Introduction to Mechanical Engineering – BESCK104D 2024-25

MACHINE TOOL OPERATIONS

Introduction:
Manufacturing process may be defined as a process of converting, the raw material into your
finished product of required size and shape depending upon the various processes and methods.
Manufacturing process is broadly classified into two groups.

Manufacturing
Process

Tertiary Manufacturing
Primary Manufacturing
Process:
Process:
Metal Fabrication &
Metal Cutting Process Finishing Process

Finishing Operations

Figure: Block diagram of Classification of manufacturing Process

In metal cutting process, extra amount of material is removed from the workpiece in the form
of chips. The material removed due to the relative motion between the cutting tool and the
work-piece. In metal forming process, no material is removed, but it is forced to change its size
and shape by applying external pressure.

Machine Tools:

When machines perform the metal cutting operations by the cutting tools mounted on them,
they are called “Machine tools”. A machine tool may be defined as a power-driven machine
which accomplishes the cutting or machining operations on it. The machine tools used for most
of the machining processes are Lathe, Drilling, Planing, Milling and Grinding machines.

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Lathe Machine Tool:

The Lathe is one of the oldest machine tools used to produce cylindrical objects. The modern
engine late are first developed in the year 1797 by an Englishman Henry Maudslay. The main
function of the lathe is to removal of metal from a work piece of work to give it a required
shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine
and then turning it against a cutting tool which will remove the material from the work in the
form of a chip. To cut the material properly, the tool should be harder than that of the material
of the workpiece.

Principle working of a Lathe Machine Tool:

Lathe machine is one of the most important machine tools which is used in the metalworking
industry. It operates on the principle of a rotating work piece and a fixed cutting tool. The cutting
tool is feed into the work piece which rotates about its own axis causing the workpiece to form
the desired shape

Figure: Principle of turning operation on Lathe

Construction & Working Principle of Centre Lathe/ Engine Lathe:

The schematic arrangement of the Centre or Engine Lathe is as shown in the following figure.
The major parts of a centre lathes are:
1. Bed & Guideways

2. Headstock

3. Tailstock

4. Lathe bed

5. Carriage Assembly

6. Driving mechanism & Feeding mechanism

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Figure: Schematic arrangement of Centre Lathe.

Bed: The bed forms, the base of the machine. The headstock and the tail stocks are located at
either end of the bed and the carriage rest over the lathe bed and slides on it. The guide ways of
the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V type having an include angle of 90 degree.

Headstock: The headstock is secured permanently on the inner waves, at the left end of the lathe
bed and it provides mechanical means of rotating the work at multiple speeds, It contains a
hallow spindle and mechanism for driving and altering this spindle speed. All the parts are housed
within the headstock casting.

Tailstock: The tail stock is located on the inner waves at the right end and top of the bed ways.
This has two main uses.

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1. It supports the other end of the workpiece. When it is being machine between the
centres.

2. It holds the tool for performing operations, such as drilling. Riming tapping etc., to accommodate
different length of work.

The body of the Tailstock can be adjusted along the length of the bed-ways by sliding it to the
desired position, and can be locked on a lathe bed-way.

Carriage: The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serves to support, move and control the
cutting tool. It consists of the following parts saddle cross, slide, Compound slide, tool post and
apron.

Saddle: The saddle is an H- shape casting that fits over the bed and slides along the base. It
carries the cross slide and tool post.

Cross slide: It is mounted on the saddle and enables the movement of the cutting tool laterally,
across the lathe bed by means of a cross feed handle. It also serves as the support for the
compound rest.

Compound rest: The compound rest is mounted on top of the cross slide and has a circular base
graduated in degrees. It is used for obtaining angular cuts and short tapers. As well as
convenient positioning of the tool at the work.

The tool post: This is located on top of the compound slide to hold the tool and enable it to be
adjusted to convenient Working position,

Feed mechanism: The movement of the tool related to the work is called as a feed. The feed can
be given either by the hand, or by automatic or powered feed. To get the automatic feed, carriage
is engaged to feed rod. while for cutting threads, carriage is engaged to screw rod.

