Introduction to Mechanical Engineering – BESCK104D 2024-25

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION:
In the materials world we are living in, when making a new device/component, most
often we come across a very familiar problem. This is nothing but select the right material.
Selection of material can play very important role preventing failures. Selection of material fora
specific purpose depends on many factors. Some of the important ones are: strength, ease of
forming, resistance to environmental degradation, etc. Another dimension an engineer should
be aware of it is how to tailor the required properties of materials. Materials can be are broadly
classified as metals, ceramics and plastics. This chapter introduces different classes of metallic
materials, common fabrication methods, and means to alter their properties on purpose.

METALS
Metallic materials are broadly of two kinds - ferrous and non-ferrous materials. This
classification is primarily based on tonnage of materials used all around the world. Ferrous
materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the principle constituent. All other materials are
categorized as non-ferrous materials.

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a) Mild Steel – Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 – 99.9%. Used for
engineering purposes and in general, none specialized metal products.
b) Carbon steel – Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of 98.6 to 99.4 %. Used
tomake cutting tools such as drill bits.
c) Stainless Steel – The name comes from their high resistance to corrosion i.e. they are
rust- less (stain-less). Steels are made highly corrosion resistant by addition of special
alloyingelements, especially a minimum of 12% Cr along with Ni and Mo. Stainless steels
are mainly three kinds: ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation
hardenable (martensitic, semi-austenitic) steels. This classification is based on prominent
constituent of themicrostructure. Typical applications include cutlery, razor blades, surgical
knives, etc.

d) Tool steel or High carbon steels-These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels, and of
course their ductility is very limited. These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened
and tempered conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable of holding
sharp edges. Thus these are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades,
etc. With addition of alloying element like Cr, V, Mo, W which forms hard carbides by
reacting with carbon present, wear resistance of high carbon steels can be improved
considerably.

e) Cast iron- Though ferrous alloys with more than 2.14 wt.% C are designated as cast
irons, commercially cast irons contain about 3.0-4.5% C along with some alloying
additions. Alloyswith this carbon content melt at lower temperatures than steels i.e. they are
responsive to casting. Hence casting is the most used fabrication technique for these alloys.

f) Hard and brittle constituent presented in these alloys, cementite is a metastable phase, and
can readily decompose to form α-ferrite and graphite. In this way disadvantages of brittle
phase can easily be overcome. Tendency of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled
by their composition and cooling rate. Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are
categorized as gray, white, nodular and malleable cast irons.

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NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous materials. They can be fabricated
with ease, high relatively low density, and high electrical and thermal conductivities. However
different materials have distinct characteristics, and are used for specific purposes. This section
introduces some typical non-ferrous metals and their alloys of commercial importance.

Aluminum alloys: These are characterized by low density, high thermal & electrical
conductivities, and good corrosion resistant characteristics. As Al has FCC crystal structure,
these alloys are ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed easily. However, the great
limitation of these alloys is their low melting point (660°C), which restricts their use at elevated
temperatures. Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment – based
on these alloys are designated in to two groups, cast and wrought. Chief alloying elements
include: Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently, alloys of Al and other low-density metals like Li, Mg, Ti
gained much attention as there is much concern about vehicle weight reduction. Al-Li alloys
enjoy much more attention especially as they are very useful in aircraft and aerospace industries.
Common applications of Al alloys include: beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft
structures, etc. Some of the Al alloys are capable of strengthening by precipitation, while others
have to be strengthened by cold work or solid solution methods

Copper alloys (Brass Bronze): As history goes by, bronze has been used for thousands of years.
It is actually an alloy of Cu and Sn. Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile thus hard to machine, and has
virtually unlimited capacity for cold work. One special feature of most of these alloys is their
corrosion resistant in diverse atmospheres. Most of these alloys are strengthened by either cold
work or solid solution method. Common most Cu alloys: Brass, alloys of Cu and Zn where Zn
is substitutional addition (e.g.: yellow brass, catridge brass, muntz metal, gilding metal);
Bronze, alloys of Cu and other alloying additions like Sn, Al, Si and Ni. Bronzes are stronger
and more corrosion resistant than brasses.

