced, 182-185 Badly, 176-178
mistakes with, 172 Being verbs, 27-28
role of, 166 Brake, 249
use of, 167-168 Break, 249
in writing, 179-180
writing, in sentences, 172 Cc
Adverbial conjunctions, Capital, 249
126-129, 243 Capitol, 249
Adverbs, 241 Case, 83
adding, 171 Clause(s)
changing adjectives into, 172-173 definition of,110
comparative forms of, 173-176 dependent, 110, 113-114, 133-141
correcting, 178-179 identifying, 111-112
definition of, 169 independent, 110, 112, 123-126,
identifying, 171 133-141, 155
irregular, 175-176 subordinating, 133
misplaced, 182-185 types of, 112-114
mistakes with, 172 in writing, 118-119
role of, 166 Clothes, 249
use of, 170 Cloths, 249
in writing, 179-180 Collective nouns, 5
writing, in sentences, 172 Colon, 224-226
Advice, 249 Comma splices, 157-161
Advise, 249 Commas
Affect, 249 with addresses, 214-216
All ready, 249 conjunctions and, 206-209

260
 INDEX 261

with dates, 214-216 Desert, 249

definition of, 206 Dessert, 249
direct address and, 213 Direct address, 213
to enclose, 211-216 Direct object, 86
and interrupters, 211-212 Direct quotations, 230-231
and introductory expressions,
210-211 E
for list items, 209-210 Effect, 249
for separation, 206-211 ei/ie rule, 247
and writing, 216-218 Either, 72
Common nouns, 4, 6 English as a second language, 254-259
Comparative forms of adjectives and Except, 249
adverbs, 173-176
Comparisons, parallelism with, 196-197 F
Complex sentences, 133-141 Figures, plurals of, 221
Compound sentences, 129-132, 141 Fragments, 150-155
Compound-complex sentences, Future tense
139-141 perfect, 36
Conjugation, 30 perfect progressive, 40-41
Conjunctions, 242-244 progressive, 38-39
adverbial, 126-129, 243 simple, 33-34
commas and, 206-209
coordinating, 123-126, 242 G
subordinating, 113, 133-138, Gender, pronoun agreement with,
243-244 101-102
Conscience, 249 Gerunds
Conscious, 249 definition of, 3
Contractions, apostrophe for, 221 as subject, 20
Coordinating conjunctions, Good, 176-178
123-126, 242
Count nouns, 254
H
Heard, 249
D Herd, 249
Dangling modifiers, 186-188 Here
sentences starting with, 70-71
Dash, 226—227
subjects in declarative sentences with,
Dates, 214-216
Declarative sentences, subjects in, with here 18-19

and there, 18-19 Hyphen, 229

Definite article, 255
Demonstrative pronouns, 90-91
Dependent clauses, 110, 113-114, Idea, noun as, 3
133-141 Imperative sentences, subjects in,
Descriptive modifiers, 166-172 15-16
262 INDEX

Implied subjects, 15-16 Nor, 72

Indefinite article, 255 Nouns, 239
Indefinite pronouns, 8, 10-11, 64 abstract, 5
Independent clauses, 110, 112, 123-126, articles and, 255-256
133-141, 155 collective, 5, 63
Indirect object, 86 common, 4, 6
Infinitive compound, 65
definition of, 20 count, 254
as subject, 20-21 definition of, 3
Interjections, 244 English as a second language concerns
Interrogative pronouns, 93-94 with, 254-255
Interrogative sentences, subjects in, identifying, 5—6
19-20 noncount, 254-255
Interrupters, 73-74, 211-212 plural, 4
Introductory expressions, commas and, proper, 4, 6
210-211 singular, 4, 63
Its, 249 as subjects, 2
Its, 249 types of, 4-5
working with, 6—7
K writing with, 7-8
Knew, 250 Number
pronoun agreement with, 97-98
in subject-verb agreement, 62
u
Letters, plurals of, 221
Lists
Oo
commas and, 209-210 Objective case, 83, 86-87
Or, 72
parallelism with, 193-195
Loose, 250
P
Lose, 250
Paired expressions, parallelism with,
198-200
M
Pairs, parallelism with, 193, 195
Misplaced modifiers, 182-185
Parallelism
Modifiers
in comparisons, 196-197
dangling, 186-188
definition of, 192
descriptive, 166-172
with lists, 193-195
misplaced, 182-185
with paired expressions,
regular, 173-174
198-200
in writing, 189-190
with pairs, 193, 195
and writing, 201
N Parentheses, 226-227
Neither, 72 Passive voice, 56—59
New, 250 Past participle, 34
Noncount nouns, 254-255 Past perfect, 35
 INDEX 263