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Lathe Operations:
Some of the operations carried out on a lathe machine are as listed below;
1. Facing

2. Turning

3. Knurling

Facing: Is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of the work to produce a flat surface
perpendicular with the axis. This is also used to cut the work to the required length. The
operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work piece. A
regular cutting tool may be used for facing a large work piece. The cutting edge should be set at
the same height as the centre of the work piece. A properly ground facing tool is mounted in a
tool holder in the tool post to accomplish facing operation.

Turning: The process of metal removal from the cylindrical jobs is called straight or
plain turning. Cross-slide and the carriage are used to perform turning operation and
make the operation faster and economical. Plain turning operations are generally
performed in two steps-rough and finish turning. Rough turning is usually done for rolled,
cast or forged parts to remove the uneven or sandy or rough surface on the jobs. A
roughing tool does roughing and used for excess stock removal. For finishing a tool with
slightly round cutting edge is used. The depth of cut rate is at the range of 0.2 to 1 mm
and the feed rate between 0.1 to 0.3 mm.

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Knurling: Knurling is an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surface on the
work piece. This is used to produce a rough surface for griping like the barrel of the micrometre
or screw gauge. This is done by a special tool called knurling tool which has a set of hardened
rollers with the desired serrations. During knurling operation, the hardened rollers of the tool are
pressed against the slowly rotating work pieces such that the impression of tool serrations are
formed onthe work pieces surface.

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Drilling Machine Tool

Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. It was designed to
produce a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth on metal workpieces. Though holes
can be made by different machine tools in a shop, drilling machine is designed specifically to
perform the operation of drilling and similar operations. Drilling can be done easily at a low cost
in a shorter period of time in a drilling machine.

Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of required diameter and
depth by removing metal by the rotating edges of a drill. The cutting tool known as drill is fitted
into the spindle of the drilling machine. A mark of indentation is made at the required location
with a centre punch. The rotating drill is pressed at the location and is fed into the work. The
hole can be made up to a required depth.

Drilling machine

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The upright drilling machine is designed for handling medium sized workpieces.
Though it looks like a sensitive drilling machine, it is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling
machine. Holes of diameter up to 50mm can be made with this type of machine. Besides, it is
supplied with power feed arrangement. For drilling different types of work, the machine is
provided with a number of spindle speeds and feed.
Base
The base is a rectangular casting made of cast iron and so can withstand vibrations. It is
mounted on a on the floor. It supports all the other parts of the machine on it.

Column
The column stands vertically on the base at one end. It supports the work table and the drill
head. The drill head has drill spindle and the driving motor on either side of the column.

Table
The table is mounted on the vertical column and can be adjusted up and down on it. The table
has T-slots on it for holding the workpieces or to hold any other work holding device. The table
can be adjusted vertically to accommodate workpieces of different heights and can be clamped at
the required position.

Drill head
Drill head is mounted on the top side of the column. The drill spindle and the driving motor
are connected by means of a V-belt and cone pulleys. The motion is transmitted to the spindle
from the motor by the belt. The pinion attached to the handle meshes with the rack on the sleeve
of the spindle for providing the drill the required down feed.

Drilling machine operations

Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a number of similar
operations are also performed on holes using different tools. The different operations that can be
performed in a drilling machine are: Drilling, Reaming and Boring.

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Drilling:Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of required

diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating edges of a drill. The cutting tool known as
drill is fitted into the spindle of the drilling machine. A mark of indentation is made at the
required location with a centre punch. The rotating drill is pressed at the location and is fed into
the work.The hole can be made up to a required depth.

Reaming: Reaming shown in Figure, is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has
been previously drilled. In order to finish a hole and to bring it to the accurate size, the hole is
drilled slightly undersize. The speed of the spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic
feed may be employed. The tool used for reaming is known as the reamer which has multiple
cutting edges. Reamer cannot be used to drill a hole. It simply follows the path which has been
previously drilled and removes a very small amount of metal.