CERAMICS
Ceramics which were traditionally being used for pottery and clay products only, these days
are finding application in electronics, aerospace, bio-applications etc. The application spectrum
of ceramics has increased because ceramics possesses specific properties such as corrosion

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resistance, wear resistance, high hardness, low density etc. The classification of ceramics based
on the application is as follows:

(i) Glasses: Glasses are based on Silicate (SiO2) along with other additives to shrink the
melting point and to impart special characteristic properties. Glasses are mainly used
in the manufacturing of the following products; (a) Containers (b) households (c)
optical glasses etc.
(ii) Optical fibre glasses: Since optical fibers were introduced in 1960s, they
have subsequently attracted much attention for a range of applications such as fiber
amplifiers and fiber lasers. A glass-ceramic optical fiber containing Ba2TiSi2O8
Nano crystals fabricated using a novel combination of the melt-in-tube method and
successive heat treatment is reported for the first time.
(iii) Cermets: Cermets are composites in which ceramic materials and metals join together,
typically to give something with the high temperature performance or wear resistance
of a ceramic and the toughness, flexibility, or electrical conductivity of a metal.
Cermets offer a perfect solution in components such as resistors and vacuum tubes
(valves). Machine tools are another increasingly common use for cermets, which offer
greater toughness and wear resistance than more traditional materials. The interesting
surface properties of cermets also make them useful for reducing friction in machine
parts.

COMPOSITES
There is an unabated quest for new materials which will satisfy the specific requirements
for various applications like structural, medical, house-hold, industrial, construction,
transportation, electrical; electronics, etc. Metals are the most commonly used materials in these
applications. In the yore of time, there have been specific requirements on the properties of these
materials. It is impossible of any material to fulfill all these properties. Hence, newer materials
are developed. In the course, we are going to learn more about composite materials. First, we
will deal with primary understanding of these materials and then we will learn the mechanics of
these materials.

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A composite material is defined as a material which is composed of two or more

materials at a microscopic scale and has chemically distinct phases. Thus, a composite material
is heterogeneous at a microscopic scale but statistically homogeneous at macroscopic scale. The
materials which form the composite are also called as constituents or constituent materials. The
constituent materials of a composite have significantly different properties.

Classification of composites:

Composites may be classified either on the type of matrix material incorporated or

geometry of reinforcement used in the fabrication of composites. According to the type of
matrix material used, there are the following types of composites:
Fibre Reinforced Composites: are the most common and widely used composites. In PMCs,
polymers are used as matrix material. PMCs consist of glass, carbon, or other high strength fibers
as reinforcement in a thermoset or thermoplastic matrix. The resulting materials are strong, stiff,
and corrosion resistant. Polymer matrix composites offer several advantages over traditional
metals and alloys such as flexibility in design, easy processing and ability to produce near net
shape products.

Metal matrix composites (MMC): In metal matrix composites, metals like Aluminium
(Al)Magnesium (Mg) and Copper (Cu) are used as matrix materials. Widely used
reinforcementsin MMCs are silicon carbide (SiC), Alumina (Al2O3) and Tungsten (W). Metals
have much higher strength and stiffness in comparison to polymeric materials like Epoxy which
is used as matrix in polymeric material. He application of MMCs are currently restricted to the
following fields: Aerospace applications - like helicopter transmission system, Acid Battery,
Super alloys for high-speed Turbine blades

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

Shape memory polymers, are materials that can hold different shapes at various
temperatures. They can be deformed and returned to their original shape by heating. In the
process, they generate an actuating force. Shape memory alloy, such as nitinol, an alloy of nickel
and titanium, which has a corrosion resistance similar to stainless steel, making it particularly

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useful for biomechanical applications. Such types of materials can be used in coffee-pot
thermostat, super elastic spectacle frames, stents for veins, whereas shape memory polymer has
the ability to regain its original shape when heated. These are generally used in biodegradable
surgical sutures that will automatically tighten to the correct tension and also in self-repairing car
bodies that will recover shape on gentle heating after a dent.