Past tense reflexive, 94-95

perfect progressive, 40 relative, 92-93
progressive, 38 subject, 8—9, 30
of regular verbs, 46 as subjects, 2
simple, 32-33 tricky situations with, 98-102
Perfect progressive tense, 40-41 usage of, 82-88
Perfect tense, 34-37 writing with, 102-106
Person Proofreading, 246
noun as, 3 Proper nouns, 4, 6
pronoun agreement with, 96-97 Punctuation. See Colon; Dash;
Personal, 250 Hyphen; Quotation marks;
Personnel, 250 Semicolons
Phrases, prepositional
sentences starting with, 69-70
Q
subjects as distinct from, 16-18
Quiet, 250
Place, noun as, 3
Quit, 250
Plural, 62
Quite, 250
Possession, apostrophe for,
Quotation
220-221
direct, 230-231
Possessive case, 83, 88
indirect, 233-234
Prepositional phrases
Quotation marks, 230-234
sentences starting with, 69-70
subjects as distinct from, 16-18
Prepositions, 242, 257-258 R
Present participle, 37 Reflexive pronouns, 94-95
Present tense Regular modifiers, 173-174
perfect, 35 Relative pronouns, 92-93
perfect progressive, 40 Run-ons, 155-157, 159-161
progressive, 38
simple, 30-32 S
Principal, 250 Semicolons, 129-132, 223-224
Principle, 250 Sentence(s)
Progressive tense, 37-42 adverbial conjunctions in,
Pronoun-antecedent agreement, 95-102 126-129
Pronouns, 239-240 combining, 162
case of, 83 comma splices in, 157-161
definition of, 8, 82 complex, 133-141
demonstrative, 90-91 compound, 129-132, 141
gender agreement, 101-102 compound-complex, 139-141
indefinite, 8, 10-11, 64 correction of faulty, 161-162
interrogative, 93-94 declarative, subjects in, with here and
number agreement, 97-98 there, 18-19
person agreement, 96-97 fragments, 150-155
possessive, 88 imperative, subjects in, 15-16
264 INDEX

Sentence(s) (continued) tricky situations with, 69-75

interrogative, subjects in, 19-20 in writing, 75-78
with interrupters, 73-74 Subordinating clause, 133
parallel, 200 Subordinating conjunctions, 113, 133-138,
prepositional phrases starting, 69-70 243-244
run-on, 155-157, 159-161
semicolons in, 129-132 T
simple, 120-122, 141 Technical terms, 231
variety, 122-145 Tense consistency, 53-56
Simple future tense, 33-34 Tenses, 29-44
Simple past tense, 32-33 Than, 196, 250
Simple present tense, 30-32 Their, 250
Simple sentences, 120-122, 141 Then, 250
Singular, 62 There, 250
Singular entity, 64 sentences starting with, 70-71
Slang, 231 subjects in declarative sentences
Speech, parts of, 2-3, 239-244 with, 18-19
Spelling, 246-253 Theyre, 250
Subject(s) Thing, noun as, 3
compound, 12-13, 13-14 Though, 250
in declarative sentences, with here Thought, 250
and there, 18-19 Titles, quotation marks for, 231
definition of, 2 To be, 51
as distinct from prepositional To have, 51
phrases, 16-18
gerund as, 20 Vv
identifying, 11-12 Verb phrase, 34
in imperative sentences, 15-16 Verbs, 240-241
implied, 15-16 action, 26-27, 28
infinitive as, 20-21 being, 27-28
in interrogative sentences, 19-20 compound, 28, 29
simple, 12, 13-14 definition of, 26
in tricky situations, 14-23 English as a second language concerns
in writing, 23-24 with, 256
Subject pronouns, 8-9, 30 helping, 256
Subjective case, 83-84 irregular, 47-53
Subject-verb agreement regular, 45-47
with irregular verbs, 68-69 simple, 28, 29
plural subject rules, 65-66 tense consistency with, 53-56
with regular verbs, 66-67 tenses of, 29-44
rules for, 62-66 voice of, 56-59
singular subject rules, 63-65 Voice, 56-59
 INDEX 265

WwW Where, sentences starting with, 70-71

Weather, 250 Whether, 250
Well, 176-178 Who, 89
What, sentences starting with, 70-71 Whom, 89
When, sentences starting with, 70-71 Why, sentences starting with, 70-71
|
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