Boring: Boring is the operation of enlarging the size of the previously drilled hole. For this
purpose a special purpose cutting tool is used. Boring operation is also carried out to finish a hole
accurately and to bring it to the required size.

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Milling Machine Tool

Milling is a metal cutting operation in which the cutting tool is a slow revolving cutter having
cutting teeth formed on its periphery. The milling cutter is a multipoint cutting tool. The work
piece is mounted on a movable worktable, which will be fed against the revolving milling cutter
to perform the cutting operation.

Principle of Milling

(a) (b)
Figure: (a) Up milling and (b) Down milling operation

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Figure shown above is the principle of cutting action of a milling cutter. The milling cutter is
mounted on a rotating shaft known as arbor. The work piece which is mounted on the table can
be fed either in the direction opposite to that of the rotating cutter as shown in above fig (a) or in
the same direction to that of the cutter as shown in above fig (b). When the work piece is fed in
the opposite direction to the cutter tooth at the point of contact, the process is called as
conventional or up-milling.

Milling Machine Tool: A Milling Machine is a machine tool in which a stationary work piece is
fed against a rotating multi point cutter.

Horizontal Milling Machine

The schematic arrangement of horizontal milling machine/ column and knee type milling
machine is as shown in the figure.

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Milling machine has some principal parts. Their understanding would help us in understanding
how the machine operates. The various parts are
1. Base
2. Column
3. Arbor
4. Knee
5. Saddle
6. Table
7. Overhanging arm
8. Driving and feeding Mechanism

Base: Base forms the foundation of the machine tool. It‟s a rectangular casting made up of Cast
Iron. The one end of the base houses the Column and other end of the base contains a space for
table elevating screw or knee supporting screw.

Column: The column is another rectangular casting mounted on one end of the base. The
column is ribbed heavily in order to support the knee. The front vertical face of the column is
provided with a vertical slide, which may be of square or dovetail type. The knee moves up and
down on this slide. At the top of the column, an internal dovetail slide accommodates a cast
overarm. The overarm supports the arbor. It also houses the driving mechanism to drive the
spindle and feeding mechanism to feed the table.

Arbor: The arbor is a horizontal shaft provided with a straight body and tapered shank. On the
straight portion of arbor, rotary cutters are mounted. The tapered end of the arbor fits into the
tapered hole of the spindle. The other end of the arbor is mounted in a bearing housed in the
projecting overarm. The knee of the casting mounted on the front vertical slide of the column
and is moved up or down by an elevating screw. The upper face of the knee is provided with
guide ways so as to mount the saddle.

Knee: The Knee is a casting mounted on the front vertical slide of the column and is moved up
or down by an elevating screw. The upper face of the knee is provided with guide ways so as to
mount the saddle.

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Saddle: The saddle is casting provided with two slides one at the top and the other at the bottom,
which are exactly right angles to each other. The lower slide fits within the guideways on the top
of the knee and the upper slide receives the dovetail guides provided on the bottom of the table.

Table: The table is mounted on the top of the saddle. The bottom of the table has a dovetail slide
which fits in the slide way on the top of the saddle. The top the table is machined with full
length T-slots for mounting vices or other work holding fixtures.

Overhanging Arm: The overhanging arm extends from the column in order to support the arbor.
The front brace attached to the overhanging arm supports the free end of the arbor and thus
provides rigidity to the rotating cutter.

Milling machine Operations/ Applications:

A variety of milling operations are performed on a milling machine to produce a horizontal,
vertical, inclined surfaces, keyways, slots, gear teeth etc., A few of the most commonly used
milling operations are described here.

1. Slab Milling or Plane Milling

This method is also called as plain milling. The plain milling is the most common types of
milling machine operations.

Figure: Slab/ Plain Milling Operation

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 Slab milling is performed to produce a plain, flat, horizontal surface parallel to the axis
of rotation of a plain milling cutter.
 The operation is also known as slab milling.
 To perform the operation, the work and the cutter are secured properly on the machine.
 The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table. And the machine
is started after selecting the right speed and feed.