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

Joining process is where two or more pieces of parts are joined together to produce a single product of
required shape and size. The parts required for joining are produced by any other manufacturing
technique. There are different methods used to join the parts. The joining process can be
classified as
a) Permanent joining process b) Semi – permanent or temporary joining process.
Permanent joining process is done by fusing the metal together. In this process the metal is
heated to its melting state and then it is fused to become one. Some of the examples for
permanent joining process are welding soldering and brazing Temporary joining process is
where the metal is not heated. The joining process is carried out at room temperature.
Temporary joining process can be done using nuts, bolts, screws and adhesives.

SOLDERING
It is defined as “a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating to a
suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not exceeding 427oC
and below the solidification temperature of the base metals”. The filler metal fills in the gap
of the joint by capillary action. Soldering uses fusible alloys to join metals know as solder.
Ordinary gas flames or electric soldering iron is used to supply the heat to melt the solder.
Fluxes are used with solder in soldering process. Fluxes are defined as any solid, liquid or
gaseous material when heated accelerates the wetting of metal with the solder. Due to
wetting molten solder flow into the joint and fills the space between the two pieces to be
soldered. At elevated temperature flux is highly reducing in nature preventing the formation
of metal oxides. Fluxes that are generally used in soldering are Rosin, Zinc Chloride and
Aluminum Chloride.

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The kind of solder used depends on the metals to be joined. There are two different types of
solders:
a) Hard solders are called spelter and hard soldering process is called silver solder
brazing. The hard solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The melting point of the
hard solder is in the range of 3500C and above. This process gives greater strength and
will stand more heat than soft solder.
b) Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts at a
temperature below that of the base metal, and always below 4270C. The melting range of
soft solder is 1500C to 2000C. The solder contains tin and lead as it constituents.

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Advantages
1. The process is done at low temperatures hence, no metallurgical damage to the base metal.

2. The soldering joint can be dismantled by simple heating of the solder.

3. It is cost effective

Disadvantages
1. The strength of the joint is not good compared to welding.

2. Flux material has to be cleaned after soldering, as most of the fluxes are corrosive in
nature.

BRAZING
Brazing is a joining process, which produces coalescence of materials by heating to a suitable
temperature and using a filler metal having a melting temperature above 427°C and below the
solidification temperature of the base metals being joined. The filler metal is distributed between
the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction. Brazing is distinguished from
soldering in that soldering employs a filler metal having a melting point below 427°C.

Brazing procedure: The metal to be joined is cleaned for oxides, dust and oil. Fluxes are
applied on the entire surface where the brazing is carried out. The parts are aligned in position
for brazing. The joint is heated using a gas torch with a Carburizing flame. Filler metal is added
into the space where the metal is to be joined. Due to the wetting action of the flux, the molten
filler metal fills the space by capillary action. The joint is allowed to cool and then the fluxes
are cleaned from the surface.
The fluxes used in brazing are borax, boric acid, borates, chlorides and fluorides. Some of the
filler metal alloys used for brazing are Aluminum – Silicon, magnesium, copper and copper
zinc etc.

Advantages
1. It can be used to join dissimilar metals.

2. It provides good pressure tight joints.

3. Different cross sectional thickness material can be brazed.

4. Brazing avoids metallurgical damage to the metal.

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Disadvantages
1. Size limitations of the parts to be brazed. As the outer area has to be elevated to the
highertemperature, in large sections increasing the temperature is difficult.
2. Tight mating parts are necessary for capillary action.

3. Flux are corrosive in nature, they have to be cleaned properly after brazing.

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WELDING PROCESS
At one time, the simple definition of welding was "joining metals through heating them
to a molten state and fusing them together." As technical progress in welding processes has
advanced, the definition has had to change.
Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is
obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the application of pressure and with
or without the use of filler material. This filler material has the melting point same as the base
material.” It is also known as a metallurgical joining process of two metal pieces, to produce a
single piece of product.

ARC WELDING
The principle of arc welding is as follows. When two conductors of an electric circuit are
touched together momentarily and then instantaneously separated slightly, assuming that there
is sufficient voltage in the circuit to maintain the flow of current, an electric arc is formed.
Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the are at a temperature of about
5000oCto 6000°C. In arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the
circuit, and the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When the arc is produced, the
intense heat quickly melts the workpiece metal which is directly under the arc, forming a small
molten metal pool. At the same time the tip of the electrode at the are also melts, and this molten

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metal of the electrode is carried over by the are to the molten metal pool of the work
piece. The molten metal in the pool is agitated by the action of the arc, thoroughly mixing the
base and the filler metal. A solid joint will be formed when the molten metal cools and solidifies.
The flux coating over the electrode produces an inert gaseous shield surrounding the arc and
protects the molten metal from oxidizing by coming in contact with the atmosphere. Figure
illustrates the arc welding process.

Gas Welding
Gas welding is a fusion method of welding, in which a strong gas flame is used to raise the
temperature of the workpieces so as to melt them. As in arc welding, a filler metal is used to fill
the joint. The gases that can be used for heating are: (i) oxygen and acetylene mixture and
(i) oxygen and hydrogen mixture. The oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in
gas welding.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding
When right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and then
ignited, the flame produced at the nozzle tip is called as the oxy-acetylene flame. This flame
when used in welding is known Oxy-acetylene welding. The temperature attained by the oxy-
acetylene flame is around 3200°C and therefore has the ability to melt all commercial metals.
Thus, there is a complete bonding of the joining metals that can be achieved during welding.

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Equipment. The oxy-acetylene gas equipment consists of two large steel cylinders one
containing oxygen at high pressure, and the other dissolved acetylene also at high pressure,
rubber tubes, pressure regulators and blow torch. The oxygen and the acetylene are supplied to
the blow torch separately, where both of them get mixed and come out through the nozzle of
the blow torch.

Working The typical oxy-acetylene welding process is shown in Figure. After the initial
equipment preparation, the to-be-welded component setup and safety checks are completed,
the pressure regulators fitted to the oxygen and acetylene cylinders are adjusted to draw the
oxygen and acetylene gas in the required proportions from the cylinders respectively. The
pressure regulator in each of the cylinders is fitted with two gauges. One gauge indicates the
gas pressure inside the cylinder and the other gauge indicates the reduced pressure at which the
gas goes out. The respective gases from cylinders are carried from the pressure regulator to the
Welding torch using the rubber hose pipes. Upon reaching the welding torch, these gases are
allowed to mix in a mixing chamber and then are led out of the torch through the orifice of the
blow pipe. The resultant flame at 3200 degrees Celsius is used melt the work pieces. To fill up
the gap between work pieces and to add strength to the joint, filler rods (mostly of metal similar
to the work pieces) are added to the molten metal pool. A Flux such as borax is used to dissolve
and remove metal oxides formed during welding. The technique used to weld can be leftward

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or rightward welding technique. In the left ward welding technique, the flame from the torch
preheats the material yet to be welded, while in the right ward welding, the flame post-heats
the weld-bead. The molten metal pool that contains molten metal of the filler rod and the work
piece solidifies to form a welded joint.

COMPARISON BETWEEN WELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING

Sl.
Weldin Soldering Brazin
No. g g
1 Welding joints are Soldering joints are Brazing joints are
strongest joints used to weakest joints out of weaker than welding
bearthe load. Strength of three. Not meant to joints but stronger than
the welded portion of joint bearthe load. Use to soldering joints. This can
is usually more than the make electrical be used tobear the load
strength of base metal. contacts generally. up to some extent.
2 Temperature required is Temperature Temperature may go
3800°C in welding requirementis up to to600°C in brazing
joints. 450°C in soldering joints.
joints.
3 To join work pieces need Heating of the work Work pieces are
tobe heated till their pieces is not required. heated but below their
melting point. melting point.
4 High cost is involved and Cost involved and skill Cost involved and sill
high skill level is required. requirements are required are in
Heat treatment is verylow. betweenother two.
generallyrequired to No heat treatment No heat treatment is
eliminate undesirable isrequired. required after brazing.
effects of welding.
5 No preheating of workpiece Preheating of workpieces Preheating is desirable to
is required before welding before soldering is good make strong joint as
as it is carried out at high for making good quality brazing is carried out at
temperature. joint. relatively low
temperature.
6 Mechanical properties of No change in mechanical May change in mechanical
base metal may change at properties after joining. properties of joint but it is
the joint due to heating and almost negligible.
cooling.

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