2. Slot Milling

The slot milling, also called as groove or keyway cutting is done on a horizontal milling cutter
or using an end milling cutter.

 The operation of producing of keyways, grooves and slots of varying shapes and sizes
can be performed in a milling machine.
 It is done by using a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, an end mill or by a side
milling cutter.
 The open slots can be cut by a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, or by a side
milling cutter. The closed slots are produced by using endmills.

Figure: Slot Milling/ Grooving operation

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Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems

Introduction: Computer Numeric Control (CNC) is the automation of machine tools that are
operated by precisely programmed commands encoded on a storage medium (computer
command module, usually located on the device. Most NC today is computer (or computerized)
numerical control (CNC), in which computers play an integral part of the control.

Definition
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is one in which the functions and motions of a machine tool
are controlled by means of a prepared program containing coded alphanumeric data. CNC can
control the motions of the work piece or tool, the input parameters such as feed, depth of cut,
speed, and the functions such as turning spindle on/off, turning coolant on/off etc,.

Components of CNC:
A CNC machine tool following units in its construction,
1) Input device
2) MCU or machine control unit
3) Machine tool
4) Driving System
5) Feedback devices
6) Display Unit

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1. Input Devices: In put devises are the devises used to enter the part program into the
machine tool. Universal Serial Bus (USB), ethernet communication, Tapes and recording
devices can be used as input devices.
2. Machine Control Unit: The machine control unit (MCU) is a microcomputer that stores
the program and executes the commands into actions by the machine tool. The MCU
consists of two main units: the data processing unit (DPU) and the control loops unit
(CLU). The DPU processes the data from the part program and provides it to the CLU
which operates the drives attached to the machine leadscrews and receives feedback
signals on the actual position and velocity of each one of the axes. A driver (dc motor)
and a feedback device are attached to the leadscrew. The CLU consists of the circuits
for position and velocity control loops, deceleration and backlash take up, function
controls such as spindle on/off.
3. Machine Tool: The machine tool could be one of the following: lathe, milling machine,
laser, plasma, Coordinate measuring machine etc. Machine tool actuated as per the
program through various mechanical driving and feeding mechanisms. Machine tool
perform the intended task over the work piece.
4. Driving system: A drive system essentially is made up of amplifier circuits, drive motors
and ball lead screws. Commonly used types of electrical motors include DC Servo
motors, AC servo motors, Stepping motors and Linear motors
5. Feedback devices: For accurate operation of a CNC machine, the positional values and
speed of the axes need to continuously updated. Inorder to perform this task Positional
feedback devices and velocity feedback devices are used. The positional feedback
systems gives the position of the tool/ workpice with respect to the reference point.
Velocity feedback system gives the state of the velocity of the sped of the spindle, cutting
tool and the movement of the table etc.,
6. Display Unit: Device that ensures interaction between the machine operator and the
machine is called as a display unit. It displays the current status of the operation such as
the spindle RPM, running part program, feed rate, position of the machine slide etc. it
also shows the graphic simulation of the path taken by the tool and that the operator can
verify the part program before actual machining and any malfunction of the CNC system
is also displayed as warnings.

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Advantages of the CNC Machine Tool:

 Accuracy and repeatability obtained is high. Most aircraft parts are produced today on
CNC machines
 Complex shaped contours can be machined. Turbine blades, impellers etc.
 Can be easily programmed to handle variety of product styles
 High volume of production compared to conventional machines
 Lesser skilled or trained people can operate CNC machines unlike conventional ones
where high skilled people are required
 CNC machines can be used uninterruptedly without turning them off provided regular
maintenance is done
 Avoids errors that were otherwise committed by humans operating conventional
machines
 Since CNC machines can be programmed, one person may well take care of a number of
CNC machines. Reduces employees and hence costs are reduced
 Using CNC machines results in a safer work environment.
 Can be upgraded to a newer technologies by replacing CNC controller with
advanced one.

Disadvantages of the CNC Machine:

 Thorough programming knowledge is required by the operators or programmers.
Skilled programmers required, cost of the labour can be high
 Cost of the CNC machine is high compared to the conventional machine tools
 Spares of CNC machines are relatively costlier than conventional machines
 CNC machines require air conditioned environment and /or a chiller unit. Thus extra
costs are involved.

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Applications of CNC:

 CNC machines are used in almost every manufacturing industry. The machine tools that
come with CNC are lathes, mills, shapers, welding etc.
 Industries like automotive industry, metal removal industry, metal forming industry,
electrical discharge machining industry, wood industry are using CNC machines.
 CNC machining processes are suitable for a variety of engineering materials, including
metals such as aluminum, brass, stainless steel, alloy steel, etc., plastics such as PEEK,
PTFE, nylon, etc., wood, foam, composite materials, etc.

3D PRINTING

3D printing also known as additive manufacturing, is a method of creating a three

dimensional object layer-by-layer using a computer created design. 3D printing is an additive
process whereby layers of material are built up to create a 3D part. This is the opposite of
subtractive manufacturing processes, where a final design is cut from a larger block of material.
As a result, 3D printing creates less material wastage. 3D printing is also perfectly suited to the
creation of complex, bespoke items, making it ideal for rapid prototyping. As a single step
manufacturing process, 3D printing saves time and therefore costs associated with using different
machines for manufacture. 3D printers can also be set up and left to get on with the job, meaning
that there is no need for operators to be present the entire time.

3D Printing Process

Step 1: CAD Model: The first step in the 3D printing process is typically to create a 3D
digital model of the object you want to print using CAD modelling software (Catia, Fusion360,
Solidworks, Creo, etc.) or a 3D scanner, or even photogrammetry software. This digital model
will serve as the blueprint for the physical object to be created by the 3D printer. Once the digital
model is complete, it must be converted into a 3D printer-compatible format, such as an STL
file. The STL file contains a set of instructions that instruct the printer on where to place each
layer of material to construct the final object. Once the STL file is ready, it can be sent to a 3D
printer, which will use the data to build the object layer by layer with the appropriate material.
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Step 2: Slicing: The second step in the process is to prepare the model for printing. This
involves the use of a slicing software which helps you control the printing parameters to ensure
the print is successful and is printed the way you want. The slicing software or Slicer, literally
slices the 3D model into multiple layers depending on the specifications you provide. These
slices (also called as layers) are then deposited one above the other during the actual printing
process. The slicer converts the design into co-ordinates which the printer understands and the
material is deposited as per the co-ordinates.

In the slicer software, it is firstly important to configure your printer and materials so that the
software knows the build boundaries, the nozzle diameter and material diameter and a mistake in
this can lead to a failed print. In here, you can define printing parameters like the layer thickness,
wall thickness, printing speed, extruder temperature, bed temperature, retraction settings, use bed
adhesion tools and much more.

The output of this slicer is in the form of a text file with a file extension being ‘.gcode’. This file
has a large set of instructions for the printer and basically tells the printer how to print the object
as per the parameters set in the slicing software.

Step 3: Setting up the Machine: This step is often not talked about much as it is assumed
that users will know about it. And even though it is obvious that you should ensure your machine
is ready, most beginners fail to set up the machine. So, before you start printing, ensure your
build plate is clean, is dry, it does not have any earlier material residue. Also ensure you have the
appropriate material loaded in the machine. The appropriate filament in case of FDM printer, the
appropriate resin in case of resin 3D printer, appropriate powder in case of SLS 3D printer and so
on. Additionally, sometimes the materials need a bit of preheating, especially in FDM and SLS
printing, and while the gcode file may have that instruction, this can also be done manually to be
extra cautious and increase the chances of a successful print. The preheating can eliminate and
residual moisture from the material.

Step 4: 3D Printing: The printing process is started after the 3D printer has been prepared
and the appropriate settings have been configured. The 3D printer reads the gcode file

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generated by the slicing software and begins layer by layer construction of the object.
Depending on factors such as the complexity of the object, the size of the print, the type of
material used, and the resolution and speed of the 3D printer, the printing process can take
anywhere from a few minutes to several hours or even days. Depending on the technology, the
printer will extrude the material, cure the resin or fuse the powdered particles and form the layer.

Step 5: Post Processing: The last step in the 3D printing process. When the printer comes to a
halt, the print must be removed from the bed. This process varies depending on the technology
used. So, the post-processing steps vary depending on the technology you have used to print the
part as well as the final output you desire like smooth finish, colouring the part, increasing the
part strength and more.

Advantages of 3D Printing

 Bespoke, cost-effective creation of complex geometries: This technology allows for the
easy creation of bespoke geometric parts where added complexity comes at no extra cost.
In some instances, 3D printing is cheaper than subtractive production methods as no extra
material is used.
 Affordable start upcosts: Since no moulds are required, the costs associated with this
manufacturing process are relatively low. The cost of a part is directly related to the
amount of material used, the time taken to build the part and any post processing that
may be required.
 Completely customisable: Because the process is based upon computer aided designs
(CAD), any product alterations are easy to make without impacting the manufacturing
cost.
 Ideal for rapid prototyping: Because the technology allows for small batches and in-
house production, this process is ideal for prototyping, which means that products can be
created faster than with more traditional manufacturing techniques, and without the
reliance on external supply chains.
 Allows for the creation of parts with specific properties: Although plastics and metals
are the most common materials used in 3D printing, there is also scope for creating parts

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from specially tailored materials with desired properties. So, for example, parts can be
created with high heat resistance, water repellency or higher strengths for specific
applications.

Disadvantages of 3D Printing

 Can have a lower strength than with traditional manufacture: While some parts, such
as those made from metal, have excellent mechanical properties, many other 3D printed
parts are more brittle than those created by traditional manufacturing techniques. This is
because the parts are built up layer-by-layer, which reduces the strength by between 10
and 50%.
 Increased cost at high volume: Large production runs are more expensive with 3D
printing as economies of scale do not impact this process as they do with other traditional
methods. Estimates suggest that when making a direct comparison for identical parts, 3D
printing is less cost effective than CNC machining or injection moulding in excess of 100
units, provided the parts can be manufactured by conventional means.
 Limitations in accuracy: The accuracy of a printed part depends on the type of machine
and/or process used. Some desktop printers have lower tolerances than other printers,
meaning that the final parts may slightly differ from the designs. While this can be fixed
with post-processing, it must be considered that 3D printed parts may not always be
exact.
 Post-processing requirements: Most 3D printed parts require some form of post-
processing. This may be sanding or smoothing to create a required finish, the removal of
support struts which allow the materials to be built up into the designated shape, heat
treatment to achieve specific material properties or final machining.

3D Printing Applications:

Due to the versatility of the process, 3D printing has applications across a range of industries, for
example:

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Aerospace: 3D printing is used across the aerospace (and astrospace) industry due to the ability
to create light, yet geometrically complex parts, such as blisks. Rather than building a part from
several components, 3D printing allows for an item to be created as one whole component,
reducing lead times and material wastage.

Automotive: The automotive industry has embraced 3D printing due to the inherent weight and
cost reductions. It also allows for rapid prototyping of new or bespoke parts for test or small-
scale manufacture. So, for example, if a particular part is no longer available, it can be produced
as part of a small, bespoke run, including the manufacture of spare parts. Alternatively, items or
fixtures can be printed overnight and are ready for testing ahead of a larger manufacturing run.

Medical: The medical sector has found uses for 3D printing in the creation of made-to-measure
implants and devices. For example, hearing aids can be created quickly from a digital file that is
matched to a scan of the patient's body. 3D printing can also dramatically reduce costs and
production times.

Rail: The rail industry has found a number of applications for 3D printing, including the creation
of customised parts, such as arm rests for drivers and housing covers for train couplings.
Bespoke parts are just one application for the rail industry, which has also used the process
to repair worn rails.

Robotics: The speed of manufacture, design freedom, and ease of design customisation make 3D
printing perfectly suited to the robotics industry. This includes work to create bespoke
exoskeletons and agile robots with improved agility and efficiency

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